Unit 1

The atmosphere and properties of common gases.

Introduction.
Air is the most common substance known to man. It is
all around us. We breathe air to live, we need air to burn
fuel and keep warm. We cannot see air but we feel it
when it moves as wind. The most common component
of air is oxygen gas which plays the above roles.

Air as a mixture.
Air is a mixture of gases. The composition of air does
not vary from place to another with exception of
moisture content and dust. These two vary depending on What percentage of air is used up when candle
human activities in a given area as well as the weather burns?
conditions during the time of analysis. An air sample
from a stone mining area on analysis will have more dust Experimental determination.
particles than a sample from a region of no mining
activities. Requirements:

The table below shows the percentage composition by  Water trough.

volume of the air.  Match box
 Gas jar
Component of air Percentage composition.  Ruler
Oxygen gas 20.9%
 Petri dish
Carbon (IV) oxide gas 0.03%
Nitrogen gas 78%  Candle
Noble gases 1% (0.9% Argon)  Sodium hydroxide solution.
Water vapour Variable
Dust particles Variable Set up for the apparatus

The percentage composition by volume of air can be

represented as a pie chart as shown below.

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 Observations:

 The candle goes off

 The level of sodium hydroxide solution rises in
the gas jar and drops in the trough.

Explanation.

Oxygen forms the active part of the air that supports

combustion of substances. In the experiment above, the
candle burned for a short while before it went off when it
was covered with the gas jar. Air initially in the gas jar
contained oxygen which supported the burning of the
candle for a short while before it went off. When candle
burns in air, it gives carbon dioxide and water. The
Procedure:
residual gas does not support burning hence the candle
01) Light and candle and allow some melted wax went off after a short while. Candle burns in air to form
drop on a petri dish. Place the bottom of the carbon (IV) oxide and water. Sodium hydroxide is used
candle on this molten wax. Put off the candle in the experiment to absorb carbon dioxide gas initially
after this. in the gas jar and the one produced by the burning
02) Make the petri dish together with candle float on candle.
sodium hydroxide solution in the trough.
Assume that at the beginning, the height of sodium
03) Cover the candle with the gas jar and measure
hydroxide solution in the gas jar is 8.0cm and at the end
the level of sodium hydroxide solution in the gas
of the experiment it is 9.4cm.
using s ruler.
04) Uncover the candle and light it once again. The percentage of air used up during burning can be
Allow it burn for a few seconds and the cover it calculated as shown below.
with a gas jar for some times.
05) Write down your prediction about what will Initial height of sodium hydroxide = 8.0cm
happen to the level of sodium hydroxide solution
Final height of sodium hydroxide = 9.4cm
when the candle burns.
06) Measure the level of sodium hydroxide solution Height occupied by oxygen gas = (9.4 – 8.0)cm = 1.4cm
in both the trough and the gas jar at the end of
the experiment. M 1.4𝑐𝑚
Percentage of oxygen used up = 𝑥 100 = 17. 5%
8.0𝑐𝑚
07) Compare your prediction with the results you
obtained. Oxygen gas occupies about 20.9% of air by volume
08) Give a conclusion to your results. however, the result shows a lower value due to the
experimental errors such as
Answer the following questions based on your
prediction and results.  Candle may have gone off before all oxygen was
used.
 What happens to the burning candle when it was
 Accumulation of carbon (IV) oxide in the gas jar
covered with gas jar for some times?
making the candle go off earlier than usual.
 What happens to the level of sodium hydroxide
 Error in reading the values from the apparatus.
in both the trough and the gas jar?
 What is the use sodium hydroxide solution?
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What percentage of air is used up when copper 08) Use the data you obtained to calculate the
burns? percentage by volume of air used up.

Experimental determination. Do this!!!!

Requirements: If the initial volume of air in syringe B is 100cm3

and the final volume in syringe B is 80.50cm3,
 Copper turnings calculate the percentage by volume of air used up
 Glass tube during the above experiment.
 Glass wool
 Syringes Observation and explanation.
 Source of heat. Copper metal is brown. When it burns in air, it
Set up for the apparatus. forms black solid called copper (II) oxide. During
the experiment, air is passed slowly and repeatedly
over heated copper turnings to allow more time of
contact with copper as well as ensure that all the
oxygen is used up.

Copper + Oxygen → Copper (II) oxide

2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2Cu(s)

Procedure: Brown Black
The apparatus are allowed to cool since air expands
01) Place a small portion of copper turnings in a
when heated which may lead to erroneous readings.
dry glass tube. Put glass wool on both ends
of the tube. In practice, the experimental result obtained here is
02) Label the two syringes A and B. remove the lower than the usually percentage by volume of air
air from syringe A and fix it on one end of used in burning due to
the glass tube. Pull the air into syringe B to
about 100cm3 mark and fix it on the other  Error in reading of the values in the
end of the glass tube as shown in the apparatus.
diagram above.  Air initially present in the glass tube may
03) Heat the glass tube containing copper not have been accounted for.
turnings strongly.  Possible leakage of air from the syringe.
04) Pass air slowly over heated copper turnings
Glass wool prevents copper turnings from being
by slowly pushing the plunger of the syringe
pulled into syringe when air is pulled in syringe B.
B to and fro several times until there is no
further change in volume. Determination of the percentage of air used when
05) Allow the apparatus to cool. iron rusts.
06) Record the volume of the residual gas in the
syringe B at the end of the experiment. a). Conditions necessary for rusting to occur
07) Note the colour of the solid residual if any. Requirements:

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  Boiling tubes.  Iron fillings
 Boiled water  Trough
 6 clean iron nails  Water
 Cotton wool
Set up for the apparatus used.
 Oil
 Calcium chloride

Set up for the diagram.

Procedure:

01) Wet the bottom of the gas jar using little amount
of water.
02) Spread some clean iron fillings on the wet
surface of the gas jar and make it stick.
03) Invert the gas jar containing the iron fillings into
a trough containing water. Allow some water
Procedure:
enter the gas jar to be in the same level with
01) Arrange the apparatus as shown above. water in the trough.
02) Put iron nails into 4 boiling tubes. 04) Measure the level of air column in the gas jar
03) To one tube, add tap water, add boiled water and and note it somewhere.
oil into the second boiling tube, to the third 05) Leave the set-up undisturbed for five days.
boiling tube add calcium chloride and lastly add 06) Measure the level of air column after five days.
ice cubes into the fourth tube. Cover the boiling 07) Use the previous steps to calculate the
tubes with cotton wools percentage by volume of air used up in this
04) Answer the following questions based on your experiment.
experiment results
Observation and explanation.
 What happened to the iron nails in the first tube?
 Did the iron nails in the second boiling tube In the presence of moisture, iron undergoes oxidation to
undergo rusting? form rust. Rust is a reddish brown coat formed on the
 What is the purpose of calcium chloride in the surface of the iron when left in air for some times. Note
third boiling tube? that some other metals undergo rusting also. Rusting
occurs only in presence of air (oxygen) and water
b). Determination of percentage by volume of air (moisture). Absence of one of these conditions inhibits
used up during rusting process. the rusting process.

Requirements: In experiment (a) above, rusting would occur in tubes 1

and 4. While in tubes 2 and 3, there would be no rusting
 Gas jar that occur. In tube 1 and 4, all conditions are presence
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while in tube 2 and 3, conditions are not fully meet. Oil indicates that air contains carbon (IV) oxide. Carbon
prevents any air from entering the boiled water. Water (IV) oxide forms a white precipitate with calcium
alone cannot allow rusting occur. In tube 3, calcium hydroxide (Lime water) due to the formation of an
chloride removes any moisture in the air hence no insoluble compound calcium carbonate. This is the
rusting. confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide.

In experiment (b), the iron fillings will be covered by a CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
reddish brown substance. During the rusting process,
oxygen initially present in the gas jar is used up causing Determination of the amount of water vapour the
the level of water to rise in the gas jar to occupy the air.
vacuum space left by oxygen that has been used up. The
residual gases present in the gas jar at the end of the Apparatus and reagents
experiment are mainly nitrogen, carbon (IV) oxide and
 Anhydrous calcium chloride granules
noble gases. Oxygen is therefore a factor for rusting.
 Watch glasses
Determination of the presence of carbon (IV)  Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate
oxide in the air.
Procedure
Requirements:
1. Label two watch glasses A and B.
 Boiling tube 2. Place a small amount of anhydrous calcium
 Delivery tube chloride and anhydrous copper (II)
 Freshly prepared lime water. sulphate separately on watch glass A and B
respectively.
Set up for the diagram
3. Leave the set ups undisturbed and observe
after one day.
4. Record your observations.

Answer the following questions

a) What was the color of anhydrous copper (II)

sulphate?
b) What was the color of copper (II) sulphate
after one day?
c) Describe the nature of calcium chloride after
one day?
Procedure:
Explanation
01) Bubble air through freshly prepared calcium
hydroxide (lime water) for some times. Anhydrous calcium chloride is a deliquescent
02) Record your observations. substance. It absorbs water vapour from the
atmosphere to form a solution. Copper (II) sulphate
Observation and explanation. absorbs some water vapour from the
When air is bubbled through lime water, a white atmosphere and becomes damp. This explains the
suspension forms on the surface of the solution. This change in colour from white to blue.
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The two experiments help us to understand that air 2. Using a dropping funnel, add hydrogen
contains water vapour as one of its peroxide carefully into a flat bottomed flask
components. containing manganese (IV) oxide powder.
3. Let the first few bubbles produced escape to
Oxygen gas the atmosphere then collect several gas
jars of oxygen to be used in the following
Oxygen occurs naturally as a free molecule (O2) in
experiments.
the atmosphere forming about 21% of air by
volume. Some processes such as photosynthesis Anwer the following questions
adds oxygen to the atmosphere. Oxygen
is an essential element in all living organisms. 1. Why was it necessary to allow the frst few
Without oxygen, there will be no life. bubbles of oxygen to escape?
2. What was the colour of oxygen gas?
Laboratory preparation of oxygen gas. 3. Does oxygen gas have any smell?
Apparatus and reagents Explanation
 Flat bottomed flask Hydrogen peroxide decomposes naturally into
 Trough oxygen and water. However the rate of
 Dropping funnel decomposition can be speeded up by use of a
 Clamp and stand catalyst such as manganese (IV) oxide. A
 Gas jar catalyst is a chemical substance that alters or
 Manganese (IV) oxide speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction but
 Hydrogen peroxide remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
 Water reaction.
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes in the presence of
Set up of the apparatus. manganese (IV) oxide catalyst as
follows.

Hydrogen peroxide  oxygen + water

2H2O2(aq)  O2(g) + 2H2O(l)

The first few bubbles of oxygen are allowed to

escape since it will be a mixture of oxygen
and air, hence not a pure sample.
Oxygen gas relights or rekindles a glowing splint.
This is the confirmatory test for
oxygen gas. Oxygen gas does not have any smell.

Oxygen gas can also be prepared by the action of

Procedure water on sodium peroxide as shown below.

1. Set up your apparatus as shown above 2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l)  4NaOH(aq) + 2O2(g)

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 their respective oxides and peroxides. For
example,

Magnesium burns brightly in oxygen with a white

flame to form a white solid magnesium oxide.

Magnesium + oxygen  Magnesium oxide

2Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2MgO (s)

Sodium burns in oxygen with a bright yellow flame

to form a yellow solid sodium peroxide.

Other ways in which oxygen can be prepared in the Sodium + oxygen  Sodium peroxide.
laboratory includes:
2Na (s) + O2 (g)  Na2O2 (s)
 Heating potassium permanganate.
03) Burning of non-metals in oxygen. Sulphur
 Heating potassium dichromate (VI). burn in oxygen vigorously with a blue flame
When required dry, oxygen is passed through to form white irritating and chocking fumes
concentrated anhydrous calcium chloride. of sulpur (IV) oxide.

Sulphur + Oxygen  Sulphur (IV) oxide

Physical properties of oxygen
S(s) + O2 (g)  SO2(g)
i. It is as colourless gas.
ii. It is oduorless. Large scale production of oxygen gas.
iii. It is a neutral gas. Has no effect on litmus
paper. Oxygen gas is produced on large scale by fractional
iv. It is slightly soluble in water. Hence distillation of liquid air. Air is a mixture of gases,
collected by over water method. (100cm3 of hence capable of being separated. The temperature
water dissolves about 4cm3 oxygen). of a gas falls as it expands when passing from a
v. It is 1.1 times denser than air. region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
Its molecules move further apart to work against
Chemicals properties of oxygen their attraction forces. During the process they lose
some energy causing the temperature to fall.
01) Oxygen gas relights a glowing splint. To
test a gas produced in a reaction if it is Fractional distillation of liquefied air
oxygen gas, lower a glowing splint in a
containing the gas.If the glowing splint burst Air is taken through various stages where some of
into flames, the gas is oxygen. This is the its components are removed. These stages are
confirmatory test for oxygen gas. shown in the diagram below.
02) Burning of substances in oxygen.
Substances burn in pure oxygen to form

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 02) It is used in welding to cut metals. A mixture
of oxygen and acetylene produces
oxyacetylene flame which is used to cut metals.
03) A mixture of hydrogen flame which is used to
melt iron when joining metal pieces together.
04) A mixture of oxygen and helium is used by
mountain climbers and deep sea divers.
05) It is used in steel production. A blast of oxygen
is usually blown through the molten pig- iron
to oxidize the impurities.
06) It is used as rocket fuel. A mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen is used as a propellant in rocket
engines.

