ETHOS

It is difficult to separate our warfighting philosophy from our

leadership philosophy as they are inextricably intertwined.
• Our leadership style is a unique blend of Service ethos and time-
tested concepts that support Marine leaders in peace and war.
• A primary goal of Marine Corps leadership is to instill in all
Marines the fact that we are warriors first. The reason that the
United States of America needs a Marine Corps is to fight and win
wars.
The 21st century Marine Corps must continue to serve the country
as its predecessors have, with laser-like focus on the warfighting
excellence of the individual Marine and combined arms MAGTFs.
As we transform to a higher-level of warfighting excellence, we will
carefully preserve our ethos and core values:
• Building on our ethos and ensuring continued warfighting
excellence
• Fulfilling need for:
Speed - in execution
Flexibility - in organization, logistical support, and employment
Agility - in thought and intellect
• Prepared to:
Persistently engage globally and respond immediately
Decisevely engage both traditional and irregular threats

Marine Corps ethos is based on the core values of:

• Honor
• Courage
• Commitment

These values provide a framework for how Marines act and think.
Strict adherence to the core values, coupled with rigorous training
and education, ensure that the Marine Corps is made up of men and
women with intellectual agility, initiative, moral courage, strength of
character, and a bias for action.

MCDP 1, Warfighting, provides the authoritative basis for how we

fight and how we prepare to fight. This manual describes a
philosophy for action that dictates our approach to duty in war
and in peace, in the field and in the rear
1. Nature of war
2. Theory
3. Preparing
4. Conduct
5. A common view of war among Marines is a necessary base for
the development of a cohesive warfighting doctrine. Our
approach to the conduct of war derives from our understanding
of the nature of war and its:
6. • Moral
7. • Mental
8. • Physical demands

War is a violent clash of interests between or among organized

groups characterized by the use of military force.
• These groups may be:
- Nation states
- Political groups
- Terrorists
- Guerrillas within nations
• The object in war is to impose our will on the enemy.
• Military force can be used to restore civil peace or overturn the
existing social order.
Countless factors make war difficult to conduct. Collectively, these
factors are called friction.
• Friction is the force that resists all action and saps energy. It
makes the simple difficult and the difficult seemingly impossible.
• Friction can be mental or physical.
• It can come from enemy actions, terrain, and weather, or it can
be self-imposed.

The main weapon against friction is the human will. Training and
experience will teach us how to fight in an environment of friction.

Uncertainty on the battlefield is referred to as the "fog of war."

Certainty in war is impossible!
• All decisions in war will be based on incomplete, inaccurate, or
contradictory information.
• We must make sound decisions despite uncertainty.
Even small actions can have great effects. Every decision
counts.
War involves risk. Risk is equally associated with action and
inaction. Greater gains often involve greater risk.
• Chance plays a role in war. We must be poised to exploit the
fleeting opportunities chance may give us.

Fluidity is an inherent attribute of war. No one event in war can be

isolated. Each has been shaped by previous events. The changing
conditions of war provide fleeting opportunities and surprises.
• Flexibility is required to adapt to a constantly changing situation.
Anticipation - Visualization of a future event or state
Improvisation - Acting without the benefit of preparation with
the tools at hand
• A proactive force will shape events to its advantage.
• Success requires the ability to recognize and exploit
opportunities that arise.

War ebbs and flows like the tides. We must influence and exploit
tempo and the continuous flow of events to achieve the
commander's intent.
In an environment of friction, uncertainty, and fluidity, war
gravitates naturally toward disorder. In the "fog of war," disorder
rules the battlefield; we can never eliminate it.
• Plans will be overcome by events.
• Complex plans rarely work after the first shots.
• Miscommunications, mistakes, and unforeseen events will occur.

Flexibility and an opportunistic will are required.

War is not a conflict between two individuals but between forces

consisting of many individuals.
• War emerges from the collective behavior of the individual parts
and players responding to local conditions.
• No one commander can control every aspect of war.

Complexity refers to the intricate, interrelated parts that compose

the process and elements used to execute war and warfare.

The human will is the central factor in war. War is shaped by human
morals and emotions. It is an extreme test of physical strength, will,
and stamina.
• Human Reaction - How your Marines overcome the combination
of moral, mental, and physical forces that surround them is
human reaction. This will be one of your greatest challenges as a
sergeant of Marines, but traditionally it has been a key
contributor to the success of our Corps. The ability of our NCO
Corps to train and educate themselves and their Marines in the
most rigorous fashion and then lead by example while
surrounded by these same factors will determine our success.
• Leadership - Through proper leadership, the human will drives all
actions in war. Many of you have led Marines in combat, you
understand the stresses involved and the effects that war can
have on yourself and your Marines.
Violence is inherent in warfighting and is characterized by
bloodshed, destruction, and suffering. Violence and danger are
interlinked because the violence makes war a dangerous
undertaking.
• Violence - Our profession exposes Marines to the most horrific
examples of violence, suffering, and bloodshed. You are now in a
position of responsibility to lead young Marines through this
experience.
• Danger - Danger and fear are present everywhere on the
battlefield. As leaders, you must foster the courage to overcome
fear. You must prepare your Marines for the rigors of combat and
set the example. Danger is ever present, along with fear. Fear
weakens the will. Leaders study fear and learn to counteract it,
building unit cohesion and self-confidence. Remember that
courage is not the absence of fear; rather, it is the strength to
overcome fear.

War is characterized by the interaction of physical, moral, and

mental forces.
• Physical forces of war are easily recognized, such as men and
materiel.
• Moral factors, such as a nation's resolve and morale, are hard to
grasp.
• Mental factors affect our ability to out-think our enemy.
Just because the moral and mental factors are difficult to quantify
does not mean that they can be neglected. The moral and mental
forces exert a greater influence on the nature and outcome of war.
Select each button for additional information regarding each
of the identified forces.

Mental Forces
Mental forces provide individuals and groups with the ability to:
• Grasp complex battlefield situations
• Think critically
• Make effective estimates, calculations, and decisions
• Devise tactics and strategies
• Develop plans
Physical Forces
The physical characteristics are easily seen, understood, and
measured. Commodities such as equipment capabilities, supplies,
seized physical objectives, force ratios, losses of materiel or life,
terrain lost or gained, and prisoners or materiel captured are
tangible and considered physical forces.
Moral Forces
The moral forces in warfighting pertain to the psychological and
intangible forces. Examples include the following:
• National and military resolve
• National and individual conscience
• Emotion
• Fear
• Courage
• Morale
• Leadership
• Espirit

While the nature of war is constant, the means and methods we use
evolve continuously. The operating environments, tactics, and
techniques have changed as mankind and technology have become
more developed. Technology advancements are major catalysts of
change.

Drastic changes in war have occurred due to developments that

dramatically upset the equilibrium of war. For example:

• Development and use of the rifled bore

• Conception and use of conscription to man armies
• Use of modern modes of transportation to support war

Marine leaders must continue to educate themselves and use the

evolution process to their advantage. Sergeants must remain
proactive in their efforts to develop new skills and learn to apply
them in the execution of their daily duties.
The various aspects of war fall into the realms of science and art.
• The science of war applies to those elements that can be
measured by scientific methods. This includes ballistics or the
effects of weapons.
• The art of war requires an intuitive ability to assess a situation
and decide upon a course of action. Tactics must fit a particular
situation with the assets on hand.
• The conduct of war is fundamentally a dynamic process of human
competition requiring both the knowledge of science and the
creativity of art but driven ultimately by the power of the human
will.

What is the definition of war as defined by MCDP 1, Warfighting?

A violent clash of interests between or among organized groups
characterized by the use of military force

Based upon our common view of the nature of war, we begin to

develop the theory of war upon which we develop our warfighting
doctrine. This theory of war provides the foundation for a discussion
of the conduct of war.
The warfighting doctrine that we derive from our theory is one
based on maneuver. As an expeditionary force, we must be
prepared to win quickly, with minimal casualties and limited
external support. This requirement mandates a doctrine of
maneuver warfare.

War is an extension of both policy and politics with the addition of

military force.
• Policy refers to the objectives established in the political process.
War must serve policy.
• War involves cultural, psychological, and social factors. These
factors affect the course of war as well as war's usefulness for
solving particular problems.
• The nature of war becomes more destructive as the policy goal of
a war becomes more extreme.
 The destruction of a government yields more violence than a
more limited policy objective.
A strategy of annihilation seeks to destroy an enemy's military
power. We do not have to physically destroy an enemy's
forces, but we can incapacitate them. We can reach policy
goals by paralyzing the enemy.
A strategy of erosion seeks to erode the enemy's will. We
raise the consequences of continuing to resist our will.

War uses all power elements that one group can bring against
another to achieve the policy objective. This includes:

Diplomatic Means
Diplomacy is the art of employing communications and establishing
relationships in the global environment. Diplomatic tools may
include negotiations, political recognition, treaties, and alliances.
Diplomacy is a key element of national strategy, and in many
situations, it is the predominant instrument.
Information Means
Information is an element of national power used to advance
national interests. It is used to influence perceptions and attitudes
of allies, adversaries, and interested observers. Informational tools
include the expression of intent and motive, propaganda, and press
releases. The current information environment challenges the
United States as never before. It has leveled the playing field for
not only nation states but non-state actors, multinational
corporations, and even individuals to affect strategic outcomes with
minimal information infrastructure and little capital expenditure.
Military Means
Military means in war can range from the threat of presence to the
actual commitment of combat troops to an area. Marine operational
forces have the capability and capacity to fulfill this mission, since
Marine forces are always afloat and poised for deployment. While
the military is often the main effort during war, the nature and
objectives of the conflict will be examined to determine the
appropriate relationship between the use of military force and the
application of the other instruments of national power
Economic Means
Economic means refers to the application of economic and financial
measures and resources to achieve political objectives. Specific
economic measures include regulation of trade practices, loans, loan
guarantees, monetary and investment policies, foreign aid,
subsidies, and technology transfers

War ranges from total war to stability operations.

• Stability operations include peacemaking operations and
humanitarian relief.
• "Small" wars are more probable than a general war.
• The Marine Corps must be prepared to respond to any situation.

"Low intensity" conflicts often have very "high intensity" fire fights.

Actions in war are planned and conducted to take place at different

levels.
The three levels of warfare are
Strategic
The strategic level involves national strategy and military strategy.
• National strategy sets policy objectives and mobilizes the
nation's resources for attaining these goals.
• Military strategy focuses on the military means for attaining
policy goals.
• At the strategic level, forces are distributed and theaters of war
are established.
Operational
The operational level of war links tactics and strategy.
• At the operational level, we decide where, when, and under what
conditions we will meet the enemy.
• The operational level is focused on winning campaigns
Tactical
The lowest level is the tactical level. Tactics refers to the
techniques and methods for accomplishing a particular mission.
• Tactics focus on defeating the enemy at a particular place and
time.
• Tactics are focused on winning battles.
• Most Marines, from rifleman to MEF commander, operate at the
tactical level, but many tactical decisions have operational and
even strategic implications.

The levels of war overlap and affect each other from the top down
and from the bottom up

The levels of war tend to be compressed in situations where

operations are:
• Directed by a short chain of command
• Executed by smaller forces capable of carrying out operations in
limited environments

Marines, as the nation's forward-deployed, expeditionary, force in-

readiness, will often operate in situations where the levels of war
are compressed. Tactical decisions made by a Marine sergeant will
quickly have visibility and impact at operational and strategic levels.