The kinetic molecular theory

Air is first passed through electrically charged Gases are made up of tiny particles that are in
chambers to remove dust particles through continuous random motion. The rapid motion of
electrostatic precipitation. Dust free air is then these particles makes them to collide with one
passed through concentrated sodium hydroxide another and the walls of the container in which they
solution or Potassium hydroxide solution to are contained.
remove carbon (IV) oxide. Air is then cooled to -
The kinetic theory postulates that:
250C where water vapour is condensed and
crystalized out as ice where it is removed. The i. Gas particles are in constant random motion.
remaining air that is now free from dust, carbon ii. Gas particles have no volume since there is
(IV) oxide and water vapour is then taken through no definite space between them.
repeated expansion and then compressed to about iii. Gas particles have no force of attraction
200 atmospheres. At this stage, air will exist as a holding them.
pale blue liquid. It is then finally taken through iv. The pressure in a gas is due to collisions of
fractional distillation where nitrogen distills out in gas particles with the walls of the container.
the first fraction at -1960C then argon at -1860C as v. There is no energy loss or gain when
the second fraction and finally oxygen at -1830C. particles collide with one another and the
Fractional distillation is suitable in separating liquid walls of the container.
mixture of different boiling points. vi. All gases have the same average kinetic
energy at a specified temperature.
Uses of oxygen gas. vii. The lighter the particles making the gas, the
01) It is used in hospitals by patients having faster they move and vice versa.
breathing difficulties or those under anaesthetic viii. An increase in temperature causes a
drugs. proportional increase in kinetic energy of
gas particles which causes a corresponding
increase in the speed they move in.
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When the temperature of a gas is decreased, the  Oxygen is obtained in large scale from
kinetic energy of its particles decreases too. They fractional distillation of liquid air.
tend to move relatively slower leading to a fewer  Fractional distillation is used to separate
collisions. This will cause a proportional decrease in miscible liquid with different boiling points.
pressure. This explains why inflated tyres appear
flat when left to sit on a cold garage. The activated Work to do!
particles can move randomly to fill every place of
the container holding the gas. 1. In an experiment, 3.0g of copper turnings was
completely burnt in an open crucible after
When a liquid is heated to boiling, it changes its cooling the product weighed 3.6g.
physical state to gaseous state. For a liquid to boil, a) Why was there an increase in mass?
the vapour pressure on the surface of the liquid b) Give an equation for the reaction that took
must equal the atmospheric pressure. The place.
atmospheric pressure changes with the altitude. At c) State the observations made during the
low altitudes, atmospheric pressure is high and experiment.
vice versa. Water boiled at a high altitude will boil 2. Explain why old roofng sheets made of iron
faster than water boiled at low altitude area. appear brown in colour?
3. A certain colourless liquid was suspected to be
Pressure of a gas results from the collisions between
water. Suggest two chemical tests that can
the gas particles and the walls of the container. The
confirm its identity.
more the collisions, the higher the pressure of the
4. The set- up below was used by a student to
gas. When the temperature of a given gas is
prepare a certain gas in the laboratory. Use it to
increased the average kinetic energy of its particles
answer the following questions.
increases which increases their velocity. This
particle tends to move faster resulting in more
collisions with the walls of the container. As the
force from these collisions increases, the pressure
increases in the same proportion.

Summary of the unit.

 Air is a mixture of gases.

 Oxygen forms the active part of air.
 Oxygen does not burn. It only supports
combustion of substances. a) Identify the mistake in the set up.
 All substances burns in oxygen. b) Name gas P, apparatus X and substance Q.
 Oxygen forms about 20.9% of air by volume. c) What is the nature of the resulting solution
 Carbon (IV) oxide forms about 0.03% of air at the end of the experiments?
by volume. d) Give one property of gas P that makes it to
be collected by the method shown in the set
 Nitrogen forms about 78% of air by volume.
up.

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 e) Give two commercial uses of gas F.
f) Substance Q is used in the preparation of
hydrogen peroxide. What role does it play
in the reaction?

Unit 2
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 Atomic structure, periodic table and bonding
Introduction Protons (p) 1 +1
Electrons (e) 1/1840 -1
In secondary 1, you learnt that matter is made of tiny Neutrons (n) 1 0
particles. Different substances are made when particles The number of protons is equal to the number of
combined in different forms to form various substances electrons. For this reason, the atom is considered
around us. Each substance consists of smaller electrically neutral.
substances called elements. Elements are made of
In a neutral atom,
smaller particles called atoms. Atom is the smallest
particle of an element that takes part in chemical Number of protons = Number of electrons
reactions (chemical combinations).
This means that each proton(+ve) has an electron (-ve)
The structure of an atom as a partner.

Figure below shows the structure of the atom. Atomic Characteristics

The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom
is always referred to as the atomic number. The
symbol for the atomic number is Z. When the total
number of protons and neutrons are added we get
the mass number. The symbol for mass number is
A. We can use the numbers on any atom to work
out the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons.

Using the relationship:

It is made up of sub-atomic particles namely protons,
electrons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are A= Z+N
found at the centre of an atom. This location is called
the nucleus. Electrons are found outside the nucleus Where N is the number of neutrons in an atom, we
but surrounding the atom. They occur in energy levels can work out the number of neutrons as follows.
or orbits. The nucleus of the atom is positively charged
due to the presence of protons which are positively Example
charged. Neutrons carry no charge. Electrons are
negatively charged and keep on moving round the The mass number of sodium is 23 and the number
nucleus experiencing a force of attraction from the of protons in its atom is 11. Calculate the number
nucleus. of neutrons in an atom of sodium.

Table 2.1 Properties of sub-atomic particles Solution

Particle and its
Relative Mass Relative charge
symbol
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If A = Z + N then N = A – Z Z
Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Therefore, N = 23 – 11 = 12, the number of Carbon C 6 6 12
neutrons is hence 12. Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Sodium Na 11 12 23
The difference in number of neutrons leads to Chlorine Cl 17 18 35
difference in mass number. One element may have
more than one type of atom based on differences
From the Table above, we notice that mass
in number of neutrons. Such atoms are known as
number, A, is a sum of protons and neutrons i.e
isotopes. Isotopes have the same chemical
behaviour but slightly different physical properties. Mass number A = number of protons Z + number of
neutrons N. Therefore, to get the number of
Example: neutrons N, in the nucleus of an atom, use
There are two isotopes of chlorine. Equations:

• Chlorine – 37 N=A-Z

• Chlorine – 35 Worked Examples

With the knowledge of mass number, atomic 1) Calculate the number of neutrons in a
number and the chemical symbol, an atom of an chlorine atom given that the atomic
element can be represented using the symbol of number, Z = 17 and mass number, A = 35
the element. On the symbol, mass number is Solution
written as a superscript while the atomic number is
written as a subscript. Both are written before the The number of neutrons N = A – Z

35 – 17 = 18
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 2) A certain element X has atomic number 6
and mass number 14. Draw the atomic
Relationship between the number of protons, structure of element X showing all the sub-
neutrons and mass numbers of some elements atomic particles.

Solution

The sub-atomic particles to show are protons,

neutrons and electrons.
The table below shows the relationship.
Atomic number = number of protons = number of
Number
of Mass
electrons = 6
Atom Symbol protons: Neutrons number,
Atomic A
number,

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Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic There are some elements that exist as single atoms
number or A - Z while others are made up of a mixture of isotopes.
The tables below shows some of the elements in
= 14 – 6
isotopic forms.
= 8 neutrons
Table 2.2 Examples of isotopes
Deuterium
This means that we will show 6 protons and 8
Hydrogen (0.01%) Tritium
neutrons in the nucleus. The 6 electrons will be Hydrogen
(99.99%) Heavy (Trace)
indicated in the energy levels as shown below. hydrogen
No. of electrons 1 1 1
Mass number
1 2 3
(p + n)
No. of protons 1 1 1
No. of neutrons 0 1 2
Symbols of
1 2 3
isotopes of 1𝐻 1𝐻 1𝐻
hydrogen

Isotopes
Table 2.3 Examples of isotopes of carbon
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the
same number of protons but different number of Carbon- Carbon - Carbon
neutrons. Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the Carbon 12 13 -14
(98.9%) (1.1 %) (trace)
same element with the same number of protons
Symbols of 12 13 14
but different numbers of neutrons. 6𝐶 6𝐶 6𝐶
carbon isotopes
Protons 6 6 6
For example Carbon atoms exist in two forms
Neutrons 6 7 8
represented as 126𝐶 and 146𝐶 . Electrons 6 6 6
Mass number
The two atoms can be represented using diagrams 12 13 14
(p + n)
as shown in figure below.

Table 2.4 Isotopes of chlorine

Chlorine -35 Chlorine -37
Chlorine (75%) (25%)
Symbols of
35 37
chlorine 17𝐶 17𝐶
isotopes
Protons 17 17
Neutrons 18 20
Electrons 17 17
Mass number (p 35 37

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+ n) The proportions (abundance) in which the isotopes
occur in an element may be stated as:

Table 2.5 Isotopes of oxygen  Ratio

Oxygen - Oxygen - Oxygen -  Percentage of the total
Oxygen
16 17 18
Symbols of  A fraction of the total
16 17 18
oxygen 8𝑂 8𝑂 8𝑂
isotopes
Protons 8 8 8 Worked Examples
Neutrons 8 9 10
Electrons 8 8 8 1) Chlorine consists of two isotopes, namely
Mass number 16 17 18 chlorine – 35 and chlorine – 37 in the ratio
3:1 respectively. This is equivalent to 75% is
35
Cl and 25% is 37Cl. Calculate the relative
Relative atomic mass (RAM) atomic mass (R.A.M) of chlorine.
Relative Atomic Mass is the average mass of one atom Solution
1
compared to the mass of one atom of carbon-12
12
isotope. It tells us, on average, how many times heavier
Suppose the sample contains 4 atoms of chlorine, in
1 the ratio 3 : 1, respectively, then 3
or lighter an atom of a given element is, compared to 12
atoms will each have a mass of 35 and 1 atom will
the mass of carbon-12.
have a mass of 37.
Atoms are so tiny that their masses cannot be
The total mass of 35Cl = 35 x 3,
measured on a balance or scale directly. Hydrogen
is the lightest known element. Hydrogen atom is while the total mass of 37Cl = 37 x 1
therefore the lightest. It was initially used as the
Therefore, the average mass of chlorine atoms will be
standard element and its mass was arbitrarily fixed
as one atomic mass unit (a.m.u). As a result the 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 (35 × 3) + (37 × 1)
=
mass of any other element was found by comparing 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠. 4
its mass with that of hydrogen. The idea was to find
out how many times the atom of another element is The RAM = 35.5.
as heavy as one atom of hydrogen hence relative
2) Silicon (Z = 14) consists of three isotopes:
atomic mass (R.A.M) with a symbol (Ar).
silicon – 28, 92.2%, silicon – 29, 4.7% and
Calculation of the Relative Atomic Mass silicon - 30, 3.1%. Find the relative atomic
mass of silicon.
As mentioned earlier, many elements naturally
Solution
consist of a mixture of isotopes. The abundance in
which the isotopes occur in an element differs in Percentage abundance simply means that if we have
different elements. This is why the term ‘average’ 100 atoms of an element called silicon,
mass of one atom is used in the definition above.

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92.2 atoms will each have a mass of 28. Therefore, Energy level (Quantum shell)
28 ×92.2
the total mass of these = 100 Energy level or the quantum shell is the path in
29 ×4.7 which electrons move around the nucleus of an
4.7 atoms of silicon = 100 atom. The atom can have first or second or third
3.1 ×30 energy levels depending on the number of electrons
3.1 atoms have a mass = 100 it has as shown in the figure below.
𝟐𝟖 ×𝟗𝟐.𝟐 𝟒.𝟕 ×𝟐𝟗 𝟑.𝟏 ×𝟑𝟎
The total mass of all atoms = + +
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

The RAM = 28.1

3) A sample of an element X consists of

9 1
𝑜𝑓 16X and 10 of 18X. Show that the
10
relative atomic mass of X is 16.2.