The clash of wills requires combinations of actions and reactions to

execute warfare. These actions and reactions can be more
simply classified as:
Initiative
Initiative is the ability to dictate terms of the conflict and force the
enemy to meet on these terms. While the striking power of the
offense is usually associated with initiative, a good defense also
seizes the initiative. The offense and defense are not completely
separate attitudes; each contains the other. The defense uses
patrols and spoiling attacks. The offense requires economy of force
actions.
Marine leaders benefit by seizing and maintaining the initiative.
Some of the benefits of initiative include:
• The terms of the conflict can be dictated to the enemy.
• The enemy is forced to meet us on our terms.
Response
Response is reaction to the initiative; it is how you respond to the
opposition. The responding, or second, party must have the desire
and will to resist for conflict to take place. Response is normally
associated with defense. Defense aims to resist the enemy's will.
It also creates the opportunity for initiative

Initiative and response vary at different levels. A nation may be

reacting at the strategic level while at a particular location its
forces are imposing their will on the enemy on a tactical level.

The styles of warfare exist on a spectrum between attrition and

maneuver.
• Attrition seeks to wear down an enemy's material resources.
• Maneuver warfare seeks to circumvent problems and attack
them from a position of advantage. Maneuver warfare seeks to
paralyze the enemy system. In maneuver warfare:
Enemy strengths are avoided and weaknesses are exploited.
Speed and surprise are used to create and exploit an
advantage, which often involves greater risk.
Firepower and attrition are necessary when our forces are
focused upon particular elements of the enemy's forces.

Combat power is the total destructive force we can bring upon the
enemy at a given time or place. Combat power consists of material,
personnel, weapons, terrain, leadership, tempo, surprise, and many
other factors.
• Some are tangible and easily measured like superior numbers of
personnel and weapons.
• Others are less easily measured, such as the effects of
maneuver, tempo, or surprise.
• Some are intangible, such as morale, fighting spirit,
perseverance, or the effects of leadership.

Speed
Speed is rapidity of action. Speed over time is tempo. Speed and
tempo are weapons. We cannot be fast at all times, so we develop
a rhythm. Speed is a critical factor in keeping the enemy off
balance or keeping the operational flow of events in a sequence.

Focus
Focus is the convergence of combat power on the objective. We
must focus our combat power at the right time and place. Focus
requires cooperation toward a common goal. To achieve focus at a
decisive place and time, leaders must use strict economy and
accept risk elsewhere and at other times. Economy is achieved by
managing the scarce resources of a force. NCOs must understand
the principle of economy, the mission, and the commander’s intent
to effectively lead Marines within his or her unit. Speed and focus
give our actions "shock effect."
Surprise
Surprise creates disorientation from an unexpected act that
degrades the enemy's will. Surprise is a weapon. Surprise can lead
to shock and allows small forces to defeat larger forces. However,
surprise is easily lost, and requires speed, stealth, ambiguity, and
deception to manipulate our enemy's expectations
Boldness
Boldness is exploiting the disorderly nature of war unhesitatingly. It
does not mean we always take aggressive immediate action.
Boldness requires good situational awareness, strong nerves, and
craftiness. Boldness involves taking risks. When we decide upon a
course of action, boldness demands that we execute it violently

To win, we must focus combat power toward a decisive aim. We do

not want to attack into the enemy's strengths. We seek to
locate his critical vulnerabilities, where our actions will have
 the most destructive effects. We seek to attack centers of
gravity by penetrating the enemy's critical vulnerabilities.
Center of Gravity
Centers of gravity are any important sources of strength. If they are
friendly centers of gravity, protect them; if they are enemy centers
of gravity, take them away. Centers of gravity can be identified by
answering the following questions:
• What factors are critical to the enemy?
• Which can the enemy not do without?
• Which, if eliminated, will bend the enemy most quickly to our
will?

Critical Vulnerability
A critical vulnerability is an opportunity that, if exploited, will do the
most significant damage to the enemy's ability to resist

Relationship Between Center of Gravity and Critical

Vulnerability
Center of gravity and critical vulnerability are complementary
concepts. While centers of gravity evaluate the enemy's source of
strength, a blow to which would be devastating, we do not want to
attack directly into an enemy's strength. We must further evaluate
the requirements to maintain that source of strength and attempt to
identify a weakness. Critical vulnerabilities are the pathways used
to attack the centers of gravity. The underlying purpose is to target
our actions in such a way as to have the greatest effect on the
enemy

Exploiting opportunity is the ability and willingness to ruthlessly

exploit an opportunity to generate decisive results. At times it may
be difficult to identify the enemy's critical vulnerabilities. We may
attack each vulnerability until an opportunity arises.
• NCOs that understand the theory and nature of war will be better
equipped to anticipate, create, recognize, and exploit fleeting
opportunities.
• The ability to take advantage of opportunity is a function of:
 Speed
Flexibility
Boldness
Initiative
A technically and tactically proficient NCO empowered to think
critically and make decisions is critical to creating and ruthlessly
exploiting opportunities that generate decisive results.

A prepared military provides deterrence against potential

aggressors. As the nation's expeditionary force-in-readiness, the
Marine Corps must maintain itself for immediate employment in
"any clime and place" and in any type of conflict.
All activities should focus on achieving and maintaining combat
readiness.
As Marines, we must maintain a high level of training, flexibility in
organization and equipment, professional leadership, and a cohesive
doctrine.

Force planning is planning associated with the creation and

maintenance of military capabilities. The objective of force planning
is a required state of readiness.
Marine Corps force planning is derived from the concepts that
describe how Marine Corps forces operate. These concepts describe
the types of missions the Marine Corps will undertake and the
methods for executing them. These concepts identify what
capabilities will be required and coordinate doctrine, training, and
equipment purchases.

Operating forces must be organized to provide forward deployed or

rapidly deployable forces capable of conducting expeditionary
operations.
• Marine forces are organized into Marine air- ground task forces
(MAGTFs). Consisting of ground, air, and logistics elements,
MAGTFs are task-organized to fit specific situations.
• Mission requirements drive the size, composition, and equipping
of Marine units.
As a Marine NCO, you will modify the weapons, equipment, and
munitions load of your Marines to meet the threat in any clime and
place.

A Marine expeditionary unit (MEU) is the smallest standing

MAGTF. Each MEU is an expeditionary quick reaction force,
deployed and ready for immediate response to any crisis.
• CE: Commanded by a colonel
• GCE: Battalion landing team
• ACE: Composite helicopter squadron
• LCE: Logistics combat battalion
A Marine expeditionary brigade (MEB) is the nation's premier
middleweight force. It can function as part of a joint task force, as
the lead echelon of the Marine expeditionary force (MEF), or alone.
The MEB is task-organized to meet the requirements of a specific
situation, conducting missions across the full range of military
operations.
• CE: Commanded by a MajGen or BGen
• GCE: Regimental landing team
• ACE: Composite Marine aircraft group
• LCE: Logistics combat regiment

A Marine expeditionary force (MEF) is the primary standing

MAGTF existing in both peacetime and wartime. Each MEF deploys
and is employed as a MAGTF in support of combatant commander
(COCOM) requirements for contingency response or major theater
war; serves as the core element of a joint task force (JTF); prepares
and deploys combat ready MAGTFs to support COCOM presence and
crisis response; and supports Service and COCOM initiatives as
required.
• CE: Commanded by a LtGen
• GCE: Marine division
• ACE: Marine aircraft wing
• LCE: Marine logistics group

Doctrine, as defined by Joint Publication 1-02 DOD,Dictionary of

Military and Associated Terms, includes the principles that guide
military forces in their activities in support of national objectives.
Marine Corps doctrine:
• Captures the fundamental beliefs of the Marine Corps
• Establishes a particular way of thinking about war and fighting
• Provides a philosophy for leading Marines in combat—a mandate
for professionalism and a common language

Professionalism requires Marine leaders to be:

• Experts in the conduct of war.
• Individuals of action—confident and resolute. Timidity is the
worst trait a Marine leader can have.
• Intelligent as well as bold—warfare is a thinking profession. It
requires a strong intellect as well as careful study.
• Ethical—grounded in our core values.

Relationships between leaders must be based on honesty and

frankness.
• Subordinates must provide professional opinions until a
commander has reached a decision.
• When a decision has been made, all leaders must back up the
commander.

The purpose of training is to create forces that can win in combat.

Training continues during war so we can learn from the lessons of
combat.
• The Marines' skills are the foundation of combat effectiveness
and must receive emphasis. Strong individual skills lead to
strong unit skills and teamwork.
• Training should be relevant, realistic, and challenging. Programs
should be progressive, building on prior training.
• Critiques of training are important for improving our combat
effectiveness and should be conducted immediately after
training, before memory of events fade.

Professional military education (PME) is designed to develop

creative, thinking leaders. The goal of PME is to develop an expert
in warfighting and professional leadership. All Marines should view
PME as a continuous, progressive process extending throughout
their careers.
Marines receive PME through a combination of:
• Resident PME at the SNCO academies and MOS schools
• EPME distance education programs
• Military studies conducted with their unit
• Individual study and reading
• Experience

As a leader of Marines, it is important to understand the personnel

management system and the effect that it has on your Marines and
your unit.
• Assign Marines to billets based upon ability and temperament.
• Foster cohesion and teamwork within your unit.
• Know your Marines, and reward those that demonstrate initiative
and seek responsibility.

Effectively training your subordinate leaders to fill their role has a

direct impact on your unit's warfighting capability.

Equipping your Marines with the appropriate gear and training them
on its use and maintenance will build confidence.
• Gear should be appropriate to the task and environment.
• More is not always better. Take careful consideration not to
overburden your Marines with gear that is not required for the
operation.
• Do not become overly reliant on technology. Technology only
enhances our capabilities.
• Train in basic skills; ensure your Marines will be able to operate if
equipment fails.

The challenge for the Marine Corps is to develop a style of

warfighting that:
• Accounts for the chaotic and fluid nature of the modern
battlefield
• Allows us to use tempo as a weapon
• Fits the broad spectrum of conflict the Marine Corps is likely to
face
• Considers the physical, moral, and mental factors of war

The style of warfare must fit our expeditionary nature, where

support will be scarce and we will often be outnumbered.

Maneuver warfare is defined as a warfighting philosophy that seeks

to shatter the enemy's cohesion by attacking selected enemy
weaknesses. These actions create a turbulent and rapidly
deteriorating situation with which the enemy cannot cope.
The Marine Corps style of warfare is based upon rapid, flexible, and
opportunistic maneuver.
• Maneuver takes place in both space and time.
• We can also maneuver into the intangible realms of psychology
and technology.

Firepower
Firepower is central to maneuver warfare. We will focus our combat
power on decisive points when it fits our aims.
• When we engage the enemy, we violently destroy his forces,
aiming to destroy his system.
• The physical destruction of an objective is not firepower's
greatest effect, but rather the cumulative effect on the enemy's
operational processes.
• To paralyze the enemy, we must place him in a dilemma from
which he has no escape. His situation seems hopeless, causing
panic and paralysis.

Speed
Maneuver warfare requires speed to seize the initiative, dictate the
terms of action, and keep the enemy off balance.
• Speed increases the enemy's friction.
• The goal is to establish a pace that the enemy cannot maintain.
• With each action, the enemy's reactions are later and later until
the enemy is overcome by the events.
Focus
Focus maximizes the effects of our combat power.
• Violence of action causes a shock effect that concentrates on the
disruption of the enemy's ability to react.
• We strike critical vulnerabilities and ruthlessly exploit
opportunities, searching for the decisive opportunity to inflict
final defeat upon the enemy
Traits
Besides traits such as endurance and courage that all warfare
demands, maneuver warfare puts a premium on certain particular
human skills and traits. Maneuver warfare requires leaders that:
• Are bold, creative, and able to cope with uncertainty and chaos
• Have the moral courage to act responsibly
• Think one level above their own to keep their unit focused on the
mission of higher headquarte
Maneuver warfare focuses on destroying the enemy system. We
must understand how the system works so we can penetrate it and
rip it apart.
• We find critical vulnerabilities by looking at the enemy's unique
characteristics.
• Penetrating the system means getting into the enemy's thought
process.
• We must see the enemy as he sees himself, using his own fears
and weaknesses against him.
We must realize that our enemy may not fight as we do.

Our philosophy of command must support the way that we fight.

• Command and control should be decentralized.
Subordinate leaders accomplish tasks that support their
commander's intent.
Leadership styles bring out boldness, the force of will,
imagination, and initiative.
Seniors and subordinates must work closely to build strong
relationships based upon trust and mutual respect.
Leaders should always talk to each other directly.
• Commanders should command from where they can best shape
the action, usually well forward where they can:
Influence critical points on the battlefield.
Make and communicate decisions faster, generating tempo.
Lead by example; leadership by example does not equate to
micro- management.
• This philosophy of command must be practiced during the
preparation for war if it is to be effective during combat. We
must develop subordinate leaders. Sound and timely judgement
is required by leaders at all levels.

Shaping the action is the plan of how victory is to be achieved:

• Establish what is to be accomplished, why, and how.
• Identify the enemy's critical vulnerabilities.
• Identify vulnerabilities from the enemy's perspective.

The disorderly nature of war makes shaping an imprecise action.

The focus is to shape the general conditions of war to provide an
advantage to our forces in both time and space.

Shaping actions can range from lethal to nonlethal actions that will
assist in creating favorable operating conditions. Some examples
are as follows:
• Direct attack
• Information operations
• Electronic warfare
• Stockpiling of critical supplies for future operations
• Attacking specific enemy capabilities
• Using deception to shape enemy expectations

Decision-making is essential to the conduct of war since all actions

are the result of decisions or the failure to make decisions. Military
decision-making is a mental process that requires:
• Situational awareness to recognize the essence of a problem
• Creative ability to devise a practical solution
• Moral courage to make difficult decisions in the face of
uncertainty

The ability to make decisions is based on the individual's

experience, education, and intelligence. The speed at which
decisions are made creates decisive advantage in the operating
environment. Time is often the most important factor in decision-
making. Timely decisions generate operational tempo.

intuitive Decision-Making
Intuitive decision-making is a decision-making process that relies on
experience to recognize key elements of a particular problem and
then arrives at an appropriate solution. The ability to use intuitive
decision- making requires the decision-maker to scrutinize the
situational factors. These situational factors are selectively matched
against previous experiences to develop the first best solution. A
first best solution is one that achieves some level of success with
minimal risk and time committed to the solution. The goal is to
develop and implement the first solution in minimal time. Marine
NCOs apply intuitive decision- making daily to meet mission
objectives, solve problems, and develop solutions to leadership
challenges.

Analytical Decision-Making
Analytical decision-making is an approach used to analyze a
dilemma and determine the best solution. The problem solver or
team of problem solvers systematically employ a process that
consists of the following actions:
• Carefully take a problem apart.
• Collect and test the information required for the problem or task.
• Conduct a comparison of the solutions or options.
• Select an alternative that should be the best solution for the
problem

Mission tactics support decentralized command. Subordinates are

told what to do but not how to do it. This allows higher level
commanders to focus on higher level tactical concerns rather than
the details of subordinate execution. Mission tactics are a contract
between senior and subordinate—the senior gives the order and
provides the tools for the mission. The subordinate executes the
mission in accordance with the larger tactical picture.
Mission statements are composed of two parts:
• Task, which describes the action to be taken or what is to be
done
• Intent or reason behind the task and the desired outcome

Benefits to the Commander

Missions tactics benefit senior commanders:
• Frees time to focus on higher level concerns rather than the
details of subordinate execution
• Allows senior intervention only by exception
• Permits freedom of initiative to develop higher tempo of
operations
Benefits to Subordinate Leaders
Subordinate leaders benefit from mission tactics in the following
ways:
• Actions can be adapted to the changing situations.
• Permission to act is implicit and results are provided to the
commander as action is completed

Commander's intent allows subordinates to use initiative and

judgment. Subordinates can depart from the original plan when the
situation demands it, but all actions must be consistent with the
intent.
There are two parts to any mission: the task and its purpose. Of the
two, the purpose, or intent, is more important and enduring. The
intent is assigned by the commander and unifies the chain of
command's actions and decisions.
You should strive to understand the commander's intent two levels
up. As an example:
• A squad leader should obviously know their own task and its
purpose.
• Additionally, they should understand the platoon's mission and
the platoon commander's intent.
• Understanding the company's mission and company
commander's intent gives the squad leader the best situational
awareness to modify actions consistent with the aims of the unit.

The main effort is our bid for victory.

• The unit assigned as the main effort is reinforced with additional
combat power to achieve success at a given point.
• Supporting units must think of how their actions will help the
main effort.

The main effort must be aimed at an objective that has great effect.
Committing the main effort involves risk by concentrating our
combat power, and relying on economy of force actions.
In the course of an operation, a commander may shift the main
effort to exploit an opportunity, hoping to achieve greater success.

Surfaces are enemy strengths; gaps are weaknesses. We seek to

avoid surfaces and penetrate gaps.
• Surfaces and gaps do not refer to physical forces alone but to
mental and moral factors also.
• Gaps may also exist in time, such as a period when the enemy
can take no action.
• Surfaces and gaps are unique to each situation and are
constantly changing.

Gaps represent opportunities, and when found, must be exploited.

When we locate a gap, we seek to "pull" our combat power through
it. If no gaps exist, we must create them.

Combined arms is the full integration of arms so that the enemy is

placed in a dilemma. To counter one arm, the enemy becomes
vulnerable to another. We give the enemy a no-win situation.
• Combined arms is accomplished through tactics at lower levels
and through task organization at higher levels.
• Each weapon is used so that it complements another. Through
this method we exploit the strengths of each individual weapon.
• Mobility and maneuver are key weapons in combined arms.

The four instruments of national power are:

• Diplomatic
• Information
• Military
• Economic
Commonly referred to as DIME, these instruments are employed in
various combinations to achieve national strategic objectives in
various situations from peace to war. National leaders can use the
military instrument of national power at home and abroad in a wide
variety of military activities, tasks, missions, and military operations
that vary in purpose, scale, risk, and combat intensity. The national
security structure provides the strategic direction that guides
employment of the military instrument of national power as part of a
global strategy.

Although national security concerns have been around since the

founding of our country, the origin of today's understanding of the
termnational security came about with the passage of the
National Security Act of 1947. Joint Publication 1-02 defines national
security as:
A collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign
relations of the United States. Specifically, the condition provided
by: a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group
of nations; a favorable foreign relations position; or a defense
posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action
from within or without, overt or covert.

The current structure of America's national security establishment,

particularly the Department of Defense (DoD), stems from an
evolutionary process as old as the nation itself.

At the conclusion of World War II, it was apparent that America's

national security apparatus needed significant reorganization.
President Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947
into law on 26 July 1947, directing a reorganization of the nation's
foreign policy, intelligence community, and military Services.
Specifically, the act:
• Merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy
into the National Military Establishment (NME)
• Established that the NME would consist of the Department of the
Army (formerly Department of War), Department of the Air Force,
and the Department of the Navy, which included the Marine
Corps
• Established the Central Intelligence Agency
• Established the Joint Chiefs of Staff
• Established the National Security Council
• Reorganized the intelligence community

One significant change resulting from the act was the consolidation
of the military departments under the direct control of a single
civilian chief, the new Secretary of Defense. The National Security
Act of 1947 reduced inter- Service disputes by prescribing the
general functions of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the new Air
Force.
• The importance of the National Security Act cannot be
overstated. Never before had Congress so deliberately set forth
within one law the basic functions of the military Services.
• In 1949, the act was amended to give the Secretary of Defense
more power over the military Services and renamed the National
Military Establishment to be theDepartment of Defense.

The Goldwater-Nichols Act was signed into law by President Ronald

Reagan on 1 October 1986. The act was an attempt to fix problems
caused by inter-Service rivalries, which had emerged during the
Vietnam War, contributed to the catastrophic failure of the 1980
mission to rescue American hostages held at the U.S. Embassy in
Iran (Operation Eagle Claw), and which were still evident in the
invasion of Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury).
The act brought significant changes to the way the U.S. military
forces were organized by removing institutional barriers to
"jointness" and streamlining the command structure. The act further
refined the organization and division of responsibilities within the
DoD and included the following changes:
Clearly established the operational chain of command as being from
the President through the Secretary of Defense to the
combatant commanders, bypassing the Service chiefs
Directed that the Service Chiefs (Chief of Staff of the Army,
Commandant of the Marine Corps, Chief of Naval Operations,
and Chief of Staff of the Air Force) are responsible for
organizing, training, and equipping Service forces
Directed that the combatant commanders are responsible for the
planning and execution of joint operations
Established that the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the
principal military advisor to the President, the National
Security Council, and the Secretary of Defense
Established that while the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
outranks all other officers of the Armed Forces, the Chairman
does not exercise military command over the combatant
commanders, Joint Chiefs of Staff, or any of the Armed Forces

The Goldwater-Nichols Act brought sweeping changes to the way

the U.S. military forces were organized, resulting in the following
joint operation success stories:
• In 1989, the U.S. invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause)
was successful since the operation functioned exactly as planned,
allowing the U.S. commander to exercise full control over Marine
Corps, Army, Air Force, and Navy assets without having to
negotiate with the individual Services.
• In 1991, the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) was successful
due to the U.S. commander's operational control of the forces.
Under the Goldwater-Nichols Act, the military departments assign
forces to the combatant commander who uses those forces to
execute the joint operation

The Goldwater-Nichols Act brought sweeping changes to the way

the U.S. military forces were organized, resulting in the following
joint operation success stories:
• In 1989, the U.S. invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause)
was successful since the operation functioned exactly as planned,
 allowing the U.S. commander to exercise full control over Marine
Corps, Army, Air Force, and Navy assets without having to
negotiate with the individual Services.
• In 1991, the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) was successful
due to the U.S. commander's operational control of the forces.
Under the Goldwater-Nichols Act, the military departments assign
forces to the combatant commander who uses those forces to
execute the joint operation

The President and the Secretary of Defense or by their duly

deputized successors (i.e., the Vice President and the Deputy
Secretary of Defense) have the constitutional authority to
direct the Armed Forces in the execution of their duties,
specifically military action. By law, no one else in the chain of
command has the authority to take such action. The
President, as commander-in-chief, is the overall leader of the
Armed Forces.

The National Security Council (NSC) is the principal forum used by

the President of the United States for considering national security
and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors
and Cabinet officials; it is part of the Executive Office of the
President of the United States.
Since its inception, the function of the NSC has been to advise and
assist the President on national security and foreign policy matters
and to coordinate those policies among government agencies. This
graphic illustrates the structure of the NSC.