Solution The first energy level (labelled 1) can hold up to

only two electrons and it must first be filled before
9 1 filling the second energy level. The second energy
RAM = (16 × ) + (18 × ) = 16.2
10 10
level (labelled 2) can hold a maximum of eight
Work to do! electrons. This energy level is filled before the third
energy level and before the third level. The third
1) Name the particles that contribute to the energy level (labelled 3) can hold a maximum of 18
mass of an atom. electrons, however when 8 electrons are filled there
2) An element X consists of isotopes of masses is a degree of stability; and other remaining
10 and 11 with a percentage of 18.7% electrons are added to the fourth energy level. For
and 81.3% respectively. Calculate the example, sodium has 11 protons and 11 electrons.
R.A.M of X. When arranging these electrons, the first energy
3) An atom Q has atomic number of 11 and a level takes a maximum of 2, the second takes a
relative atomic mass of 23. A teacher maximum of 8, and the third takes a maximum of 1
asked her students to model atom Q and since it is the only electron left out. This is written
place it in its position in Periodic Table. as 2,8,1. This can be shown by atomic structure as
How many electrons, protons and neutrons shown below for sodium and calcium respectively.
did the students model for atom Q?

Arrangement of electrons in an atom.

In an atom, electrons are outside surrounding the
protons and neutrons. They are found in the path
called orbit or the energy levels.

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 Work to do!
For Na 27
The symbol of an element is represented by 13X
P = 11, (a) Calculate the number of neutrons in X.
(b) State the number of electrons in the atom of X.
e = 11
(c) Write the electronic configuration of X.

The periodic table.

The periodic table is the arrangement of elements
in order of the increasing atomic numbers. The
periodic table is divided into periods and groups.
For Ca
The periods are the horizontal rows of the periodic
P = 20 table. The period is represented in Arabic numerals
such as 1, 2, 3 etc. The groups are the vertical
e = 20
columns of the periodic table. It is represented in
Roman Numerals such as I, II, III etc. The figure
below shows the periodic table.

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Periods of the periodic table. period 3 of the periodic table. Calcium with
20 electrons as its atomic number is 20 has
 These are the horizontal rows of the
its electrons arranged as 2, 8, 8, 2.
periodic table.
Therefore, calcium belongs to period 4 of
 All elements in the same period have the the periodic table. Why? Because of 4
same number of energy levels. energy levels.
 The period number to which an element  Atomic size decreases across the period
belongs corresponds to its number of from left to right of the periodic table. The
energy levels. For example, Sodium with atomic size is the distance between the
atomic number 11 has 11 electrons outermost energy level to the centre of the
arranged as 2, 8, 1. This tells us that Sodium atom. Across the period, each element has
has three energy levels in which its 11 one more electron than the previous
electrons are arranged. Hence, sodium is in element. There is also one extra proton

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 added in the nucleus of each element than The process of achieving a stable electron
added in the previous element’s nucleus. arrangement of 8 electrons in the outermost energy
The extra electron goes into the same level is known as octet rule. Note that in helium,
energy level and the extra positive charged stability is achieved by acquiring two electrons in
on the nucleus due to extra proton the outermost energy level. This is known as duplet
increases the attraction on the electrons rule respectively. In order to achieve a more stable
outermost electron arrangement of 2 or 8 electrons,
and makes the atom slightly smaller.
electrons must be gained or lost in the outermost
Groups of the periodic table. energy level. When an atom gains or loses an
electron or electrons, the particle formed is charged
Groups are the vertical columns of the periodic either negatively (–ve) or positively (+ve). Such a
table. There are 8 groups in the modern periodic particle is called an ion. The electron(s) gained or
table. The following are the general characteristics lost by an element is the outermost electron.When
of the groups of the periodic table. the electron is gained, the ion formed is the negative
ion and is called anion. when the electron is lost, the
 Elements of the same groups have the same ion formed is positive ion and is called cation. All
number of electrons in the outermost the metals form ions by lose of electrons and they
energy level. For example, elements with 6 therefore form cation. All non-metals form ions by
electrons in the outermost energy level. gain of electrons and they therefore form anions.
 Elements of the same group have similar
Formation of ions by metals such as Lithium
chemical properties.
and magnesium.
 Atomic size increases down the group as
more electron shells are added. A lithium atom has an electron arrangement of 2.1.
 Elements in the same group have a It has only one electron in the outermost energy
common valency. level. For it to be stable, it can either lose one
electron to have an electron arrangement of 2 or
At this level, the periodic table of the first 20 gain seven electrons to attain an arrangement of 2.8.
elements should only be studied. More energy will be required for the atom to gain 7
electrons than to lose 1 electron. Therefore, it is
Ion formation easier for a lithium atom to lose 1 electron to form
an ion called Lithium ion written as Li+ (Cation) as
Group VIII elements are described as stable. This
shown below.
means that their outermost energy levels have the
maximum number of electrons that they can
possibly accommodate. All other elements react by
acquiring group VIII element electron arrangement
of 8 or 2 electrons in the outermost energy levels.
They do this by gain or lose of electrons.

Octet duplet rule

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For magnesium, it is easier to lose two electrons
than gain six electrons. Therefore a magnesium ion
is formed by loss of two electrons forming cation of
type Mg2+ as follows.

F- and S2- are anions. They are negatively charged.

Negatively charged ions are called
anions. They are formed when a neutral atom gains
one or more electrons.

Li+ and Mg2+ are called cations. This is because they Ionization energy and electron affinity
are positively charged ions. Cations are formed
when atoms lose one or more electrons. Group III We have seen from the structure of atoms that
metals also lose three electrons to form cation of protons in the nucleus which are positively charged
type M3+ where M is a metal. (+ve) attract electrons which are negatively charged
(–ve) and located in the energy levels. Therefore, in
Formation of ions by non-metals. order to remove electron, we must overcome this
force of attraction. In other words we must supply
All non-metals form ions by gain of electrons. The non-
energy to pull off the electron(s). The energy
metals include Sulphur, flourine, chlorine etc.
supplied is called ionization energy.
Sulphur atom has the electron arrangement of 2:8:6. The equation for loss of electrons is represented as:
For sulphur it is easier to gain two electrons than to
lose electrons. Therefore, a sulphur ion is formed by M(g) → M+ (g) + e-, M-represents a metal atom
gaining electrons A fluorine atom has the electron If an atom loses 2 electrons the equation is as
arrangement of 2.7. For fluorine atom to attain a follows:
stable electron arrangement of 2.8, it will either lose M(g)  M2+ (g) + 2e–
seven electrons or gain one electron respectively. Note the charge on the ion is the same as the
Much more energy will be required for fluorine to number of electrons lost. If an atom loses three
lose seven electrons than to gain one electron. For electrons, then the charge will be 3+, etc
this reason it is easier for fluorine to gain one M(g) → M3+ (g) + 3e–
electron than to lose the seven electrons. Therefore,
Therefore, Ionization energy is defined as the
a fluorine atom forms a fluoride ion by gaining one
minimum amount of energy required to remove
electron. electron(s) from an atom in gaseous state.

Electron affinity
We have seen that non-metals gain electron(s) to
attain stability, remember that electrons are
negatively charged. Therefore, when an electron

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tries to enter the outermost energy level, it will be are held together by ionic bond is sodium chloride
repelled by the electrons which are already there. So and they are therefore called ionic compounds.
some “force” is required to put the electrons into the
energy level. This “force” is a form of energy. This Formation of sodium chloride (Ionic bond in NaCl)
energy is known as electron affinity. The ions
formed are always negatively charged. A sodium atom contains 11 protons and has an
For example, electronic arrangement of 2.8.1. The arrangement
Cl(g) + e- Cl-(aq) differs from the nearest noble gas electronic
S(g) + 2e-  S2-(aq) structure, that of neon, 2.8 by the presence of one
extra electron in the third energy level. On the other
hand, a chlorine atom contains 17 protons and has
Bond formation
the electronic arrangement of 2.8.7. It differs from
The electronic arrangement of noble gases, as the nearest noble gas electronic arrangement, that of
discussed earlier, is very stable. For example, argon, 2.8.8, by missing one electron in the third
helium 2, neon 2.8 and argon 2.8.8. They have the energy level. In order to attain the stable noble gas
stable duplet (2) for helium and octet (8) for the electron arrangement, a sodium atom would have to
others, in the outermost energy levels. lose the electron in the outermost energy level. The
Consequently, noble gases are in most cases chlorine atom would need to take one electron into
chemically unreactive and do not form compounds its outer energy level to gain the noble gas structure.
with other elements. As they do this they end up During ionic chemical bonding of sodium and
forming chemical bonds. The tendency among other chlorine atoms, the single electron from the
elements is to strive to attain the stable noble gas outermost energy level of sodium atom is
electron arrangement. As they do this they end up transferred to the outermost energy level of the
forming chemical bonds. Some will do this by chlorine atom as shown in the figure below.
donating electrons; others by accepting them;
and still others will share electrons. A chemical
bond is therefore a lasting attraction between
ions, atoms or molecules that enables formation
of chemical compounds.

Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is also known as electronic bond and
it involves complete transfer of electrons from one
atom to another. This results in formation of
opposite charges which attract each other forming a
bond. This kind of bond is referred to as
electrostatic attraction since each atom carries a This can sometimes be represented as shown in the
fxed (static) charge. The force holding the two ions diagram below since sodium has lost its outermost shell.
together is known as electrovalent bond or ionic
bond. An example of a compound whose particles

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A sodium ion is positively charged because of the
one excess positive charge. Similarly chloride ion is
negatively charged because of the one excess
negative charge. These ions have opposite charges
and therefore attract each other as shown below.

The following diagrams show more formation of Structure of sodium chloride

ionic bonds.
The structure of sodium chloride contains numerous
sodium and chloride ions in equal proportions. The
electrical attraction (electrostatic attraction)
resulting from their opposite charges constitutes the
ionic bond and therefore attract. The ions arrange
themselves into a rigid solid shape called a crystal.
Each sodium ion is surrounded by six (6)
equidistant chloride ions and vice versa as shown
below.

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 Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is a bond formed when two or
more atoms share a pair of electrons. Each of the
atoms contribute an electron to be shared. It can be
between atoms of the same element or different
elements. The electrons to be shared can be
contributed by only one of the combining atoms as
well. When the electrons to be shared are
contributed by one species, a special type of
The ions form a giant ionic structure. The attraction
covalent bond called a dative or coordinative
forces between the ions are strong and therefore the
bond is formed. An example is the bond between
ions are not free to move but they vibrate within a
hydrogen molecule, (H2) It has two hydrogen atoms
given space. Consequently the melting point of
linked by a covalent bond. Two hydrogen atoms
sodium chloride is high. In solid form, it is a non-
combine by each contributing an electron. Then
conductor of electricity. We will see later that when
they share the electron pair equally. They have the
sodium chloride is melted sodium ions and chloride
stable electron duplet arrangement i.e. frst energy
ions separate and thus their forces of attraction are
level with 2 electrons. The shared pair is the
greatly reduced. When an electric current is applied,
covalent bond. Sometime the shared pair is
the ions in molten sodium chloride are free to move
represented by a short line (-) H (-)H or the pair can
thereby conducting electricity. Also note that the
be shown as HxH. Another example is bond
number of electrons lost from, or added to, the
formation in a chlorine molecule (Cl2).These two
outermost energy level of the atom of an element
atoms have each an electronic arrangement of 2.8.7
during ionic bonding is equal to the combining
with 17 protons. If no other element is available
power (valency) of that element. Only the
from which electrons may be obtained to make
outermost energy level electrons are involved in
these atoms have a noble gas electronic structure
ionic bonding. The number of ions involved must
such as argon (2.8.8), a shared pair of electrons is
balance the valency requirements of elements.
formed. Each chlorine atom contributes one
Properties of ionic compounds electron to the shared pair as follows:

1) Ionic compounds are electrolytes (solutions

that conduct electric current) when they are
in solution or molten form.
2) They have high melting points (non-
volatile).
3) They are generally soluble in water (polar
solvent).
4) Ionic compounds are insoluble in organic
In the chlorine molecule the stable electron octet
liquids like benzene or propanone.
arrangement for each chlorine atom is achieved.
5) They are usually crystalline solids.
Some atoms can share more than one pair of

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electrons. The covalency of an atom is the number One of the atoms has a lone pair of electrons. This
of electron pairs which it shares. Notice also that lone pair is shared by an atom or ion that needs
atoms of different elements can also form covalent them to attain stability. For example, ammonia
bonds like in carbon (IV) oxide as shown below. molecule has a lone pair of electrons. This lone pair
can be donated to hydrogen ion (H+) from an acid to
form the ammonium ion, NH4 +. The nitrogen atom
is said to be a “donor” and the hydrogen ion is said
to be an “acceptor”. The diagram below shows how
the electrons contributed by one atom are shared.

Properties of covalent bonds

When candle wax is heated, it melts at a
temperature between 46 C and 68 C. Cooking oil The representation of a co-ordinate bond is →. The
does not dissolve in water but it dissolves in arrow points from the donor atom to the acceptor
ethanol. These are some of the properties of atom as shown above. The hydrogen ion contributes
covalent compounds. Others are: the charge on the ion formed.