The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act was signed

into law by President George W. Bush on 17 December 2004. The
purpose of the act is to reform the intelligence community (IC) and
the intelligence activities of the U.S. government. The act
established the position of the Director of National Intelligence.
The IC is a coalition of 17 agencies and organizations that work both
independently and collaboratively to gather the intelligence
necessary to conduct foreign relations and national security
activities. The IC members include:
• Air Force Intelligence
• Army Intelligence
• Central Intelligence Agency
• Coast Guard Intelligence
• Defense Intelligence Agency
• Department of Energy
• Department of Homeland Security
• Department of State
• Department of the Treasury
• Drug Enforcement Administration
• Federal Bureau of Investigation
• Marine Corps Intelligence
• National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
• National Reconnaissance Office
• National Security Agency
• Navy Intelligence
• Office of the Director of National Intelligence

The DoD organization is composed of the following:

• Office of the Secretary of Defense
• Military departments (Departments of the Army, Air Force, and
Navy)
• Joint Chiefs of Staff
• Combatant commands
• Inspector General of the DoD
• DoD agencies
• DoD field activities

The DoD is responsible for providing the military forces needed to

deter war and protect the security of our country. Specifically, the
functions of the DoD are to:
• Support and defend the Constitution of the United States against
all enemies, foreign and domestic.
• Ensure, by timely and effective military action, the security of the
United States, its possessions, and areas vital to its interest.
• Uphold and advance the national policies and interests of the
United States.
The Secretary of Defense (SecDef) is a Cabinet-level member and
head of the DoD. The SecDef is the principal assistant and
advisor to the President on defense matters and serves as the
leader and chief executive officer of the department. The
SecDef is responsible to the President for creating, supporting,
and employing military capabilities. The SecDef provides
authoritative direction and control over the Services through
the secretaries of the military departments.

Exercises authority, direction, and control over the DoD

• Provides policy guidance regarding national security objectives
and policies, the priorities of military missions, resource levels
projected to be available, and strategic direction and policy in
support of the President's National Security Strategy and Unified
Command Plan
Provides guidelines to direct the effective planning, preparation,
resourcing, and execution of military operations
• Keeps the secretaries of the military departments informed
regarding military operations and activities of the DoD that
directly affect their respective responsibilities
Provides policy guidance to the DoD regarding support to civil
authorities in an incident of national significance or a
catastrophic event, for homeland defense and for defense
support to civil authorities
• Provides policy guidance to the DoD regarding detection and
monitoring of all aerial, maritime, land, space, and cyberspace
threats
Establishes, directs, and oversees defense governance councils and
decision-making processes, while retaining ultimate decision-
making authority
• Provides policy guidance to the heads of DoD components for the
preparation and review of the program recommendations and
budget proposals of their respective components
The Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) is the principal staff
element of the SecDef in the exercise of policy development,
planning, resource management, fiscal and program
evaluation and oversight, and interface and exchange with
other U.S. government (USG) departments and agencies,
foreign governments, and international organizations, through
formal and informal processes. OSD also performs oversight
and management of the defense agencies and DoD field
activities that are organized to perform selected consolidated
support and Service functions that are common to more than
one military department.
American military forces operate under a chain of command with
two distinct branches: operational and Service. This arrangement
allows the President and SecDef a direct link to the combatant
commanders and reflects America's historic tradition of civilian
control of the military. The following examples describe the dual
nature of the chain of command.
• The Marine Corps' operational chain of command begins with
the President, goes through the SecDef to the commander of the
combatant command, and then to the Marine Corps component
commander.
• Marine Corps component commands operate within both
branches of the chain of command. Marine Corps component
commands respond to the orders of the combatant commander
in the operational chain of command while being equipped,
manned, and supported through the Service chain of command.

The combatant commanders are responsible to the President and

the Secretary of Defense for accomplishing the military
missions assigned to them and shall exercise command
authority over their assigned forces. The Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff functions within the chain of command by
transmitting the orders of the President or the Secretary of
Defense to the combatant commanders. The military
departments are responsible for providing the forces assigned
to the combatant commands. There are three types of control
of forces.
Operational control (OPCON) is inherent in the combatant command
(command authority). OPCON is the command authority that is
exercised at any echelon at or below the level of combatant
command. OPCON may be delegated and involves:
• Organizing and employing commands and forces
• Assigning tasks
• Designating objectives
• Giving authoritative direction necessary to accomplish the
mission
Tactical control (TACON) is inherent in OPCON. TACON is the
command authority over assigned or attached forces or
commands, or military capability made available for tasking.
TACON is limited to the detailed direction and control of
movements or maneuvers within the operational area
necessary to accomplish the commander's missions or tasks.
Tactical control provides authority for controlling and directing
the application of force or tactical use of combat support
assets within the assigned mission or task. TACON may be
delegated to commanders at any level at or below the level of
combatant command
Administrative control (ADCON) is the direction or exercise of
authority over subordinate or other organizations in respect to
administration and support actions. ADCON may be delegated to
and exercised by Service commanders at any echelon at or below
the level of a combatant command's Service component command.
ADCON includes the following:
• Organization of Service forces
• Control of resources and equipment
• Personnel management
• Unit logistics
• Individual and unit training
• Readiness
• Mobilization/demobilization
• Discipline

The organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff consists of the following:

• Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
• The military Service Chiefs, when acting in their capacity as the
Joint Chiefs of Staff
• The Joint Staff including the J-1 through J-8 directorates

Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) are appointed by the

President and include the following:
• Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
• Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
• Senior uniformed members of the four military Services (also
known as the Service Chiefs)
– Chief of Naval Operations
– Commandant of the Marine Corps
– Chief of Staff of the Army
– Chief of Staff of the Air Force
• Chief of the National Guard Bureau
Note: In 2012, the Chief of the National Guard Bureau was added to
the JCS membership.

The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) is the principal

military adviser to the President, the National Security Council
(NSC), the Homeland Security Council (HSC), and the Secretary of
Defense.
• The CJCS is the highest ranking military officer of the U.S. Armed
Forces; however, the CJCS may not exercise military command
over the combatant commanders, the JCS, or any of the Armed
Forces. The CJCS functions within the chain of command by
transmitting the orders of the President or the Secretary of
Defense to the combatant commanders.
• The CJCS meets regularly with the JCS to seek advice, resolve
issues, and coordinate joint Service activities.
The Joint Staff is under the exclusive authority, direction, and control
of the CJCS. The Joint Staff is organized along conventional staff
lines to support the Chairman and the other members of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff in performing their duties. The Joint Staff does not
function as an overall Armed Forces general staff and has no
executive authority. The CJCS is assisted by the Director of the
Joint Staff with management of the Joint Staff.
The Joint Staff includes the following directorates:
• J1 – Manpower and Personnel
• J2 – Intelligence
• J3 – Operations
• J4 – Logistics
• J5 – Strategic Plans and Policy
• J6 – Command, Control, Communications, and Computer Systems
• J7 – Operational Plans and Joint Force Development
• J8 – Force Structure, Resources, and Assessment

Two roles of the CJCS are the following:

• Principal military advisor to the President, NSC, HSC, and SecDef
• Spokesperson for the combatant commanders
The other JCS members, including the senior uniformed members of
the military Services, are also military advisers to the President,
NSC, and SecDef. The following conditions apply:
• If a member of the JCS submits advice that is in disagreement
with the advice presented by the CJCS, the CJCS shall present
that advice or opinion to the President, SecDef, or NSC at the
same time that he presents his own advice.
• If the President, NSC, or SecDef requests the advice of the JCS, in
their capacity as military advisers, they shall provide such advice.

The functions of the CJCS include:

• Preside over the JCS.
• Convene regular meetings of the JCS.
• Attend meetings of the NSC and HSC.
• Advise the SecDef on the priorities of requirements identified by
the combatant commanders.
• Assist in providing for the strategic direction of the Armed Forces.
• Prepare military strategy and assessments of associated risks.
• Consult with the other members of the JCS.
• Prepare strategic plans.
• Prepare joint logistic and mobility plans.
• Provide for the preparation of contingency operation plans.
• Develop and establish doctrine for all aspects of the joint
employment of the Armed Forces.

The other members of the JCS include the Chiefs of Staff of the Army
and Air Force, Chief of Naval Operations, and the Commandant of
the Marine Corps. Their functions include:
• Inform their respective Service secretary regarding military
advice rendered by members of the JCS on matters affecting their
military department.
• Ensure that their duties as a member of the JCS take precedence
over all other duties.
• Make recommendations to Congress relating to the Department
of Defense after first informing the SecDef.

Unified action is a broad term referring to the synchronization,

coordination, and/or integration of the activities of governmental
and non-governmental entities with military operations to achieve
unity of effort.
The Armed Forces of the U.S. are most effective when employed as
a joint force. Success often depends on unified actions. This
comprehensive approach involving all participating organizations
within an operational area requires the joint force commander (JFC)
to understand the capabilities, limitations, and mandates of those
organizations involved and to effectively communicate the mission
of the joint force.
Joint operations involve forces of two or more military Services
under a single commander. There are twelve principles of joint
operations to include unity of command.
Unity of command in the Armed Forces of the U.S. starts with
national strategic direction. For joint operations, unity of command
is accomplished by establishing a joint force, assigning a mission or
objectives to the designated JFC, establishing command
relationships, assigning and/or attaching appropriate forces to the
joint force, and empowering the JFC with sufficient authority over
the forces to accomplish the assigned mission.

A unified combatant command is composed of forces from at

least two military departments and has a broad and continuing
mission. The Unified Command Plan establishes the missions and
geographic areas of responsibility for the combatant commands.
Forces are assigned to combatant commands by the SecDef through
the annual Forces for Unified Commands memorandum. Once
assigned, a force may only be transferred at the direction of the
SecDef.
The combatant commanders exercise combatant command
(command authority), also known as COCOM, over assigned forces
and are responsible to the President and the SecDef for the
preparedness and performance of their command.

Unless otherwise directed by the President or the SecDef, the

commander of a combatant command exercises authority,
direction, and control over the commands and forces assigned
to that command and shall perform the following common
functions:
Give authoritative direction to subordinate commands and forces
necessary to carry out missions assigned to the command,
including authoritative direction over all aspects of military
operations, joint training, and logistics.
• Prescribe the chain of command to the commands and forces
within the command.
• Organize commands and forces within the combatant command,
as necessary, to carry out missions assigned to the command.
• Employ forces within the combatant command, as necessary, to
carry out missions assigned to the command.
Assign command functions to subordinate commanders, as
appropriate.
• Coordinate and approve those aspects of administration, support
(including control of resources and equipment, internal
organization, and training), and discipline necessary to carry out
missions assigned to the command.
• Exercise the authority with respect to selecting subordinate
commanders, selecting combatant command staff, suspending
subordinates, and convening courts-martial, as provided in Title
10, Section 164, United States Code.

Each combatant command is led by a combatant commander

(CCDR) who is a four-star general or admiral.
There are nine unified combatant commands with six commands
having geographical responsibilities and three having functional
responsibilities. The two types include:
• Geographic combatant commands are responsible for a
specific area of responsibility (AOR).
• Functional combatant commands have specific functional
responsibilities.

USNORTHCOM, USPACOM, USSOUTHCOM, USAFRICOM, USCENTCOM,

USEUCOM, USPACOM

Each functional combatant command has a specific, unique, critical

defense function. They all have worldwide responsibilities.
The three functional combatant commands include
U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), headquartered at
MacDill AFB, Florida, is responsible for providing fully capable
special operations forces to defend the United States and its
interests, and to synchronize planning of global operations
 against terrorist networks. USSOCOM provides unconventional
warfare, foreign internal defense, special reconnaissance,
psychological warfare, civil affairs, direct action, counter-
terrorism, and counter-narcotics capabilities in support of U.S.
national interests.
U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), headquartered at Offutt
AFB, Nebraska, is responsible for space operations (such as
military satellites); cyberspace operations; missile defense;
global command and control; intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance; global strike and strategic deterrence
(nuclear weapons); and combating weapons of mass
destruction.
U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM), headquartered at
Scott AFB, Illinois, in time of peace or war, is responsible for
providing air, land, and sea transportation for the Department
of Defense to project and sustain forces, whenever, wherever,
and for as long as they are needed.

More than 20 years after the Goldwater-Nichols DoD Reorganization Act, the
Armed Forces of the United States are a joint team. The advantage of a joint
team extends beyond the battlefield and across the range of military
operations. The JFC has the authority and responsibility to tailor forces for
the mission at hand, selecting those that most effectively and efficiently
ensure success. Critical to joint campaign effectiveness is that all Service
components contribute their distinct military capabilities, yet function as an
interdependent (dependent on each other) team.
• Fundamentally, joint forces require high levels of interoperability and
systems that are "born joint" (i.e., conceptualized and designed with joint
architectures).
• The goal of joint forces is to design and implement joint force capabilities
to fight and win the nation's wars and effectively carry out missions
assigned across the full range of military operations.

A secure U.S. homeland is the nation's first priority, and it is a

fundamental aspect of the national military strategy. Defense of the
homeland is the Department of Defense's highest priority. The U.S.
homeland is the physical region that includes the continental United
States (CONUS), Alaska, Hawaii, U.S. territories and possessions,
and surrounding territorial waters and airspace.
The homeland is confronted by a spectrum of threats and hazards.
The nation must always be vigilant against such threats. To
preserve the freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, the nation
must have a homeland that is safe, secure, and resilient against
terrorism and other hazards where American interests, aspirations,
and ways of life can thrive.

The following are key definitions for this topic.

• Homeland Security is a concerted national effort to prevent
terrorist attacks within the United States; reduce America's
vulnerability to terrorism, major disasters, and other
emergencies; and minimize the damage and recover from
attacks, major disasters, and other emergencies that occur.
• Homeland Defense is the protection of U.S. sovereignty,
territory, domestic population, and critical defense infrastructure
against external threats and aggression as directed by the
President.
• Civil Support is the overarching term for the Department of
Defense's (DoD) support of U.S. civil authorities for domestic
emergencies, and for designated law enforcement and other
activities. This is also known as Defense Support of Civil
Authorities (DSCA).

DoD's role in homeland security (HS) includes two distinct but

interrelated missions—homeland defense (HD) and civil support
(CS). DoD serves as the federal department with lead responsibility
for HD, which may be executed by DoD alone or with the support of
other agencies such as the Department of Homeland Security. For
CS, the DoD provides support to U.S. civil authorities.
The HD, CS, and HS missions are separate, but they have areas
where roles and responsibilities may overlap; lead and supporting
roles may transition between organizations. While the lead may
transition, a single agency will have the lead at any given time for a
particular activity.

The purpose of HD is to protect against and mitigate the impact of

incursions or attacks on sovereign territory, the domestic
population, and the defense critical infrastructure. The diversity of
threats requires that the military take a broad role in preparing for,
detecting, deterring, preventing, defending against, and defeating
threats. The military also has a broad role in supporting recovery
from attacks. The military roles in HD include the following:
• Identify the threat.
• Dissuade adversaries from attacking the U.S. homeland.
• Defend the homeland to include sovereign airspace, territory,
and territorial seas.
• Ensure access to space and information.
• Protect defense critical infrastructure (DCI).
• Deter aggression and coercion by conducting global operations.
• Decisively defeat any adversary if deterrence fails.
• Recover from any attack or incident.

Securing the United States from attack requires a defense in depth

that detects, deters, prevents, or, if necessary, defeats threats as
early and as far from the homeland as possible.
This active, layered defense seamlessly integrates U.S. capabilities
in the global commons of space and cyberspace, in the forward
regions of the world, in the geographic approaches to U.S.
territory, and within the U.S. homeland.

DoD's role in the CS mission consists of support to civil authorities

for domestic emergencies and for designated law enforcement and
other activities. The DoD operational construct for CS missions is
characterized by: prepare, detect, deter, prevent, defend, respond,
and recover. The military roles in CS include the following:
• Prepare for CS missions by developing, sustaining, and
improving operational capabilities.
• Assist civil authorities to detect all transnational threats desiring
entry to the homeland by land, maritime, or air conveyance.
• Assist civil authorities to deter threats along the borders and
within the homeland.
• Assist civil authorities to prevent threats to the homeland.
• Defend the homeland with both passive and active actions to
weaken or stop a threat.
• Assist civil authorities to respond and recover from disasters,
including natural, man-made, or terrorist incidents.

The Homeland Security Act of 2002 established the Department of

Homeland Security (DHS), which was a step toward ensuring a unity
of effort for the nation. The DHS has the primary goal for
coordinating efforts to detect, prepare for, prevent, protect against,
respond to, and recover from terrorist threats or attacks within the
United States. In other words, the DHS is the lead federal agency
charged with homeland security. The five HS missions are as
follows:
• Preventing terrorism and enhancing security
• Securing and managing our borders
• Enforcing and administering our immigration laws
• Safeguarding and securing cyberspace
• Ensuring resilience to disasters

The major components that make up the DHS are as follows:

• Directorate for Science and Technology
• Directorate for Management
• Office of Intelligence and Analysis
• Office of Operations Coordination
• Office of Policy
• Office of Health Affairs
• Domestic Nuclear Detection Office
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
• Directorate for National Protection and Programs
• Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
• U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP)
• U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
• U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
• U.S. Coast Guard
• U.S. Secret Service
• Federal Law Enforcement Training Center

n organizing for HD and CS missions, the following additional offices

or commands have HD and CS responsibilities:
he Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense and
Americas' Security Affairs, or ASD(HD&ASA), was established in
2002 and is responsible for providing overall supervision of DoD
homeland defense activities, civil support activities, and Western
Hemisphere security affairs for the DoD. Also, this office assists the
SecDef in providing policy guidance through the CJCS to the
combatant commanders that have U.S. territory in their AOR:
• USNORTHCOM, USPACOM
The Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence, or USD(I), was
established in 2002 and is responsible for the oversight of the
many intelligence capabilities within the DoD, enabling it to
provide more coordinated, better focused intelligence support
for pressing national concerns like HS. The USD(I) works with
the intelligence community and maintains a close relationship
with the ASD(HD&ASA), providing an opportunity for feedback
regarding intelligence tasking, processing, exploitation, and
dissemination as it affects homeland defense/security users at
various levels
The following combatant commands have U.S. territory within
their AORs and are responsible for planning, organizing, and
executing HD operations. The remaining combatant commands
support them and contribute to the protection of the U.S. homeland,
either through actions within their own AORs or through their global
responsibilities.
• USNORTHCOM (established 2002)
• USPACOM
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) is
responsible for protecting the North American airspace over
 the United States and Canada. NORAD is a binational
organization that provides aerospace warning, air sovereignty,
and defense for the two countries. NORAD was established in
1958 and is headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colorado
The authority vested in the secretaries of the military departments
to organize, train, equip, and provide forces runs from the President
through the Secretary of Defense to the Service secretaries. Then,
to the degree established by the secretaries or specified in law, this
authority runs through the Service Chiefs to the Service
component commanders assigned to the combatant commands and
to the commanders of forces not assigned to the combatant
commands. This ADCON provides for the preparation of military
forces and their administration and support.
For example, the Secretary of the Navy exercises ADCON through
the Commandant of the Marine Corps and the commander of the
Marine Corps component command assigned to a combatant
command.

All of the military departments or branches work together during

operations and joint missions, under the combatant
commanders. The U.S. Coast Guard is unique since it is a
Military Service that serves within the Department of
Homeland Security and may be transferred under the
Department of the Navy during wartime.
U.S. Army Overview: The Department of the Army is the nation's
principal land force. The Army is the largest and oldest branch of
the U.S. military with its roots in the Continental Army, which was
formed on 14 June 1775.
• Leadership: Secretary of the Army (civilian)
• Service Chief: Chief of Staff of the Army (military)
• Army values: Loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honor,
integrity, and personal courage
• Uniform order: Army Regulation (AR) 670-1 Wear and
Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia
• Motto: "This We'll Defend"
• Official song: The Army Goes Rolling Along
• Organization: The smallest element in the Army structure is a
squad made up of 8 to 13 soldiers, organized to maneuver and
fire.

U.S. Marine Corps Overview: The Marine Corps provides the

nation with a force in readiness. The Marine Corps was established
on 10 November 1775 and is a separate branch of the Department
of the Navy.
• Leadership: Secretary of the Navy (civilian)
• Service Chief: Commandant of the Marine Corps (military)
• Core values: Honor, courage, and commitment
• Uniform order: MCO P1020.34G Marine Corps Uniform
Regulations
• Motto: "Semper Fidelis" (Always Faithful)
• Official hymn: Marines' Hymn
• Organization: The basic framework for deployable Marine units
is the Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF). A MAGTF is
composed of four elements: the command element (CE), the
ground combat element (GCE), the aviation combat element
(ACE), and the logistics combat element (LCE).

U.S. Navy Overview: The Navy and Marine Corps make up the
Department of the Navy and comprise the nation's principal
maritime force. The Navy is responsible for sea- based warfare.
The Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy established on
13 October 1775.
• Leadership: Secretary of the Navy (civilian)
• Service Chief: Chief of Naval Operations (military)
• Navy values: Honor, courage, and commitment
• Uniform order: NAVPERS 15665I United States Navy Uniform
Regulations
• Unofficial motto: "Non sibi sed patriae" (Not self but country)
• Navy march: Anchors Aweigh
• Organization: The Navy organizational structure consists of
operating forces and shore establishments

U.S. Air Force Overview: The Department of the Air Force is the
nation's principal air and space force. The Air Force was created on
18 September 1947 with the National Security Act.
• Leadership: Secretary of the Air Force (civilian)
• Service Chief: Chief of Staff of the Air Force (military)
• Air Force values: Integrity first, service before self, excellence
in all we do
• Uniform order: Air Force Instruction (AFI) 36-2903 Dress and
Personal Appearance of Air Force Personnel
• Motto: "Aim High…Fly-Fight-Win" (established 2010)
• Official song: The U.S. Air Force, also known as, "Into the Wild
Blue Yonder," or simply, "Wild Blue Yonder"
• Organization: The Air Force organizational structure elements
arranged from smallest to largest include: section, flight,
squadron, group, wing, and numbered air force.

U.S. Coast Guard Overview: The Coast Guard is a unique military

Service residing within the Department of Homeland Security. The
Coast Guard roles include maritime homeland security, search and
rescue, etc. The Coast Guard has roots in the Revenue Cutter
Service founded on 4 August 1790.
• Leadership: Secretary of Homeland Security (civilian)
• Service Chief: Commandant of the Coast Guard (military)
• Core values: Honor, respect, and devotion to duty
• Uniform order: COMDTINST M1020.6G Uniform Regulations
• Motto: "Semper Paratus" (Always Ready)
• Official march: Semper Paratus
• Organization: The Coast Guard may be transferred to the
Department of the Navy in time of war or national emergency.
 The mission execution units of the Coast Guard are located in
districts that are divided between the Atlantic and Pacific areas.