1) They are non-electrolytes (don’t conduct The metallic bonding

electric current) when in molten or solution
form. The outermost energy level electrons in metals are
2) They have usually low melting and boiling relatively few. When the atoms of metals are closely
points. packed, each metal atom loses its outer electron(s)
3) They are often insoluble in water. which form a “sea” of free electrons (delocalised
4) They are usually soluble in organic solvents mobile electrons). The resulting positive ions are
like benzene and propanone. embedded in the “sea” of electrons as shown below.
5) Most of them are gaseous at room
temperature or volatile liquids.

Co-ordinate (Dative) bonding

A co-ordinate bond is a covalent bond in which
both electrons shared come from only one atom.
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 comparing soldiers matching on parade and
others matching through a city crowd.
2) Metals have high boiling and melting
points. Metallic bonding is very strong in
some metals like copper, iron, but weak in
others like sodium and potassium, which can
be cut with a knife. Moving across a period
(e.g. period 3) of the periodic table, the
number of valency delocalised electrons
There is attraction between the ions and electrons. increases and therefore the strength of the
This kind of electrostatic attraction between the metallic bonds increases. The melting point
positive ions and the delocalised electrons form the increases from sodium to aluminium. The
metallic bond. The ions arrange themselves into a change in melting point from magnesium to
giant metallic structure. The electron sea and the aluminium is not very big. This is probably
positively charged ions are responsible for the because not all the three electrons in
different properties of metals. aluminium are involved in metallic bonding.
3) They are hard with high density. As the
Properties of metals strength of metallic bond increases across
Some properties of metals include: the period, the pull of positive ions towards
each other increases thus also increasing the
1) They are good conductors of heat and density of the metals.
electricitys These delocalised electrons can
move on application of an electric current or Hydrogen bonding
heat. This explains why metals are good
A hydrogen bond is the electrostatic attraction
conductors of electricity and heat. The
between two polar groups that occur when a
thermal and electrical conductivity also
hydrogen (H) atom covalently bond to highly
increases across the period because of the
electronegative atom such as Nitrogen (N), Oxygen
increase in the number of valency electrons
(O) or Flourine (F) which is attracted to another
(delocalised electrons). It might be expected
highly electronegative atom nearby. The bonded
that increase in temperature would speed the
electrons spend more time around the highly
movement of free electrons, with a
electronegative element. This makes it develop a
consequent increase in electrical
partial negative charge while hydrogen develops a
conductivity. In general, however, the
partial positive charge. The molecule is said to be
electrical conductivity of metals decreases
polar. For example in a water molecule (H2O),
with increase in temperature. This is because
oxygen atom attracts electrons more than hydrogen.
increasing temperature produces increased
Therefore, the water molecule is represented like
thermal vibration within the metal structure.
this below.
This upsets the regularity within the crystal
and interferes with the ease of movements of H – O – H
electrons within the crystal. It is just like

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The water molecules can combine together using
the polar ends. The attraction between
the polar end of the hydrogen () and the polar
end of the oxygen () is called hydrogen
bond. Therefore water has hydrogen bonds between
molecules. Had it not been the presence of
hydrogen bonds, water would be in gaseous state at
room temperature and pressure. The hydrogen bond
in water is shown below.

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 Unit 3
Formation of salts and electrolysis
Introduction  Action of an acid on a metal.
 Action of an acid on an insoluble base
You are already familiar with the ‘common salt’ or (metal oxide or hydroxide).
sodium chloride which we add to our food every  Action of an acid on an insoluble carbonate.
time we eat. Sea water also contains a lot of sodium  Action of an acid on an alkali.
chloride and for many years sodium chloride has
been used in food preservation. However, in On the other hands insolube salts are prepared by
Chemistry, the term salt is widely used; many of the direct combination of elements or precipitation
chemicals we study in elementary courses in methods.
chemistry are salts. We shall see in this unit that the
Preparation of soluble salts
term salt has a more general meaning. We learnt in
Secondary 1 that acids are compounds which 1. Reaction of a dilute acid with a metal
contain hydrogen which may be replaced by a metal
to give a salt and hydrogen. This reaction may be Preparation zinc (II) sulphate.
represented as follows:
Apparatus and chemicals
Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
 beaker (100 cm3)
Meaning of salt  flter funnel
 flter papers
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen  evaporating dish
ions of an acid are fully or partially replaced by a  conical flask
metal ion (or ammonium radical). The process  bunsen burner
involves a neutralization reaction in which a base  dilute sulphuric acid
neutralises an acid. Names of salts are derived from
 zinc
the metal or ammonium radical and the acid radical
from which they are formed. Procedure

Methods of preparing salts 1. Pour 50 cm3 dilute sulphuric acid (VI) into a
beaker.
Salts that dissolve in water are said to be soluble 2. Add zinc granules.
salts while those that do not dissolve in water are 3. State what you observe
insoluble salts. The method chosen for preparing a 4. If the reaction is too slow, add a little copper
particular salt depends on solubility of the salt in (II) sulphate solution and warm gently, but
water. There are several methods of preparing salts. do not boil.
Soluble salts can be prepared by any of the
following methods:
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 5. When all zinc has reacted, add more and formed. When excess water is evaporated and we let
wait until it has all reacted. Add more again the saturated solution cool slowly, big crystals form.
until some remains unreacted. Crystals incorporate water as they form. This water
6. Filter off the excess zinc and solid is known as water of
impurities and collect the filtrate in a conical crystallization and gives shape to the crystals. This
flask. explains why the salt formed when we evaporate the
7. Heat the filtrate for sometimes to boil off filtrate to dryness is a white powder. All hydrated
excess water until crystals begin to form. salts contain water of crystallization. But the
8. The crystals are filtered off and gently number of water molecules differ in different
pressed between filter papers to dry. crystals.

The diagram below shows this method. Metals, such as sodium, potassium and calcium
react vigorously with acids. They should not be
used to prepare salts by the method of
crystallization. Other metals such as copper, silver
and mercury do not react with acids and hence
cannot be used to prepare salts by this method. Lead
metal when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid or
dilute sulphuric acid forms an insoluble salts (lead
(II) chloride or lead (II) sulphate) which coats the
metal preventing further reaction. Therefore, lead
The following is the equation for the reaction. metal is not suitable for preparing salts by
crystallization method.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2. Action of dilute acid on insoluble metal
Magnesium sulphate crystals and iron (II) sulphate
oxides or hydroxides eg. copper (II)
crystals can be prepared in the same way using
sulphate starting from copper (II) oxide.
magnesium and iron filling respectively.
Copper (II) oxide is added to a beaker of warm
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
dilute sulphuric acid and the mixture is stirred
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq)  FeSO4(aq) + H2(g) gently. More of the oxide is added little at a time
until no more reacts, showing that all the acid has
Zinc nitrate are soluble salts which can also be been neutralized.
prepared by this method. When an acid comes into
contact with zinc, we observe bubbles. When CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l).
copper (II) sulphate solution is added to the reacting
mixture, it speeds up the reaction rate. Whenever Excess copper (II) oxide is filtered off and the
we add zinc and bubbles are observed, it means that filtrate evaporated until crystals begin to form
the acid is not used up. If more zinc is added and when it cools on a clean glass rod, which is dipped
some remain unreacted, it means all the acid has into the filtrate at regular intervals. the crystals are
reacted and a colourless solution of zinc sulphate

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filtered off and then pressed gently between filter phenolphthalein is added. Dilute acid is added from
papers to dry. the burette into the soluble hydroxide as shown in
the figure below.
Magnesium sulphate, lead nitrate and zinc sulphate
can also be prepared by the same method.

3. Action of dilute acid on metal carbonates

or metal hydrogen carbonates e.g. lead
nitrate from lead carbonate.

All carbonates or hydrogen carbonates react with

dilute acid to produce carbon (IV) oxide and the
metal salt. When lead (II) carbonate is added to
nitric acid, effervescence of a colourless gas called
carbon(IV) oxide gas occurs. Note that the steps are
the same as the previous ones for making this salt.

PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Other soluble salts that can be prepared in a similar

way from the carbonates or hydrogencarbonates
include; Copper (II) sulphate, copper nitrate,
magnesium sulphate and zinc (II) sulphate. Add the acid at different intervals until the colour
of the indicator changes to pink. Having noted the
However, if the following carbonates are used with volume of the acid used, the solution is poured
the dilute acids as paired, the reaction will stop
away as the indicator would colour the salt formed
quickly before all the carbonate has reacted.
from it. The whole process is repeated using the
 CaCO3(s) and H2SO4(aq) same volume of the same solution of the acid and
 PbCO3(s) and H2SO4(aq) the hydroxide without adding the indicator. The
 PbCO3(s) and HCl(aq) solution is evaporated until it forms crystals when
cooled on a clean glass rod, which is dipped into
The salts formed are insoluble and will form a the solution at regular intervals. The crystals are
coating on the carbonate preventing further reaction.
filtered off and then pressed gently between filter
Calcium sulphate is only slightly soluble. Lead (II)
papers to dry.
chloride is soluble in hot water.
When we want to fill a pipette, it is advisable to use
4. Action of dilute acid on metal hydroxide
a pipette filler to avoid sucking the liquid into the
(alkali) e.g sodium chloride from sodium
mouth accidentally. This method of preparing a salt,
hydroxide. involves the neutralization of an acid with an
A known volume of a soluble hydroxide is pipetted alkali, for example sodium hydroxide or a soluble
carbonate such as sodium carbonate. It is necessary
into a conical flask and 2-3 drops of
to use an indicator because both the reactants and

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products are colourless and it would be difficult to any sulphate could have been used instead of
know the neutralisation point or end point. If we sulphuric acid for this preparation; for example
evaporate the solution with the indicator, our salt sodium sulphate.
would be coloured. If we do not want to run the Lead (II) nitrate + sodium sulphate →lead (II) sulphate + sodium nitrate

burette twice, we can boil the solution with the Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
coloured indicator for 5 minutes with animal
charcoal and then flter off the charcoal. The Preparation of insoluble salts by direct
charcoal absorbs the colour of the indicator and the combination of elements.
filtrate is colourless. Then we evaporate to get a
Some salts can be made by directly reacting
colourless salt. This method of preparing a soluble
together the two elements that make them. This
salt using a soluble base is known as
process is called direct combination or synthesis.
neutralisation.
The two elements combine to produce one
Preparation of insoluble salts substance. Usually energy in form of heat is
required to make the two elements combine
Precipitation method for preparing insoluble salt chemically. The reaction between sodium and
chlorine gas is an example of direct combination of
The methods we have discussed so far are used to
the elements. Note that not only insoluble salts but
prepare soluble salts. However, some salts are
also soluble salts cab be prepared by this method.
insoluble in water. For example lead (II) sulphate,
silver chloride, and barium(II) sulphate among 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl(s)
others. Such salts are prepared by a method known
as precipitation or double decomposition. Writing ionic equations involving salts
When dilute sulphuric (VI) acid or any other soluble Reactions that take place between ionic compounds
sulphate is added to the lead nitrate dissolved in water can be recorded in a much
solution, a white insoluble salt is formed. This simpler manner. The ions are free to move and
insoluble product is also called a precipitate. react. When a chemical reaction takes place
This method of preparing salts is called between ionic compounds, it may happen that only
precipitation or double decomposition. A certain ions undergo changes while others do not.
precipitate is a solid that forms out of a solution. In You will remember from Unit 2 that ionic
this method, we start with solutions of substances; compounds are made of a lattice of ions that are
therefore both must be soluble in water. When we rigidly fixed in solid form. When ionic compounds
mix the two solutions, they exchange ions as shown are dissolved in water, the ions are set free.
in the following equation. Knowledge of solubility of salts in water is very
crucial when writing ionic equations. This assists
Lead (II) nitrate + dilute sulpuric (VI) acid →lead (II)sulphate + nitric acid
very much so that correct symbols can be identified.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) →PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
When we write an ionic equation, we select the ions
Sulphuric acid is called hydrogen sulphate and that form what we see; in the case of the
precipitation reaction it is precipitate. We leave out
nitric acid is called hydrogen nitrate. This is to show
the ions that remain in solution. These are known as
how hydrogen ions are exchanged. A solution of

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spectator ions. Just as in a match, a spectator does and sodium hydrogencarbonate, (NaHCO3). It is a
not participate in the game. hydrated salt with the following formula.