U.S. National Guard Overview: The National Guard is made up

of the Army's Army National Guard and the Air Force's Air National
Guard; members serve in units of each state and territory. The
National Guard traces its origins to 13 December 1636 with the
militia of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
• Leadership: Secretaries of the Army and Air Force (civilians)
• Service Chief: Chief of the National Guard Bureau (military)
• Values: Integrity, commitment to people, loyalty, selfless
service, and excellence
• Uniform orders: AR 670-1 and AFI 36-2903 (Members wear
uniforms and rank insignias of the Army and Air Force.)
• Motto: "Always Ready, Always There"
• Official song: I Guard America
• Organization: National Guard units are organized the same as
the Army and the Air Force

Insurgency and counterinsurgency (COIN) are complex subsets of

warfare.
• Globalization, technological advancement, urbanization, and
extremists who conduct suicide attacks for their cause have
certainly influenced contemporary conflict.
• However, warfare in the 21st century retains many of the
characteristics it has exhibited since ancient times.

Insurgency
Insurgency and its tactics are as old as warfare itself.
• Joint doctrine defines an insurgency as an organized movement aimed
at the overthrow of a constituted government through the use of
subversion and armed conflict (JP 1-02).
• Stated another way, an insurgency is an organized, protracted politico-
military struggle designed to weaken the control and legitimacy of an
established government, occupying power, or other political authority
while increasing insurgent control.
Counterinsurgency
Counterinsurgency is military, paramilitary, political, economic,
psychological, and civic actions taken by a government to defeat
insurgency (JP 1-02).
• Counterinsurgents aim to enable a country or regime to provide the
security and rule of law that allow establishment of social services and
growth of economic activity.
• Thus, COIN involves the application of national power in the political,
military, economic, social, information, and infrastructure fields and
disciplines.
• Military leaders and planners should never underestimate its scale and
complexity; moreover, they should recognize that the Armed Forces
cannot succeed in COIN alone.

nsurgency has taken many forms over time. Past insurgencies

include struggles for independence against colonial powers, the
rising up of religious groups against their rivals, and resistance to
foreign invaders.
Counterinsurgencies have been common throughout history,
especially since the beginning of the 20th century.

Each insurgency is unique; although, there are often similarities

among them. Examining the type of insurgency they face enables
commanders and staffs to build a more accurate picture of the
insurgents. Such an examination identifies the following:
• Root cause or causes of the insurgency
• Extent to which the insurgency enjoys internal and external
support
• Basis (including the ideology and narrative) on which insurgents
appeal to the target population
• Insurgents' motivation and depth of commitment
• Likely insurgent weapons and tactics
• Operational environment in which insurgents seek to initiate and
develop their campaign and strategy

A cause is a principle or movement militantly defended or supported.

• Insurgent leaders often seek to adopt attractive and persuasive causes to
mobilize support.
• These causes often stem from the unresolved contradictions existing
within any society or culture. However, insurgents may create artificial
contradictions using propaganda and misinformation. These causes may
be real or perceived and include but are not limited to:
An elite ruling class without broad, popular participation
Exploited or repressed social groups
Economic inequities
Racial or ethnic persecution

Any successful COIN operation must address the legitimate grievances

insurgents use to generate popular support.

Most insurgencies share some common attributes. An insurgent

organization normally consist of five elements:
Leaders
Movement leaders provide strategic direction to the insurgency.
They are the "idea people" and the planners. Movement leaders
typically:
• Exercise leadership through force of personality, the power of
revolutionary ideas, and personal charisma.
• Hold their position through religious, clan, or tribal authority.
Combatants
Combatants (sometimes called "foot soldiers") do the actual fighting
and provide security. They are often mistaken for the movement
itself; however, they exist only to support the insurgency's broader
political agenda and to maintain local control. Combatants:
• Protect and expand the counterstate, if the insurgency sets up
such an institution.
• Protect training camps and networks that facilitate the flow of
money, instructions, and foreign and local fighters
Political Cadre
The cadre forms the political core of the insurgency. They are
actively engaged in the struggle to accomplish insurgent goals and
may be designated as a formal party to signify their political
importance.
• The cadre implement guidance and procedures provided by the
movement leaders.
• Modern noncommunist insurgencies rarely, if ever, use the term
"cadre"; however, these movements usually include a group that
performs similar functions. Additionally, movements based on
religious extremism usually include religious and spiritual
advisors among their cadre.
• The cadre may seek to replace that bureaucracy and assume its
functions in a counterstate
Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries are active sympathizers who provide important support
services. They do not participate in combat operations. Auxiliaries
may do the following:
• Run safe houses.
• Store weapons and supplies.
• Act as couriers.
• Provide passive intelligence collection.
• Give early warning of counterinsurgent movements.
• Provide funding from lawful and unlawful sources.
• Provide forged or stolen documents and access or introductions
to potential supporters
Mass Base
The mass base consists of the followers of the insurgent movement
—the supporting populace. Mass base members are often recruited
and indoctrinated by the cadre.
• Mass base members may continue in their normal positions in
society. Many, however, lead clandestine lives for the insurgent
movement. They may even pursue full-time positions within the
insurgency. For example, combatants normally begin as
members of the mass base.
• In tribal- or clan-based insurgencies, such roles are particularly
hard to define. There is no clear cadre in those movements, and
people drift between combatant, auxiliary, and follower status as
needed.
Insurgent Networks
A network is a series of direct and indirect ties from one actor to a
collection of others.
• Insurgents use technological, economic, and social means to
recruit partners into their networks.
• Networking extends the range and variety of both the military
and political actions of an insurgency.
• Networked organizations are difficult to destroy. They:
Tend to heal, adapt, and learn rapidly
Have a limited ability to attain strategic success because they
cannot easily muster and focus power
Present difficult problems for counterinsurgents because of
their enhanced abilities to sow disorder and survive

Operations executed throughout the spectrum of threats—including

COIN operations—are offensive, defensive, and stability operations
that commanders combine to achieve the desired end state.
• The exact mix of stability, offensive, and defensive operations
varies depending on the situation and the mission.
• Commanders shift the weight among these operations as
necessary to address situations in different parts of the AO while
continuing to pursue their overall objectives.
The historical principles and contemporary imperatives derived from
the historical record and detailed below provide some
guideposts for forces engaged in COIN operations.
Legitimacy is the Main Objective
The primary objective of any COIN operation is to foster effective
governance by a legitimate government. Governments described as
"legitimate" rule primarily with the consent of the governed; those
described as "illegitimate" tend to rely mainly or entirely on
coercion.
A government that derives its powers from the governed tends to be
accepted by its citizens as legitimate. Six possible indictors of
legitimacy that can be used to analyze threats to stability include
the following:
• The ability to provide security for the populace
• Selection of leaders at a frequency and in manner considered just
and fair by a substantial majority of the populace
• A high level of popular participation in or support for political
processes
• A culturally acceptable level of corruption
• A culturally acceptable level and rate of political, economic, and
social development
• A high level of regime acceptance by major social institutions
Unity of Effort is Essential
Unity of effort must be present at every echelon of a COIN
operation. Otherwise, well-intentioned but uncoordinated actions
can cancel each other or provide vulnerabilities for insurgents to
exploit.
• Ideally, a single counterinsurgent leader has authority over all
government agencies involved in COIN operations.
• Usually, however, military commanders work to achieve unity of
effort through liaison with leaders of a wide variety of nonmilitary
agencies. The U.S. Ambassador and country team, along with
senior HN representatives, must be key players in higher level
planning; similar connections are needed throughout the chain of
command.
Political Factors are Primary
General Chang Ting-chen of Mao Zedong's central committee once
stated that revolutionary war was 80 percent political action and
only 20 percent military. Such an assertion is arguable and certainly
depends on the insurgency's stage of development; it does,
however, capture the fact that political factors have primacy in
COIN.
• At the beginning of a COIN operation, military actions may
appear predominant as security forces conduct operations to
secure the populace and kill or capture insurgents.
• However, political objectives must guide the military's approach.
Commanders must consider how operations contribute to
strengthening the HN government's legitimacy and achieving
U.S. political goals.
Understand the Environment
Marines must understand the following about the population in the
AO:
• Organization of key groups in the society
• Relationships and tensions among groups
• Values of groups' interests and motivations
• Means by which groups communicate
• The society's leadership system
COIN operations require Marines at every echelon to possess the
following within the AO's cultural context:
• A clear appreciation of the essential nature and nuances of the
conflict
• An understanding of the motivation, strengths, and weaknesses
of the insurgents
• Knowledge of the roles of other actors in the AO
Without this understanding of the environment, intelligence cannot
be understood and properly applied.
Intelligence Drives Operations
Intelligence drives COIN operations.
• Without good intelligence, counterinsurgents are like blind
boxers, wasting energy flailing at unseen opponents and perhaps
causing unintended harm.
• With good intelligence, counterinsurgents are like surgeons
cutting out cancerous tissue while keeping other vital organs
intact.
• Effective operations are shaped by timely, specific, and reliable
intelligence, gathered and analyzed at the lowest possible level
and disseminated throughout the force.
Isolate Insurgents from their Cause and Support
It is easier to separate an insurgency from its resources and let it die
than to kill every insurgent.
• Clearly, killing or capturing insurgents will be necessary,
especially when an insurgency is based in religious or ideological
extremism.
• However, killing every insurgent is normally impossible.
Attempting to do so can also be counterproductive in some
cases; it risks generating popular resentment, creating martyrs
that motivate new recruits, and producing cycles of revenge.
• Dynamic insurgencies can replace losses quickly. Thus, skillful
counterinsurgents must cut off the sources of that recuperative
power.
• Some sources can be reduced by redressing the social,
political, and economic grievances that fuel the insurgency.
• Physical support can be cut off by population control or border
security.
• International or local legal action might be required to limit
financial support.
Security Under the Rule of Law is Essential
The cornerstone of any COIN effort is establishing security for the
civilian populace.
• Without a secure environment, no permanent reforms can be
implemented, and disorder spreads.
• To establish legitimacy, commanders transition security activities
from combat operations to law enforcement as quickly as
feasible.
• When insurgents are seen as criminals, they lose public support.
Using a legal system established in line with local culture and
practices to deal with such criminals enhances the HN
government's legitimacy.
Marines help establish HN institutions that sustain the legal system
such as police forces, court systems, and penal facilities. It is
important to remember that the violence level must be reduced
enough for police forces to maintain order prior to any transition;
otherwise, COIN forces will be unable to secure the populace and
may lose the legitimacy gained by the transition.
Prepare for a Long-Term Commitment
Insurgencies are protracted by nature. COIN operations always demand
considerable expenditures of time and resources.
• The populace may prefer the HN government to the insurgents;
however, people do not actively support a government unless they are
convinced that the counterinsurgents have the means, ability,
stamina, and will to win.
• The insurgents' primary battle is against the HN government, not the
United States; however, U.S. support can be crucial to building public
faith in the HN government's viability.
• The populace must have confidence in the staying power of both the
counterinsurgents and the HN government.
• Insurgents and local populations often believe that a few casualties
or a few years will cause the U.S. to abandon a COIN effort.
• Constant reaffirmation of commitment, backed by deeds, can
overcome that perception and bolster faith in the steadfastness of
U.S. support.
• Even the strongest U.S. commitment will not succeed if the populace
does not perceive the HN government as having similar will and
stamina. U.S. forces must help create that capacity and sustain that
impression