For instance, in the reaction between lead (II) Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O

nitrate and sodium sulphate, the precipitate is lead
(II) sulphate. The ionic equation for this reaction Effect of exposing salts in air
would be written as:
Lead (II) ions + sulphate ions  Lead (II) sulphate Many substances absorb water from the air. For
Pb (aq) + SO4 (aq)  PbSO4(s).
2+ 2-
example ordinary impure sodium chloride (common
salt) becomes damp when exposed to air. Impure
In selecting ions that form what we can see, there salt contains magnesium chloride which absorbs
are three possibilities during ionic changes: water from the air. Pure salt does not absorb water.
 Formation of a precipitate. White anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns blue
 Evolution of a gas. when exposed to air.
 Formation of water. Substances that absorb water from the air but do not
This means that the reaction can be precipitation, gas form a solution are said to be hygroscopic. The
evolution or neutralization reaction. process is called hygroscopy. Example of
hygroscopic substance is anhydrous copper (II)
Steps followed when writing ionic equations sulphate.
 Step 1: Write down well balanced chemical Some salts e.g. calcium chloride absorb so much
equation for the reaction water from the air that it dissolves in it. Substances
 Step 2: Decide which substances are ionic like this are said to be deliquescent. The process is
and which ions are free in solution then omit known as deliquescence. Examples of such
the spectator ions by crossing the ions that compounds include sodium nitrate, calcium
appear on both sides of the equation. chloride, magnesium chloride and iron (III)
 Step 3: Rearrange the ions and rewrite the chloride.
equation in ionic form. Substances that lose water of crystallization to the
air are said to be efflorescent. The process is called
Work to do!! efflorescence. For example, a crystal of hydrated
sodium carbonate, when left exposed to air, slowly
1. Write an ionic equation for the reaction of
forms a white powder on its surface and finally the
sodium carbonate and barium chloride solutions.
crystal changes to powder. In other words it loses 9
2. Write the ionic equation of iron (III) chloride
of its 10 water molecules of crystallization to the air
with sodium hydroxide.
as shown in the following equation.
Double salts Sodium carbonate-10-water →Sodium carbonate-1-water + 9-water

Some salts exist as double salts, for example trona Na2CO3.10H2O(s) →Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)
which occurs naturally in lake Magadi in Kenya.
Trona contains both sodium carbonate, (Na2CO3) Determining solubility of salts

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When we dissolve substances such as sugar and and dissolved, the blue colour deepens. As further
common salt in water, we cannot see them in the portions are added, it gets to a point when no more
colourless liquid. But we know they are there copper (II) sulphate will dissolve. This means that
because we can taste the sugar or the salt in water. the solution has become saturated. The only way
The solid has been broken into tiny particles which we can tell a solution is saturated, is when we see
cannot be seen with the naked eye, nor with the some undissolved solute. If the solution is warmed
most powerful microscope. The particles will pass the undissolved solid dissolves. The hot solution
through the pores of a flter paper. These particles dissolves more solute. This indicates that the
and the water form a homogeneous mixture called a solubility of solid increases with rise in temperature.
solution. Substances such as salt and sugar which A saturated solution is therefore a solution which
dissolve in water are described as soluble. Solids contains as much solute as can be dissolved at a
such as sand and soil which do not dissolve are said particular temperature, and has some
to be insoluble. We say that a solution which undissolved solute.
contains only a little solute in a given amount of
solvent is dilute. But if a solution contains a lot of Solubility of salts
solute in a given amount of solvent we say it is We must learn and remember the soluble and
concentrated. If we evaporated more solvent, a insoluble salts because this will assist us in
solution becomes more concentrated. Eventually, indicating the state symbols when writing equations
the solution reaches a point that it cannot become especially during precipitation. As mentioned
any more concentrated while remaining a solution. earlier, precipitation is a method used to prepare
If any more solvent is evaporated, some solid solute insoluble salts from solutions of two soluble salts.
will come out of solution and form crystals. This is
because the solution is saturated.

To make a saturated solution

The frst portion dissolves and a faint blue solution

is formed. As more and more portions are added
Solubility pattern of various types of salts
Salt Soluble Insoluble
Potasium salts All are soluble None is insoluble
Sodium salts All are soluble None is insoluble

Ammonium salts All are soluble None is insoluble

All are soluble Except silver chloride,

Chlorides
Lead (II) chloride (soluble in hot water)
Nitrates All are soluble None is insoluble
Only K, Na and NH
Carbonates Others are insoluble
are soluble

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 Except lead sulphate, barium
Sulphates All are soluble sulphate, but calcium sulphate
is slightly soluble

Metal carbonate →metal oxide + carbon (IV) oxide

Action of heat on salts
As we have seen salts are compounds which contain The carbon (IV) oxide produced reacts with calcium
metal or ammonium ions which, are positively hydroxide solution forming a white precipitate of
charged (cations) and acid radicals which are calcium carbonate as follows:
negatively charged (anions). These opposite charges Calcium hydroxide + carbon (IV) oxide →calcium carbonate + water
attract each other strongly. Strong electrostatic
forces of attraction hold the ions together. In some Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) →CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
salts, the forces of attraction are so strong that
The tiny particles of the precipitate are suspended in
application of heat cannot break them. However, in
the liquid.
some cases strong heating decomposes some salts
and we get new products Examples
 Zinc carbonate decomposes on heating to
1) Action of heat on carbonates and
form a yellow solid that turns white on
hydrogencarbonates cooling
and a colourless gas is given off.
Carbonates and hydrogencarbonates are salts of
ZnCO3(s)  ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
carbonic acid, H2CO3. There are two solid (white) (yellow when hot white when cold)
hydrogencarbonates, namely, potassium  Lead (II) carbonate decomposes on heating
hydrogencarbonate (KHCO3) and sodium to form a brown solid that turns yellow on
hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3). The other known cooling and colourless gas.
hydrogencarbonates exist only in solution. These
PbCO3(s)  PbO(s) + CO2(g)
are: (White) (Red-brown when hot and yellow when cold)
 Black solid is formed when copper (II)
 calcium hydrogencarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2. carbonate is heated.
 magnesium hydrogencarbonate, Mg(HCO3)2 CuCO3(s)  CuO(s) + CO2(g)
(Green) (Black)
All metals form solid metal carbonates. However,
aluminium and iron(III) carbonates do not exist. All the carbonates of group I elements specifically the
carbonates of lithium, sodium and potassium do not
The effect of heat on metal compounds can be decompose on heating. All other carbonates decompose
linked to the reactivity series like the reaction of as shown above.
metals themselves. some carbonates are not
decomposed by heat (there is no effect on calcium Three products are formed when hydrogen
hydroxide solution. Potassium carbonate and carbonates are decomposed by heat. For instance,
potassium hydrogen carbonate and sodium
sodium carbonate are not decomposed by heat).
hydrogen carbonate decompose to metal
Other metal carbonates decompose on heating to carbonate, water and carbon(IV) oxide.
their respective metal oxides and carbon (IV) oxide.

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2KHCO3(s)  K2CO3(s) + CO2(s) + H2O(l) when a little of the nitrate is left, it explodes
on strong heating.
However, ammonium carbonate when heated NH4NO3(s)  N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)
decomposes into two gases namely ammonia,  Nitrates that decompose to form three
carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour. The water products. These nitrates decompose to the
vapour condenses on the cold part of the test tube. metal oxide, nitrogen(IV) oxide, (red-brown
It can be tested with anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride gas) and oxygen (colourless) gas. This
paper or anhydrous copper (II) sulphate. makes the gaseous product red-brown in
colour. The metal nitrates that give three
(NH4)2CO3(s)  2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) products include Calcium nitrate,
Magnesium nitrate, Zinc (II) nitrate, Copper
We mentioned earlier that sodium carbonate is not (II) nitrate and Lead (II) nitrate
decomposed by heat. The hydrated sodium 2Ca(NO3)2(s)  2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
carbonate when heated loses water of crystallization
as shown in the following equation.  Nitrates that decompose to give
corresponding metal and other two
Na2CO3.10H2O(s)  Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(g) products. These are nitrates of lower metals
in the reactivity series such as silver and
The reactivity series helps to explain the action of
heat on carbonates. Potassium and sodium are very mercury. They form metal oxides, nitrogen
reactive metals (top of the reactivity series). Hence (IV) and oxygen gas just like other nitrates.
as mentioned earlier their carbonates do not However, the oxides usually decompose to
decompose on heating. Calcium and magnesium free metal and oxygen. So the oxide formed
follow in the series. Their carbonates decompose during decomposition of the nitrate will
but at a higher temperature. The other carbonates decompose to the metal and oxygen. So, the
lower in the series decompose easily. For example
general equation is shown below.
copper metal is near the bottom of the series; copper
carbonate decomposes easily on warming. Hg(NO3)2(s)  Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2. Action of heat on nitrates Therefore, nitrates of metals high in the reactivity
When nitrate salts are heated, different products are series decompose on heating to give corresponding
formed based on the metal nitrates heated. This
nitrites and oxygen. Moderately reactive metal
enables the Chemists to classify nitrates as follows;
nitrates give corresponding metal oxides, nitrogen
 Nitrates that form two products only.
These are nitrates of group I metals specially (IV) oxide and oxygen on heating. Least reactive
the sodium and potassium nitrates and metals give corresponding metal, nitrogen (IV)
ammonium nitrates. Sodium nitrate and oxide and oxygen.
potassium nitrate melt to form colourless
liquid. On further heating, they slowly 3. Action of heat on sulphates
decompose forming metal nitrite and  Most sulphates do not decompose on
oxygen as shown below.
heating. The sulphates of potassium,
2NaNO3(s) →2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
Ammonium nitrate melts to a colourless sodium, lithium, calcium and magnesium
liquid, which decomposes to form nitrogen are too stable to decompose on heating.
(I) oxide and water. Note that Do not heat
ammonium nitrate in the laboratory because

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  Zinc, Iron and copper sulphates decompose  Extraction of metals. Calcium chloride is
when strongly heated to form oxides and used in the extraction of sodium metal.
acidic gas.
Electrolysis
2FeSO4(s)  Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Introduction
 Ammonium sulphate decomposes on heating
to form ammonia, sulphur (VI) oxide and Liquids such as acidified water, sodium chloride
water. solution, mineral acids and copper (II) chloride
solution conduct electricity. Molten or aqueous
(NH4)2SO4(s)  2NH3(g) + SO3(g) + H2O(l) solutions which conduct electric current and
 Hydrated salts such as hydrated copper (II) decomposed by it are called electrolytes. The
sulphate first give out their water of current decomposes the electrolyte as it passes
crystallization. On further heating, the through it. On the other hand, aqueous solutions
anhydrous salt then decomposes as shown such as sugar and urea do not conduct electricity.
below. They are known as non-electrolytes.

CuSO4.5H2O(s)  CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g) Definition of electrolysis and the electrolytic cell

CuSO4(s)  CuO(s) + SO3(g) Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound by

passing an electric current through it.
Uses of salts The set-up of apparatus shown in the figure below
is called an electrolytic cell.
 In controlling soil pH and plant growth.
 They can be used as fertilizers. The
examples of fertilizers are Ammonium
nitrate, Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium
phosphate and Sodium nitrate.
 Indigestion can be relieved by salts.
Examples are calcium carbonate and sodium
hydrogencarbonate.
 It can be used for baking. Sodium
hydrogencarbonate is used in baking. When
heated it produces carbon (IV) oxide which The graphite rods which carry the current into and
causes bread to rise. out of the electrolytes are called electrodes.
 Softening of hard water. Sodium carbonate Graphite is chosen because it does not react with the
is used to soften hard water. electrolyte or with the products formed during
 It can be used for melting ice on roads. electrolysis. Unreactive metal electrodes such as
Sodium chloride and other salts are poured platinum and copper can also be used as electrodes.
on roads to lower the freezing point of ice in The electrode connected to the positive terminal of
countries that experience winter. the battery is called anode. The electrode connected
to the negative terminal is called cathode.
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Conductivity of molten substance Why electrolytes conduct electricity
When we insert the electrodes in solid lead (II)
We have seen that some compounds when dissolved
bromide as shown below, the bulb does not light.
in water or when in molten state are electrolytes.
But the bulb lights when lead (II) bromide is heated These include sodium chloride and lead (II)
until it melts. This indicates that molten lead (II) bromide and most other salts. Compounds such as
bromide conducts electricity. It is an electrolyte. sugar do not conduct electricity when in solution or
Metal compounds in molten state are electrolytes. It molten form. Electrolytes are ionic compounds.
is also observed that other substances like sulphur, They contain charged particles called ions. In solid
form the ions are not free to move, therefore a solid
paraffin wax do not conduct electricity when in
ionic compound does not conduct electricity. The
solid or molten form. These are non-electrolytes. ions move if the solid is melted or dissolved in
water. The ions carry the charge through the liquid
and the current flows. The positively charged ions
are called cations and the negatively charged ions
are anions. During electrolysis the cations move to
the negative electrode (cathode) and the anions
move to the positive electrode (anode). Metals form
cations which move to the –ve cathode when an
electricity is passed though. Non-metallic elements
form anions and these move to the +ve anode.
Positive radicals and hydrogen ions move to the
cathode. Negative radicals move to the anode.