Recent COIN experiences have identified an important set of

additional imperatives to keep in mind
Manage Information and Expectations
Information and expectations are related; skillful counterinsurgents
manage both. To limit discontent and build support, the HN
government and any counterinsurgents assisting it create and
maintain a realistic set of expectations among the populace, friendly
military forces, and the international community. Information
operations are key tools to accomplish the following:
• Achieving steady progress toward a set of reasonable
expectations can increase the populace's tolerance for the
inevitable inconveniences entailed by ongoing COIN operations.
Where a large U.S. force is present to help establish a regime,
such progress can extend the period before an army of liberation
becomes perceived as an army of occupation.
• Messages to different audiences must be consistent. In the
global information environment, people in the AO can access the
Internet and satellite television to determine the messages
counterinsurgents are sending to the international community
and the U.S. public. Any perceived inconsistency reduces
credibility and undermines COIN efforts.
Use the Appropriate Level of Force
In a COIN environment, it is vital for leaders to adopt appropriate
and measured levels of force and apply that force precisely so that it
accomplishes the mission without causing unnecessary loss of life or
suffering.
• Use escalation of force/force continuum procedures to minimize
potential loss of life. These procedures are especially appropriate
during convoy operations and at checkpoints and roadblocks.
• Leaders ensure that their Marines are properly trained in such
procedures and, more importantly, in methods of shaping
situations so that small-unit leaders have to make fewer split-
second, life-or- death decisions.
Escalation of force/force continuum refers to using lesser means of
force when such use is likely to achieve the desired effects and
Marines can do so without endangering themselves, others, or
mission accomplishment. Escalation of force/force continuum
procedures do not limit the right of self-defense, including the use of
deadly force when such force is necessary to defend against a
hostile act or demonstrated hostile intent.
Learn and Adapt
An effective counterinsurgent force is a learning organization.
• Insurgents constantly shift between military and political phases
and tactics. In addition, networked insurgents constantly
exchange information about their enemy's vulnerabilities—even
with insurgents in distant theaters.
• Skillful counterinsurgents must adapt at least as fast as
insurgents. Every unit needs to be able to make observations,
draw and apply lessons, and assess results.
• Insurgents shift their AOs looking for weak links, so widespread
competence is required throughout the counterinsurgent force.
Empower the Lowest Levels
Mission command is the conduct of military operations through
decentralized execution based upon mission orders.
• Successful mission command results from subordinate leaders at
all echelons exercising disciplined initiative within the
commander's intent to accomplish missions. It requires an
environment of trust and mutual understanding.
• Mission command, the Marine Corps' preferred method for
commanding and controlling forces during all types of operations,
is ideally suited to the mosaic nature of COIN operations.
• Subordinates are empowered to make decisions within the
commander's intent; subordinates are expected to use initiative
and judgment to accomplish the mission as the situation
changes.
Support the Host Nation
U.S. forces committed to a COIN effort are there to assist a host
nation (HN) government.
• The long-term goal is to leave a government able to stand by
itself. In the end, the HN has to win on its own.
• Achieving this requires development of viable local leaders and
institutions. U.S. forces and agencies can help, but HN elements
must accept responsibilities to achieve real victory.
The principles and imperatives discussed within this topic reveal
that COIN presents a complex and often unfamiliar set of missions
and considerations. In many ways, the conduct of COIN is
counterintuitive to the traditional U.S. view of war—although COIN
operations have actually formed a substantial part of the U.S.
military experience.
Some representative paradoxes of COIN are presented here as
examples of the different mindset required.
Counterinsurgency Paradoxes
• Sometimes, the more you protect your forces, the less secure
you may be.
• Sometimes, the more force is used, the less effective it is.
• The more successful the counterinsurgency is, the less force can
be used and the more risk must be accepted.
• Sometimes doing nothing is the best reaction.
• Some of the best weapons for counterinsurgents do not shoot.
• The host nation doing something tolerably is normally better than
us doing it well.
• If a tactic works this week, it might not work next week; if it
works in this province, it might not work in the next.
• Tactical success guarantees nothing.
• Many important decisions are not made by generals.

COIN operations combine offensive, defensive, and stability

operations to achieve the stable and secure environment needed for
effective governance, essential services, and economic
development.
The focus of COIN operations generally progresses through three
stages that can be envisioned using a medical analogy:
Initial Stage: "Stop the Bleeding"
Initially, COIN operations are similar to emergency first aid for the
patient. The goal is to:
• Protect the population.
• Break the insurgents' initiative and momentum.
• Set the conditions for further engagement.
Limited offensive operations may be undertaken but are
complemented by stability operations focused on civil security.
Middle Stage: "Inpatient Care—Recovery"
The middle stage is characterized by efforts aimed at assisting the
patient through long-term recovery or restoration of health—which
in this case means achieving stability. Counterinsurgents are most
active here, working aggressively along all lines of operations. The
desire in this stage is to:
• Develop and build resident capability and capacity in the HN
government and security forces to assure civil security.
• Expand HN capability and capacity to provide governance,
provision of essential services, and stimulation of economic
development.
• Strengthen relationships with HN counterparts in the government
and security forces with the local populace.
These efforts increase the flow of intelligence and legitimacy of the
HN.
Late Stage: “Outpatient Care—Movement To Self-
Sufficiency”
Stage three is characterized by the expansion of stability operations
across contested regions, ideally using HN forces. The main goal
for this stage is to transition responsibility for COIN operations to HN
leadership. In this stage:
• The multinational force works with the host nation in an
increasingly supporting role, turning over responsibility wherever
and whenever appropriate.
• Quick reaction forces and fire support capabilities may still be
needed in some areas, but more functions are performed by HN
forces with the low-key assistance of multinational advisors.
• The host nation has established or reestablished the systems
needed to provide an effective and stable government that
sustains the rule of law.
The integration of civilian and military efforts is crucial to successful
COIN operations.
• All efforts focus on supporting the local populace and HN
government.
• Political, social, and economic programs are usually more
valuable than conventional military operations in addressing the
root causes of conflict and undermining an insurgency.
• COIN participants come from many backgrounds and must make
decisions to solve problems in a complex and extremely
challenging environment.
Civilian
Civilian organizations have expertise that complements military
forces' skills. At the same time, civilian capabilities cannot be
employed effectively without the security that military forces
provide. Effective COIN leaders understand the interdependent
relationship of all participants, military and civilian. COIN leaders
orchestrate their efforts to achieve unity of effort and coherent
results.
Success requires applying the capabilities of civilian organizations
such as:
• U.S. government agencies other than the Department of Defense
• Other nations' defense and nondefense agencies and ministries
• Intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations and
its subordinate organizations
• Nongovernmental organizations
• Private corporations
• Other organizations that wield diplomatic, informational, and
economic power
Military
Fighting insurgents is an essential COIN task for military forces;
however, these forces can and should use their capabilities to meet
the local populace's fundamental needs as well. Regaining the
populace's active and continued support for the HN government is
essential to deprive an insurgency of its power and appeal.
The military forces' primary function in COIN is protecting that
populace. However, employing military force is not the only way to
provide civil security or defeat insurgents. Indeed, excessive use of
military force can frequently undermine policy objectives at the
expense of achieving the overarching political goals that define
success. This dilemma places tremendous importance on the
measured application of force.
Other
Many groups often play critical roles in influencing the outcome of a
COIN effort, but some are beyond the control of military forces or
civilian governing institutions. These groups include the following:
• Local leaders
• Informal associations
• Religious groups
• Families
• Tribes
• Some private enterprises
• Some humanitarian groups
• The media
Leaders remain aware of the influence of such groups and are
prepared to work with, through, or around them.

Likely participants in COIN operations include the following:

U.S. Military Forces
U.S. military forces are vastly capable. Designed primarily for
conventional warfare, they have the capabilities essential to
successfully conduct COIN operations. The most important military
assets in COIN are disciplined Marines with adaptive, self- aware,
and intelligent leaders.
Military forces also have capabilities particularly relevant to common
COIN requirements. These capabilities include the following:
• Dismounted infantry
• Human intelligence
• Language specialists
• Military police
• Civil affairs
• Engineers
• Medical units
• Logistic support
• Legal affairs
• Contracting elements
Multinational (Including Host Nation) Forces
The U.S. government prefers that U.S. military forces operate with
other nations' forces, not alone.
• Marines normally function as part of a multinational force. In
COIN operations, U.S. forces usually operate with the security
forces of the local populace or host nation.
• Each multinational participant provides capabilities and strengths
that U.S. forces may not have. Many other countries' military
forces bring cultural backgrounds, historical experiences, and
other capabilities that can be particularly valuable to COIN
efforts.
• Although the missions of multinational partners may appear
similar to those of the United States, rules of engagement, home-
country policies, and sensitivities may differ among partners.
U.S. military leaders require a strong cultural and political
awareness of HN and other multinational military partners.
U.S. Government Agencies
A leader's situational awareness requires familiarization with other
U.S. government organizations participating in the COIN effort and
knowledge of their capabilities. Commanders and leaders of other
U.S. government organizations should collaboratively plan and
coordinate actions to avoid conflict or duplication of effort. Within
the U.S. government, key organizations include the following:

• Department of State
• U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
• Central Intelligence Agency
• Department of Justice
• Department of the Treasury
• Department of Homeland Security
• Department of Energy
• Department of Agriculture
• Department of Commerce
• Department of Transportation
Other Governments' Agencies
Agencies of other national governments (such as ministries of
defense, foreign affairs, development, and justice) are likely to
actively participate in COIN operations.
• Leaders of U.S. contingents must work closely with their
multinational counterparts to become familiar with agencies that
may operate in their AO.
• Military leaders should use U.S. civilian representatives to
establish appropriate relationships and awareness of their
multinational counterparts.
Nongovernmental Organizations
Joint doctrine defines a nongovernmental organization as a private,
self-governing, not-for-profit organization dedicated to alleviating
human suffering; and/or promoting education, health care,
economic development, environmental protection, human rights,
and conflict resolution; and/or encouraging the establishment of
democratic institutions and civil society (JP 1-02).
• There are several thousand NGOs of many different types.
• Some NGOs maintain strict independence from governments and
belligerents and do not want to be seen directly associating with
military forces.
• NGOs play important roles in resolving insurgencies. Many NGOs
arrive before military forces and remain afterwards. They can
support lasting stability.
• To the greatest extent possible, commanders try to complement
and not override NGO capabilities.
Intergovernmental Organizations
Joint doctrine defines an intergovernmental organization as an
organization created by a formal agreement (e.g., a treaty) between
two or more governments. It may be established on a global,
regional, or functional basis for wide-ranging or narrowly defined
purposes. IGOs are formed to protect and promote national
interests shared by member states (JP 1-02).
• The most notable IGO is the United Nations (UN). The UN in
particular has many subordinate and affiliated agencies active
worldwide.
• Regional organizations like the Organization of American States
and European Union may be involved in some COIN operations.
Multinational Corporations and Contractors
Multinational corporations often engage in reconstruction, economic
development, and governance activities.
• When contractors or other businesses are being paid to support
U.S. military or other government agencies, the principle of unity
of command should apply. Commanders should be able to
influence contractors' performance through U.S. government
contract supervisors.
• When under contract to the United States, contractors should
behave as an extension of the organizations or agencies for
which they work.
• Leaders should identify contractors operating in their AO and
determine the nature of their contract, existing accountability
mechanisms, and appropriate coordination relationships.
Host Nation Civil Authorities
Commanders create coordinating mechanisms, such as committees
or liaison elements, to facilitate cooperation and build trust with HN
authorities. HN military or nonmilitary representatives should have
leading roles in such mechanisms.
• HN organizations facilitate operations by reducing sensitivities
and misunderstandings while removing impediments.
• Coordination and support should exist down to local levels and
Marines should be aware of the political and societal structures in
their AOs.
• Political structures usually have designated leaders, but the
societal structure may include informal leaders who operate
outside the political structure. These leaders may be:
 • Economic (such as businessmen)
• Theological (such as clerics and lay leaders)
• Family based (such as elders or patriarchs)