Why non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity

Electrolytes Non-electrolytes Bonding in non-electrolytes is covalent. When

 Sodium chloride dissolved, there are no charged particles (ions) to
solution carry an electric current. We learnt in unit 2 that a
 Copper (II)  Pure water covalent bond is formed when atoms share a pair of
chloride solution  Sugar solution electrons. In this way they form discrete molecules.
 Sodium  Paraffn wax Therefore nonelectrolytes exist in the form of
hydroxide  Molten sulphur molecules.
solution  Solid lead (II)
 Molten lead (II) bromide Electrolysis of molten compounds
bromide  Solid sodium An electrolytic cell is used to pass an electric
 Molten lead (II) chloride current through a molten ionic compound. After a
iodide  Ethanol compound has been melted, heat must be supplied
 Hydrochloric (alcohol) to keep the salt in molten state. The figure below
acid  Urea shows how ions occur in a binary compound and
 Sulphuric acid  Ethanoic acid how they move after melting the compound.
 Most salts in
molten or
aqueous form

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 Lead (II) bromide is a binary salt. In molten state it
produces two types of ions to be considered for
discharging. When electricity is passed through it,
the bulb lights brightly because molten lead (II)
bromide conducts an electric current i.e. it is an
electrolyte. Brown vapours are observed at the
anode. These is bromine fumes produced during
electrolysis. Beads of a grey solid are deposited on
When an ionic compound e.g. X+Y- is melted it the cathode and at the bottom of the crucible. This
produces X+ ions and Y- ions as follows: is lead metal. We can conclude that as the electric
X+Y-(s) →X+(l) + Y-(l) current passes through molten lead (II) bromide, it
When the switch is closed to complete the circuit, decomposes it to form lead metal and bromine. The
all +ve ions move to the cathode and all -ve ions following equations show what happens at the
move to the anode. As the current flow, a chemical electrodes.
reaction occurs at the electrodes. The ions lose the At the anode At the cathode
charge (they are discharged). Y– ions lose –
Br (l) ions Pb2+(l) ions
electron(s) while X+ ions gain electron(s). The
Move to the cathode
respective products are deposited on the surface of Move to the anode and and discharge by
each electrode, as shown in the figure below. are discharged by gaining electrons o
losing an electron and become lead atoms
become a bromine i.e.grey lead metal is
atom. formed. The metal is
Br (l)  Br2(g) + e-
–
deposited on the
cathode.
Bromine atoms
combine in pairs to
Pb2+(l) + 2e Pb(s)
form molecules
Br (g) + Br(g)Br2(l)

It is common to write one equation once we

The discharge of ions occurs as shown in the understand that there are very many Br- ions in the
equations below melt as follows:
At the cathode
X+(l) + e-  X(s) 2Br–(l) →Br2(l) + 2e-
At the anode
Y (l)  Y(g) + e-
- Weak and strong electrolytes
Electrolysis of molten Lead (II) bromide Electrolytes are classified into weak electrolytes
and strong electrolytes. Weak electrolytes are
Note that this experiment should be performed in a those electrolytes which allow small amount of an
fume cupboard or in the open. Lead (II) bromide is
electric current to pass through them, thus they
an ionic compound. When melted the electrolyte
consists of two types of ions: - lead (II) ions (Pb2+) produce few ions in water. Examples of weak
and bromide ions (Br-). electrolytes include: Ammonium chloride,
methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, citric acid.
PbBr2(s)  Pb2+(l) + 2Br-(l)
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Strong electrolytes are those electrolytes that allow
large amount of an electric current to pass through
them, thus they produce many ions in water.
Examples of strong eletrolytes include: sodium
chloride, sulphuric(VI) acid, hydrochloric acid,
nitric(V) acid, potassium chloride.
Arrhenius theory states that: When an electrolyte
is dissolved in water, it gets separated into
electrcally positive and negative charged ions as
cations and anions.
The lower the anion is in the series, the easier it is
Preferential discharge of ions
to be discharged. For example, in a cell made of
When more than one type of ion migrates to an sodium chloride solution as the electrolyte. The ions
electrode, one of them is easily discharged at the anode will be chloride ions (Cl–) and hydroxyl
at the expense of another. This is referred to as ion (OH–). The hydroxyl ion will be preferentially
preferential discharge. discharged at the anode. At the cathode we shall
The factors affecting the preferential discharge of have sodium ion (Na+) and Hydrogen ions (H+), the
ion in electrolysis include: hydrogen ions shall be preferentially discharged at
the cathode. This same principle apply to cations as
1) The position of the ion in the shown below.
electrochemical series.
2) The concentration of the competing ions in
the electrolyte.
3) The nature of the electrode.

Position of ion in the electrochemical series (ECS)

For cations, the higher an ion is in the

electrochemical series the more difficult it is to
discharge. Ions of less reactive elements are more
easily discharged than those of the more reactive
elements i.e ions which are lower in the
electrochemical series. The table below shows the
ECS of anions.

Relative concentration of ions

This factor is very important for anions. Thus it

mainly affects the products formed at the anode.
The higher the concentration of the ions, the more

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easy for the ion to discharge. For example, in the Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution
electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride, the hydroxyl
ions are preferentially discharged at the anode. In When dilute sodium chloride solution is
the case of concentrated sodium chloride solution, electrolyzed as shown below, A colourless gas,
the chloride ions are preferentially discharged. which re-lights a glowing splint, is collected at the
anode. The gas is therefore oxygen. At the cathode,
Nature of electrodes a colourless gas is collected which burns with a
‘pop’ sound. This gas is hydrogen.
The choice of electrodes can alter the order of
discharge of ions. For example, if copper electrode Ions present in the electrolyte
is used as the anode during electrolysis of copper From sodium chloride Na+(aq), Cl- (aq)
(II) sulphate solution, neither OH- nor SO42- are From water H+(aq), OH- (aq)
discharged. Instead, the copper electrode dissolves. The positive ions (cations), Na+ and H+ migrate to
But if we use graphite electrode as anode, OH- ions the cathode. The negative ions, (anions) Cl- and OH,
are discharged. Oxygen and water will be formed. migrate to the anode. This is because they are
attracted by the oppositely charged electrodes.
At the cathode At the anode
Ions present Na+(aq), H+(aq)
Both ions move to the cathode. H+ ion is
Ions present Cl-(aq), OH-(aq)
discharged in preference to Na+ ion
Both ions move to the anode. OH- ion is
because it is lower than Na+ ion in the
discharged because it is lower in electrochemical series, OH- is
electrochemical series. It gains an
discharged by losing an electron
electron to form H atom.
OH– (aq)  OH (g) + e
H+(aq) + e–  H (g)
Four OH– ions are discharged, the
The hydrogen atoms combine to
OH groups interact to form one mole
form H2(g) molecules.
of oxygen and two moles of water as
H(g) + H(g)  H2(g)
shown below, releasing 4 electrons
Therefore;
which move to the cathode.
2H+(aq) + 2e–  H2(g)
Overall reaction
But the 4e– produced at the anode
4OH– (aq) O2 (g) + 2H2O(l) +4e–
must react hence overall equation is
4H+(aq) + 4e–  2H2(g)

Na+ and Cl– ions remain in solution forming sodium Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
chloride..
Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid is also known
as electrolysis of acidified water.

Ions present in the electrolyte

From sulphuric (VI) acid, H+(aq), SO42– (aq)

From water H+(aq), OH– (aq)

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At the cathode At the anode
Ions H+(aq) Ions SO42-(aq), OH-(aq)
H+ions moves to the cathode and Both ions move to the anode
gain an electron to form H atom. OH- ion is lower in the electrochemical
H+(aq) + e–  H (g) series and is therefore discharged
Since hydrogen is a diatomic gas, the atoms combine preferentially to SO42– ion by loss of one
to form a hydrogen molecule. electron.
H (g) + H (g)  H2 (g) OH- (aq)  OH (g) + e
The 4e– from the anode are taken up by The OH(g) ions interact to form 1 mole of O2 and 2
H+ ions giving 2 moles of hydrogen gas. moles of water
Overall ionic equation Overall ionic equation.
4H+(aq) + 4e-  2H2(g) 4OH-(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e–

The volume of hydrogen liberated at the cathode is

twice the volume of oxygen produced at the anode. The solution contains Mg2+ (aq), SO42– (aq) from
That is because as more water dissociates to replace magnesium sulphate and H+(aq), OH-(aq) from
the discharged OH-(aq) ions the concentration of H+ water.
(aq) ions at the cathode increases doubling the During electrolysis of magnesium sulphate solution,
volume of hydrogen gas produced at cathode. the movement of ions is as follows.
Electrolysis of magnesium sulphate solution

Anode Cathode
H+ and Mg2+ions migrate here
OH– and SO42– ions migrate here
H+ ions gain electrons and are
OH– ions are preferentially dis
discharged preferentially to Mg2+ ions
charged because they are lower in the
because they are lower in the electro
electrochemical series. Oxygen is liberated as shown in
chemical series forming hydrogen gas.
the equation below
2H+(aq) + e-  H2(g).
4OH–(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e–
Account for the 4e– from the anode.
which burns with a ‘pop’ sound is collected. This
gas is hydrogen.
Electrolysis of brine
Ions present
Brine is the concentrated sodium chloride solution. From sodium chloride Na+(aq), Cl- (aq)
During its electrolysis, a green-yellow gas with a From water H+(aq), OH- (aq)
choking irritating smell evolves at the anode. The
gas is chlorine. At the cathode, a colourless gas
At the cathode At the anode

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 Cl- (aq), OH- (aq)
+ +
Na (aq), H Although OH- ion is lower in the electrochemical
H+ ions are discharged in preference to Na+ ions series than Cl-, the concentration of Cl– ions at the
because H+ ion is lower in electrochemical series than cathode is greater than the OH- ions.
Na+ ion Therefore, Cl- ions are discharged in preference to
2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2 (g) OH- ions
2Cl-(aq)  Cl2 (g) + 2e

Note that the concentration has determined the At the cathode At the anode
product at the cathode. H+ and Cl- ions are • Cu2+(aq), H+(aq) • SO42– (aq), OH– (aq)
discharged leaving Na+ and OH- ions. both move to the both move to the anode,
cathode. • OH– ions preferentially
• Cu2+ ions gain lose electrons being
Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution electrons, to form lower in the
using inert electrodes (carbon rods) copper which appears electrochemical series.
as a brown They combine to form
Ions present deposit, at the cathode water and oxygen
From copper (II) sulphate, Cu2+(aq), SO42–(aq), i.e Cu2+ ions Ionic equation.
are preferentially 4OH–(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e–
From water H+(aq), OH–(aq) Bubbles of oxygen gas
discharged
Ionic equation: are observed at the
Copper (II), [Cu2+], ions, give copper (II) sulphate
Cu (aq) + 2e–  Cu(s) anode.
2+
solution the blue colour. As they are discharged and
deposited at the cathode as copper solid, the colour
Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution
of the solution fades and if we continue with using copper electrodes
electrolysis, the solution finally turns colourless and Ions present:
acidic. Further electrolysis of the colourless solution From copper (II) sulphate,Cu2+(aq), SO42- (aq)
would give the same products as electrolysis of From water H+(aq), OH- (aq)
dilute sulphuric acid.
The electrodes must be cleaned to remove any oxide
that might be on the surface. The electrodes are
washed with water and propanone to ensure they are
completely dry. Loss in mass of the anode electrode
should be equal to the mass gained by cathode
electrode.