Understanding of the operational environment is critical to the

success of COIN operations. It includes:
• Civil considerations
• Terrain analysis
Complex terrain
Suburban and urban terrain
Key infrastructure
Lines of communication
• Weather analysis

Civil considerations are how infrastructure, institutions, attitudes,

and activities of the population within an area of operations
influence the conduct of military operations.
While all characteristics of civil considerations are important,
understanding the people is particularly important in COIN.
To evaluate the people, the six socio-cultural factors identified
should be analyzed.
Society
A society can be defined as a population whose members are
subject to the same political authority who occupy a common
territory, have a common culture, and share a sense of identity. A
society is not easily created or destroyed, but it is possible to do so
through genocide or war.
• No society is homogeneous. Societies usually have a dominant
culture, but they can also have a vast number of secondary
cultures.
• Different societies may share similar cultures, such as Canada
and the United States.
• Understanding the societies in the AO allows counterinsurgents
to achieve objectives and gain support.
• Leaders also consider societies outside the AO whose actions,
opinions, or political influence can affect the mission.
Culture
Culture is a "web of meaning" shared by members of a particular
society or group within a society. Culture is:
• A system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and
artifacts that a society uses to cope with their world and with one
another
• Learned through a process called enculturation and shared by
members of a society; there is no "culture of one"
• Patterned, meaning that people in a society live and think in
ways forming definite, repeating patterns; changeable, through
social interactions between people and groups
• Arbitrary, meaning that Marines should make no assumptions
regarding what a society considers right and wrong, good and
bad
• Internalized, in the sense that it is habitual, taken for granted,
and perceived as "natural" by people within the society
Culture might also be described as an "operational code" that is
valid for an entire group of people. Culture conditions the
individual's range of action and ideas, including what to do and not
do, how to do it, and with whom to do it.
Power
Power is the probability that one actor within a social relationship
will be in a position to carry out his or her own will despite
resistance. Understanding power is the key to manipulating the
interests of groups within a society.

For each group in an AO, counterinsurgents should identify the type

of power the group has, what it uses the power for (such as
amassing resources and protecting followers), and how it acquires
and maintains power. Commanders should also determine the
same information about leaders within particular groups. There are
four major forms of power in a society:
• Coercive force
• Social capital
• Economic resources
• Authority
Social Structure
Each society is composed of both social structure and culture.
Social structure refers to the relations among groups of persons
within a system of groups. Social structure is persistent over time.
It is regular and continuous despite disturbances. The relationships
among the parts hold steady, even as groups expand or contract.
Social structure involves the following:
• Arrangement of the parts that constitute society
• Organization of social position
• Distribution of people within those positions

Select each type of social structure to learn more.

Language
Language is a system of symbols that people use to communicate
with one another. It is a learned element of culture.
• Successful communication requires more than just grammatical
knowledge; it also requires understanding the social setting,
appropriate behaviors towards people of different statuses, and
nonverbal cues, among other things.
• An understanding of the social environment can facilitate
effective communication, even if counterinsurgents do not speak
the local language and must work through translators or
interpreters.
• The languages used in an AO have a major impact on operations.
Languages must be identified to facilitate language training,
communication aids such as phrase cards, and requisitioning of
translators.
• Translators are critical for collecting intelligence, interacting with
local citizens and community leaders, and developing IO
products.
Interests
Interests refer to the core motivations that drive behavior. These
include physical security, basic necessities, economic well-being,
political participation, and social identity.
• During times of instability, when the government cannot
function, the groups and organizations to which people belong
satisfy some or all of their interests.
• Understanding a group's interests allows commanders to identify
opportunities to meet or frustrate those interests.
• A group's interests may become grievances if the HN
government does not satisfy them.

Intelligence and operations have a dynamic relationship. Even in permissive

environments where a great deal is known about the enemy, there is an
intelligence aspect to all operations.
• Intelligence drives operations, and successful operations generate
additional intelligence.
• An operation increasing the security and general happiness of a town
often increases the amount of information its inhabitants offer.
• The additional information is processed into more intelligence, which
results in more effective operations. The reverse is also true.

COIN operations involve complex, changing relations among all the

direct and peripheral participants. These participants adapt and
respond to each other throughout an operation.
• A cycle of adaptation usually develops between insurgents and
counterinsurgents; both sides continually adapt to neutralize
existing adversary advantages and develop new advantages of
their own.
• Victory is gained through a tempo or rhythm of adaptation that is
beyond the enemy's ability to achieve or sustain.
• Counterinsurgents should seek to gain and sustain advantages
over insurgents by emphasizing learning and adaptation.

There are leadership and ethical imperatives that are prominent

and, in some cases, unique to counterinsurgency.
• The dynamic and ambiguous environment of modern
counterinsurgency places a premium on leadership at every
level, from sergeant to general.
• Those in leadership positions must provide the moral compass for
their subordinates as they navigate this complex environment.
• Exercising leadership in the midst of the ambiguity prevalent in
COIN requires intense, discriminating, professional judgment.

Marine Corps leaders are expected to act ethically and in

accordance with shared national values and Constitutional
principles, which are reflected in the law and military oaths of
Service. As leaders of Marines, we:
• Have the unique professional responsibility of exercising military
judgment on behalf of the American people we serve.
• Continually reconcile mission effectiveness, ethical standards,
and thoughtful stewardship of the nation's precious resources—
human and material—in the pursuit of national aims.
• Educate and train our Marines; create standing operating
procedures and other internal systems to prevent violations of
legal and ethical rules.
• Supervise our Marines and respond quickly and aggressively to
signs of illegal or unethical behavior.
• The values of the nation and Marine Corps are not negotiable.
Violations of these values are not just mistakes; they are failures
in meeting the fundamental standards of the profession of arms.

The U.S. Constitution requires obedience to the law of armed

conflict. Our core values hold Marines to the highest standards of
moral and ethical conduct.
• Conflict brings to bear enormous moral challenges, as well as the
burden of life-and-death decisions with profound ethical
considerations.
• Risk taking is an essential part of warrior ethos.
• Balancing competing responsibilities of mission accomplishment
with protection of noncombatants is difficult in conventional
operations.
Complex COIN operations place the toughest of ethical demands on
Marines and their leaders.

The 14 leadership traits are qualities of thought and action that, if

demonstrated in daily activities, help Marines earn the
respect, confidence, and loyal cooperation of other Marines. It
is extremely important that you understand the meaning of
each leadership trait and apply them in your daily activities
Justice, judgment, dependability, initiative, decisiveness, tact,
integrity, enthusiasm, bearing, unselfishness, courage,
knowledge, loyalty, endurance

Justice is defined as the practice of being impartial and consistent.

A just person considers each side of a situation and bases
rewards or punishments on merit.
Judgment is your ability to weigh facts and possible solutions clearly,
calmly, and in an orderly fashion so that you make sound
decisions.
Dependability means having the certainty of proper performance
of duty in support of the policies and orders of the chain of
command. It means consistently putting forth your best effort
in an attempt to achieve the highest standards of performance
within the organization.
Initiative means meeting new and unexpected situations with prompt action
with or without the normal material or methods being available. It is
seeing what needs to be accomplished and taking action, even though
you haven't been given orders.
Decisiveness means being able to make good decisions without
delay and to announce them in a firm, clear, and professional
manner
Tact means being able to deal with people in a manner that will maintain
good relations and avoid creating offense.
Integrity means that you are honest and truthful in what you say
and do. You put honesty, sense of duty, and sound moral
principles above all else
Enthusiasm is defined as a sincere interest and exuberance in the
performance of your duties. If you are enthusiastic, you are
optimistic, cheerful, and willing to accept and adapt to new
challenges.
Bearing is the way you conduct and carry yourself. Your manner
should reflect alertness, competence, confidence, and control.
Unselfishness means that you avoid making yourself comfortable at
the expense of others. It is self sacrifice for the greater good
of the unit and the Marines in it.
Courage is what allows you to remain calm while recognizing fear.
Moral courage is having the inner strength to stand up for
what is right and to accept blame when something is your
fault. Physical courage means that you can continue to
function effectively in the presence of danger.
Knowledge is the range of one's information. Your knowledge
should be broad, and in addition to knowing your duties, you
should know your unit's policies and maintain currency with
rapid changes.
Loyalty means that you are devoted to your country; the Corps; and
to your seniors, peers, and subordinates. The motto of our
Corps is Semper Fidelis (Always Faithful).
Endurance is the mental and physical stamina that is measured by
your ability to withstand pain, fatigue, stress, and hardship.

In counterinsurgencies, warfighting and policing are dynamically

linked.
• The moral purpose of combat operations is to secure peace.
• The moral purpose of policing is to maintain the peace.
• In COIN operations, military forces defeat enemies to establish
civil security; then, having done so, these same forces preserve it
until host nation (HN) police forces can assume responsibility for
maintaining the civil order.
When combatants conduct stability operations in a way that
undermines civil security, they undermine the moral and practical
purposes they serve.
• There is a clear difference between warfighting and policing.
• COIN operations require that every unit be adept at both and
capable of moving rapidly between one and the other.
The principle of proportionality requires that the anticipated loss of
life and damage to property incidental to attacks must not be
excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage
expected to be gained.
Proportionality and discrimination require combatants not only to
minimize the harm to noncombatants but also to make positive
commitments to:
• Preserve noncombatant lives by limiting the damage they do.
• Assume additional risk to minimize potential harm.

Proportionality
Proportionality requires that the advantage gained by a military
operation is not exceeded by the collateral harm.
• The law of war principle of proportionality requires collateral
damage to civilians and civilian property not be excessive in
relation to the military advantage expected to be gained by
executing the operation.
• Marines must take all feasible precautions when choosing means
and methods of attack to avoid and minimize:
• Loss of civilian life
• Injury to civilians
• Damage to civilian objects
In conventional operations, proportionality is usually calculated in
simple utilitarian terms: civilian lives and property lost versus
enemy destroyed and military advantage gained. However, in COIN
operations, advantage is best calculated not in terms of how many
insurgents are killed or detained, but rather which enemies are
killed or detained. If certain key insurgent leaders are essential to
the insurgents' ability to conduct operations, then military leaders
need to consider their relative importance when determining how to
best pursue them.

Discrimination
Discrimination requires combatants to differentiate between enemy
combatants who represent a threat and noncombatants who do not.
In conventional operations, this restriction means that combatants
cannot intend to harm noncombatants. However, proportionality
permits them to act, knowing some noncombatants may be harmed.
In COIN operations, it is difficult to distinguish insurgents from
noncombatants. It is also difficult to determine whether the
situation permits harm to noncombatants. Two levels of
discrimination are necessary:
• Deciding between targets
• Determining an acceptable risk to noncombatants and
bystanders
Discrimination applies to the means by which combatants engage
the enemy. The COIN environment requires counterinsurgents to
not only determine the kinds of weapons to use and how to employ
them but also to establish whether lethal means are desired—or
even permitted.