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At the cathode At the anode ampere (1A) flows through a circuit for 1 second
SO42-(aq) , OH-(aq) (1 s). That is to say,
These ions move to the 1C = 1 amp/sec or (As–1)
anode. We would expect
Cu2+(aq), H+(aq)
OH– ions to be oxidised. The quantity of electricity passed during electrolysis
These ions move to the is denoted by Q. Generally, the quantity of
But because of the nature
cathode. Cu2+ ions are electricity is given by
(type) of electrodes used
lower in electrochemical
i.e copper; none of the Q = It or C = A.s where A = amperes and s =
series and are
ions seconds.
preferentially discharged
is discharged.
by gaining electrons to
Instead,copper electrode Example
form a brown solid which
dissolves i.e.
is copper.
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e– Calculate the quantity of electricity passed when a
Cu2+(aq) + 2e–  Cu(s) current of 0.6 ampere flow for 50minutes.
Copper is an active
Copper is deposited on
electrode and it therefore
the cathode and it causes Solution
gets dissolved. This
an increase in mass of
process is called
cathode.
electrode ionisation and Q = It Or C = A s
it causes a decrease in Substituting values given
mass. C = 0.6 (50 60)
= 1800 C
Quantity of electricity So the quantity of electricity passed is 1800 C

Faraday’s first Law of electrolysis

We have seen that when we pass electricity through
an ionic compound in molten or solution form, it is
Faraday’s first law of electrolysis states that The
decomposed and we get products at the electrodes.
amount of substance consumed or produced at one
Experiments have shown that the mass or volume of
of the electrodes during electrolysis is directly
elements of the products formed depends on the
proportional to the amount of electricity that is
following factors:
passed through the electrolytic cell. When the
a) Amount of electricity passed.
quantity of electricity is doubled, the mass
b) Length of time taken to pass the steady
deposited is also doubled.
current.
c) Charge on the ions of the element making
Example
electrolyte.
The quantitative laws relating the amount of A student set up an experiment for the electrolysis
electricity passed during electrolysis, to the of copper (II) sulphate solution. A current of 0.5A
mass or volume of elements formed at the was passed through the circuit for 3860 seconds. A
electrodes were first formulated by Michael mass of 0.64g of copper was deposited.
Faraday. (i) Which electrode gained mass?
(ii) How many coulombs are needed to deposit one
The coulomb
mole of copper? (R.A.M of Cu = 64)
The coulomb is the practical unit used to measure
the quantity of electricity or charge. An electric Solution
current is produced in the opposite direction to the
flow of electrons in a circuit. 1 coulomb is the (i) The cathode gained mass
quantity of charges transferred if a current of 1- (ii) Quantity of electricity(Q) = Current x time
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 This number is called a Faraday’s constant
Q = It denoted by F. Faraday is defined as a quantity of
electricity required to deposit one mole of a substance
= 0.5 x 3860 from an ion with a single charge.
= 1930 C
This means 1930 C of electricity deposited 0.64 of For example, One mole of silver ions requires one
copper. faraday, 1F (1 mol of electrons) to discharge at the
However, we know that 1 mole of copper has a cathode.
mass of 64g. From the relative atomic mass (RAM)
given we then say: Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s).

If 1930 C can deposit 0.64g of copper One mole of copper (II) ions requires 2F (2 moles of
x C would deposit 64g of copper. electrons) to discharge at the cathode.
Cross multiply and solve for x.
1930𝐶 ×64𝑔 Cu2+(aq) 2e- → Cu(s)
x = 0.64𝑔 = 193,000 C
One mole of aluminum ions requires 3F (3 moles of
Alternatively, electrons) to discharge at the cathode.

0.64 Al3+(aq) + 3e- → Al(s)

Moles of copper deposited = = 0.01𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
64
Two moles of chloride ions require 2F to discharge at
1930C deposited 0.01 moles of Cu the anode.
y C will deposit 1 mol of Cu
1930 𝐶 ×1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 From the above examples, one mole of electrons is
y = 0.01 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 193,000𝐶
equivalent to 1F. 1F is equivalent to 96500C of charge.

We have seen how to work out the quantity of Faraday’s second law of electrolysis states that
electricity (charge) needed to deposit 1 mole of an when the quantity of eletricity is passed through
element. Now, let us see how we use the quantity of several electrolytes, the masses of the substances
electricity (coulombs) to work out the charge of an deposited are proportional to their respective
ion. chemical equivalent or equivalent weight.
Determining charges carried by ions using Example 1
quantity of electricity used
During electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution,
The charge on an ion, whether a cation or anion, a current of 0.5A was passed for a period 3860s.The
depends on its valency. It depends on the number of amount of metal deposited was 0.64g.
electrons lost, for cations or number of electrons (i) Calculate the charge carried by the metal ion.
gained, for anions. (ii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
(R.A.M of Cu = 64, 1F = 96500C)
The Faraday’s Constant
Solution
It has been found through many experiments that
(i). Q = It = 0.5 x 3860 = 1930C
when molten compounds and aqueous solutions are
electrolyzed, the quantity of electricity needed to So, 1930 coulombs deposited 0.64 g of copper
produce one mole of atoms of any element is
x coulombs would deposit 64 g of copper.
always 96500 coulombs or a multiple of 96500C.
Cross multiply and solve for x
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 1930 ×64 193000
x= = 193000 coulombs y= = 2𝐹
0.64 96500
1F = 96500 C
y F = 193000 C Since 1F = 1 mole of electrons, 2F means 2 moles
193000 of electrons were required. Therefore, the charge on
y= = 2𝐹
96500 the ion is +2.
(iv) M2+ (aq) + 2e-  M(s)
2F is the same as 2 moles of electrons. The charge
on the ion is +2. Application of electrolysis.
Ionic equation
Cu2+(aq) + 2e–  Cu(s)  Electroplating. This is the process of coating a
metal with another metal by the process of
Example 2 electrolysis. Electroplating is done to prevent
metals from corrosion and to improve their
During electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a salt appearance.
of metal M, a current of 2.0A was passed for 32  Anodizing. This is the electrolytic process of
minutes 10 seconds. The mass of metal M deposited coating objects made of aluminum with a very
was 2.24g. thin oxide film to protect the metal from
(i). On which electrode was the metal deposited? corrosion. To ensure a very thin film of oxide,
(ii) Calculate the quantity of charge needed to the oxidation is carried out by electrolysis using
deposit 1 mole. aluminum object as the anode. The electrolyte is
(iii) Calculate the charge carried on the ion. the dilute sulphuric acid which gives oxygen at
(iv) Write an ionic equation to show how the ions of the anode on electrolysis. Under controlled and
correct conditions, oxygen reacts with the
M are discharged at the electrode. (R.A.M of metal
surface of aluminum and coats it with a thin
M is 112)
invisible but protective coating of aluminum
Solution oxide.
 Purification of metals. Metals such as copper
(i) At the negative electrode (cathode). and zinc maybe refined i.e. purified by
(ii) Quantity of charge = current time (in seconds) electrolysis. The impure metal is made the anode
and the pure metal, the cathode. The electrolyte
Q = It On substituting the values = 2.0 {( 32 x 60)
is a solution containing metal ions.
+ 10}s = 2.0 x 1930 = 3860 coulombs
 Extraction of metals. Reactive metals such as
3860 coulombs deposited 2.24g aluminum and sodium are extracted by
x coulombs would deposit 112g electrolysis of fused electrolyte.
 Manufacture of chemicals. The most important
Cross multiply and solve for x
3860𝐶 ×112𝑔
example is manufacture of sodium hydroxide,
x= = 193000𝐶 chlorine and hydrogen using the flowing
2.24𝑔
mercury cathode cell.
193000 coulombs are needed to deposit 1 mole

1F = 96500C
yF = 193000 C

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 Unit 4
Carbon, its atomic structure and compounds
Introduction. chemical bonds. These different forms of an
element in the same physical state are called
All living things contain carbon compounds. These allotropes. The existence of an element in more
include carbohydrates, proteins, fats among others. than one form but in the same physical state is what
Petrol, oil and wood are carbon compounds. Carbon is referred to as allotropy. Carbon exists in two
is incorporated in plants from carbon (IV) oxide allotropic forms namely Graphite and Diamond.
during photosynthesis. Carbon is a non-metal which Amorphous carbon is also another allotrope.
occurs naturally as a free element or in its combined
state as in carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. In The Graphite
the periodic table of elements, carbon appears in the
second period of group 4 elements with atomic A carbon atom has four valence electrons. In
number 6 as shown in the periodic table below. graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other
carbon atoms using the covalent bonds. This means
that, only three of the four valence electrons takes
part in bonding leaving one non-bonding electron in
each carbon atom. Within the structure, there are so
many delocalized electrons. This explains why,
graphite conducts electricity. The interactions of
the carbon atoms covalently bonded forms a
network of hexagonal layers which are held
together to one another by a weak forces of
attraction called the Van der Waal’s forces of
The atomic structure of carbon is shown below.
attraction (London forces) making them slide over
each other. For this reason, graphite tends to have a
slippery feeling, soft and slippery, graphite can be
used as a lubricant or in pencil leads. The
arrangement of carbon atoms in graphite forms a
giant atomic structure in which carbon atoms are
joined together by strong covalent bonds. Graphite
has a density of 2.7g/cm3 and boils at 4,830o C. The
diagram below shows the hexagonal structure of
graphite.
The allotropes of carbon

Some elements can take two or more different

forms where atoms are arranged differently by

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 Diamond and graphite are both giant covalent
substances made entirely of carbon atoms. Both
have chemical formula, but they do not have a
The Diamond molecular formula.

Diamond is an allotrope of carbon in which carbon Nature of Graphite Diamond

atoms are covalently bonded to one another. During property
Structure Giant covalent Giant structure
bonding, each carbon atom is bonded to four other
structure with with each atom
carbon atoms. All the four valence electrons in each carbon bonded to 4
each carbon atom take part in bonding. Therefore, atom bonded to other atoms in
there are no delocalized electrons in a diamond 3 other carbon tetrahedral
structure. For this reason, diamond does not conduct atoms in arrangement
electricity. Arrangement of carbon atoms in hexagonal
arrangement
diamond forms a tetrahedral three dimensional
Hardness Soft as layers Extremely hard
structure with strong covalent bonds to form a giant
can slide over due to rigid
atomic structure. The close packing of carbon atoms one another. tetrahedral
and the strong covalent bonds makes diamond the arrangement.
hardest substance known. It is used in cutting Electrical Conductor as it Non-conductor
metals and drilling through hard rocks. In addition, conductivity has one as all its four
the high refractive index of diamond makes it useful electron left out electrons are
in making jewelry. Diamond exists as a shiny un-bonded in used up in
the structure bonding.
crystalline structure with a density of 3.5g/cm3 and a
very high boiling point. The diagram below shows the
arrangement of carbon atoms in diamond. The amorphous carbon

Amorphous carbon refers to the impure forms of

carbon which includes:- charcoal, lamp, black soot,
coal and coke. Unlike graphite and diamond,
amorphous carbon consists of minute crystals of
graphite, hence their irregular shapes. Charcoal can

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be made by heating wood in the absence of air. The 2CuO(s) + C(s)  2Cu(s) + CO2 (g)
slow combustion of part of the wood converts the
rest to charcoal. The carbon (IV) oxide produced forms a white
precipitate with calcium hydroxide solution in the
Amorphous carbon has a wide range of use:- boiling tube. This is a test for carbon (IV) oxide that
distinguishes it from other colourless gasses as it is
 Carbon black is used in making carbon colourless.
papers
 Powdered carbon is used in gas masks to Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
adsorb poisonous gases The white precipitate dissolves on adding more carbon
 Carbon black is used as a pigment in inks (IV) oxide gas forming a colourless solution of calcium
and paints. hydrogen carbonate solution.
 Carbon black is used as fller in rubber
which helps it resist deterioration by U.V CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)  Ca(HCO3)2(l)
rays as well as giving it the black Lead (II) oxide is reduced by carbon into silvery
appearance. balls of lead metal while carbon itself is
oxidised to carbon (IV) oxide.
Chemical properties of carbon
2PbO(s) + C(s)  2Pb(s) + CO2 (g)
1) Reaction with oxygen gas. All forms of
carbon burn in sufficient amount of oxygen The reducing property of carbon makes it widely
to form carbon (IV)oxide and a lot of heat is used in the extraction of metals such as zinc, iron,
produced. For the impure forms of carbon, lead and copper from their natural sources.
ash is also formed.
3. Reaction with acids. Cold acids have no effect
C (s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) on carbon. However, hot concentrated acids
react with carbon to form carbon (IV) oxide
When carbon is burned in limited supply of oxygen
among other products. Carbon reduces
gas, carbon monoxide gas is produced.
concentrated Sulphuric (VI) acid and
2C(s) + O2(g)  2CO(g) concentrated Nitric (V) acid into sulphur (IV)
oxide and nitrogen (iv) oxide respectively.
2) Reducing property of carbon. Carbon can
remove the combined oxygen from heated 2H2SO4(l) + C(s)  2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
metal oxides of those metals below the
4HNO3 (l) + C(s)  4NO2 (g) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
reactivity series into their respective metals.
The process of removing the combined The oxides of carbon
oxygen from a substance is referred to as
reduction. There are two oxides of carbon namely carbon (II)
oxide (CO) and carbon (IV) oxide (CO2).
Carbon reduces heated copper (II) oxide (black)
into brown copper metal. This explains the color The carbon (IV) oxide (CO2)
change in the combustion tube from black to brown.

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Carbon (IV) oxide is exists as free molecules in the coating on the surface of the unreacted carbonate
atmosphere forming about 0.03% of air by volume. preventing further action of the acid. Other
Carbon containing substances burn in air to produce carbonates that form insoluble compounds with
Carbon (IV) oxide as one of the products. It’s also a dilute acids includes:-
product of metabolism in animals. Plants use carbon
(IV) oxide during photosynthesis process.  Action of dilute hydrochloric acid on lead
carbonate.
Laboratory preparation of carbon (IV) oxide.  Action of dilute sulphuric acid on barium
carbonate.
Action of a dilute acid on a suitable metal carbonate
produces carbon (IV) oxide. When dilute Physical properties of carbon (IV) oxide
hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate,
effervescence occurs with the production of carbon  It is a colourless gas.
(IV) oxide.  It is odourless.
 It is denser than air, hence collected by
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) downward delivery method. Carbon (IV)
The set-up below is used when preparing carbon oxide is 1.5 times denser than air.
 It readily liquefes and solidifes.
(IV) oxide.
Chemical properties of carbon (IV) oxide

1) Combustion. Carbon (IV) oxide neither

burns nor supports combustion. A burning
splint is readily extinguished when lowered
into a gas jar full of carbon (IV) oxide.
Being more denser than air, carbon (IV)
oxide is commonly used in fire
extinguishers. When sprayed over the flames
of a burning fire, it forms a ‘blanket’ that
prevents entry of oxygen thereby
Carbon (IV) oxide is then passed through water to extinguishing the fire. However, a burning
remove the traces of hydrogen chloride fumes and piece of magnesium continues to burn when
then collected by downward delivery method. When lowered into a gas jar containing carbon
required dry, carbon (IV) oxide is passed through (IV) oxide forming a white solid and black
concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid which acts as a specks of carbon. Burning magnesium
drying agent. Generally, carbon (IV) oxide can be produces a lot of heat that breaks carbon
prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute (IV) oxide into carbon and oxygen. Carbon
acid on a suitable metal carbonate. However, forms as black specks whereas the oxygen
reaction between dilute sulphuric (VI) acid with produced ensures the continued burning of
calcium carbonate takes place for a few seconds and magnesium to form magnesium oxide.
then eventually stops. This is due to the formation
2Mg(s) + CO2(g)  2MgO(s) + C(s)
of an insoluble salt calcium sulphate which forms a

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 2) Reaction with water. Carbon (IV) oxide Carbon (II) oxide (CO)
slightly dissolves in water to form a weakly
acidic solution of carbonic acid. Carbon (IV) Carbon (II) oxide is formed when there is
oxide is an acidic gas. incomplete combustion of carbon such as using a
charcoal stove in a poorly ventilated room.
CO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2CO3(aq)
Rain water is slightly acidic due to the dissolved 2C(s) + O2 (g)  2CO (g)
carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere.
Laboratory preparation of carbon (II) oxide.
3) Reaction with alkalis. When carbon (IV)
oxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide Carbon (II) oxide is prepared by dehydration of
solution, a white precipitate is formed. This organic compounds using suitable dehydrating
is the confrmatory test for carbon (IV) agents. Dehydration is the process of removing
oxide in the laboratory. Being an acidic gas, elements of water (i.e) H and O from a compound
carbon (IV) oxide reacts with alkali to form
to form H2O. In the laboratory Carbon (II) oxide is
salt and water.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) prepared by dehydrating methanoic acid or
ethanedioic acid using concentrated sulphuric (vi)
Carbon (IV) oxide reacts with other alkalis to form acid. During the process concentrated sulphuric (vi)
their corresponding carbonates. Sodium carbonate acid remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
and potassium carbonate are soluble. Therefore, reaction.
carbon (IV) oxide does not form precipitates with
alkaline solutions of sodium and potassium. The diagram below is used during the dehydration
of methanoic acid.
Uses of carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon (IV) oxide can have some commercial uses

which includes;

1) Manufacturing of carbonated drinks such as

soda and beer.
2) Manufacture of fre extinguishers.
3) Solid carbon (IV) oxide (dry ice) is used as a
coolant by the ice-cream vendors. This is
because, solid carbon (IV) oxide sublimes
leaving no dampness (wetness). During the dehydration of methanoic acid by
4) It is used in welding to provide an inert concentrated sulphuric acid, the reaction below
environment that prevents oxidation. takes place.
5) Used in rain seeding. Solid carbon (IV)
oxide is sprayed in the sky by an aircraft to HCOOH (aq)  CO (g) + H2O (l)
accelerate the rate of condensation of water When ethane (Oxalic acid) dioic acid is used a
vapour in the sky. This is a new technology gaseous Carbon (II) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide is
for making rain. formed. The gaseous mixture is then passed through
6) It is used in the manufacturing of fertilisers. concentrated sodium hydroxide solution or
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concentrated potassium hydroxide solution to
remove carbon (IV) oxide.
Ethanedioic acid can also be dehydrated to form
carbon (II) oxide gas. The set up above is also used.

H2C2O4 (aq)  CO (g) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

When dry carbon (IV) oxide is passed over heated

carbon, it is reduced to carbon (II) oxide.

CO2 (g) + C (s)  2CO (g) Carbon (IV) oxide produced forms a white
precipitate with calcium hydroxide solution in the
boiling tube. Excess carbon (II) oxide should be
The physical properties of carbon (II) oxide burned or pumped through the fume chamber to
i. It is a colourless gas. prevent it from filling the room as it is highly
ii. It is odourless. poisonous. When inhaled, carbon (II) oxide
iii. It is tasteless. combines with haemoglobin in the blood to form a
iv. It is slightly soluble in water hence collected stable compound carboxy – haemoglobin. This
by over water method. compound reduces the capacity of red blood cells to
v. It is neutral. It has no effect on litmus transport oxygen to the body tissues which may lead
papers. to suffocation and eventually death.
Chemical properties of carbon (II) oxide

1) Combustion. Carbon (II) oxide burns The charcoal stove

quietly in air with a pale blue flame to form
carbon (IV) oxide. In the modern society a charcoal stove has been
widely used as a heating tool. Commonly used for
2CO (g) + O2 (g)  2CO2 (g) roasting meat or green maize. The figure below
shows the charcoal stove for burning charcoal.
2) Reducing properties of carbon (II) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide reduces heated metal
oxides lower in the reactivity series into
their corresponding metals.
E.g. When passed over heated copper (II)
oxide as shown in the figure below, it
reduces the black copper (II) oxide into
brown copper metal.

CuO (s) + CO (g)  Cu (s) + CO2 (g)

Layer A
In this layer, there is suffcient supply of air. Carbon
will completely burn in this region to form carbon
(IV) oxide

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 C(s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) Ca (OH)2 (aq) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s) + H2O (l)

Layer B The set up below can be used to demonstrate the

In this region there is insufficient supply of air. Two action of heat on the carbonates. Note that the
processes take place in this region. gaseous product is the key product for this
 Incomplete combustion of carbon due to experiment.
limited supply of air.

2 C (s) + O2 (g)  2 CO (g)

 Reduction of carbon (IV) oxide from Layer

A by the hot carbon to form carbon (II)
oxide.

CO2 (g) + C (s)  2 CO (g)

It was explained in unit 3 that all carbonates except
Layer C
In this layer, there is suffcient supply of air. Carbon potassium and sodium carbonates are decomposed
(II) oxide from Layer B burns with a pale blue by heating to give oxide of the metal and carbon
flame to form carbon (IV) oxide. (IV) oxide gas.

2CO (g) + O2 (g)  2 CO2 (g) Action of dilute acids on carbonates and
hydrogen carbonates
Using a charcoal stove in a poorly ventilated room
may result in accumulation of Carbon (II) oxide Dilute acids react with carbonate and hydrogen
which when inhaled may cause carbon (II) oxide carbonates to form a salt, carbon (IV) oxide and
poisoning through suffocation which may cause water.
death. It is also important to note that car engines
produces some considerable amount of carbon (II) Na2CO3 + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (I)
oxide. However some modern cars are fitted with 2NaHCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
catalytic converters which converts carbon (II)
oxide into less poisonous carbon (IV) oxide. ZnCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Uses of carbon (II) oxide CuCO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
 It is used in the extraction of some metals.
 A mixture of carbon (II) oxide and hydrogen Large scale manufacture of sodium
(water gas) is used as a fuel. carbonate
 It is used in the manufacture of methanol
which is used as a solvent.
In 1872, Ernest Solvay developed a process of
manufacturing sodium carbonate in large scale
Carbonates called Solvay process
Carbonates are carbon compounds resulting from
the action of carbonic acid or carbon (IV) oxide on The Solvay process
an alkali. For example
Raw materials:
2NaOH(aq) + CO2 (g)  Na2 CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)  Lime stone (CaCO3)
 Brine (Concentrated NaCl)

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  Ammonia from Haber process
 Water Calcium oxide is then reacted with water in the
 Coke slaker to form calcium hydroxide (Slaked lime)
The diagram below shows the Solvay process.
CaO(s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Sodium Hydrogen carbonate is then heated in the

roaster to obtain sodium carbonate

2NaHCO3 (s)  Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Carbon (IV) oxide produced is recycled back into

the carbonator. Calcium hydroxide from the slaker
is reacted with ammonium chloride from the
carbonator to regenerate ammonia which is recycled
back into the ammoniating tower.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2NH4Cl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) +2H2O (l)

Calcium chloride is the only by product which is

not recycled during the process. It is mainly used us
a drying agent for gases and also when added to
A mixture of brine and ammonia is fed from the top snow it lowers in melting point. Reactions in the
of the Solvay tower (Ammoniating tower). In the Solvay chambers produce a lot of heat. For this
Solvay tower, brine is saturated with ammonia gas reason, Solvay plants are usually located near water
from the generator. The process generates a lot of bodies to facilitate cooling of the hot chambers.
heat, hence the need to cool the tower from time to Solvay process is very economical since most of the
time. The Ammoniated (ammonical) brine then by- products such as carbon (IV) oxide and
flows down the Solvay tower into the carbonator. ammonia are recycled. Potassium carbonate cannot
Carbon (IV) oxide from the kiln is pumped from the be manufactured using the same process. This is
bottom of the carbonator where it reacts with the because potassium hydrogen carbonate and
ammonical brine. In the carbonator, the following ammonium chloride have almost the same solubility
reaction takes place. in water making it impossible to separate the two by
filtration.
NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l)  NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl (aq)

NaHCO3 forms as a suspension where it is allowed

Uses of sodium carbonate
1) It is used in the manufacture of glass and
to settle and separated from ammonium
ceramic.
chloride through fltration.
2) It is used in water and sewage treatment.
In the kiln, thermal decomposition of limestone
3) It is used in the manufacture of detergents.
and burning of coke takes place. The two processes
4) It is used in paper and textile industries
produces carbon (IV) oxide.

CaCO3(s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (aq) Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate

C(s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) 1) Manufacture of baking powder

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 2) Manufacture of carbonated drinks. 3) Decayed plant leaves and other organic matter
form humus with the soil. Humus is highly
Most of the sodium carbonate is obtained from a nutritious and rich in minerals needed for plants
mineral called trona- Na2CO3. NaHCO3.2H2O growth. The structure of humus enables it to act
which is cheaply available in various parts of the as a buffer against soils that are too acidic or to
world. Such as Magadi in Kenya. alkaline.
Effects of carbon (IV) oxide and
The carbon cycle carbon (II) oxide on the environment
Carbon compounds in humans play a very
significant role in the ecosystem. Processes such as
respiration add carbon (IV) oxide into the Industrial processes releases carbon (IV) oxide in
atmosphere whereas processes such as the atmosphere. Increase in the amounts of carbon
photosynthesis removes carbon (IV) oxide from the (IV) oxide in the atmosphere may cause;
atmosphere. These processes ensures that the level Greenhouse effect which may lead to global
of carbon (IV) Oxide in the atmosphere is kept at a warming. Greenhouse gases such as carbon (IV)
constant over ages. Some of the processes through oxide forms a blanket in the atmosphere. Sunlight in
which carbon and carbon compound passes are as form of ultra-violet radiations passes the
shown below. atmosphere and warms the earth. Some of the
radiations are transformed into heat which is
reflected back into the space. As this heat goes up
the atmosphere, some of it is trapped by the
greenhouse gases. This will result in excess
warming of the earth.

1) The high temperatures causes the melting of

ice caps in the poles and mountains and this
may result in rising in the level of the oceans
and flooding. Global warming also causes
change in the climatic patterns among other
disasters.
2) Car engines releases some reasonable
amounts of carbon (II) oxide. Carbon (II)
Significance of carbon (IV) oxide and oxide may lead to suffocation and even
death when inhaled. Car engines should be
carbon compounds in the eco- system fitted with catalytic converters to convert
carbon (II) oxide into less toxic carbon (IV)
1) Plants use carbon (IV) oxide during Oxide.
photosynthesis to form glucose. When animals
feed on plants, glucose is converted into other
essential substances such as proteins and starch Greenhouse effect
through metabolism. When solar radiations reach the earth’s atmosphere,
2) Carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere dissolves
in rain water to from Carbonate ions (CO32-). i. Some are reflected back into the space.
Some sea animals combine these carbonate ions ii. Some energy is absorbed by the earth
with calcium from rocks to form calcium therefore heating it.
carbonate which they use to make shells. iii. Some of this heat is reflected back to the
space.

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Tel: 0925599881/0916974881/0923777819/0921813012/0916289291
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iv. Greenhouse gases traps some of the reflected
heat.
v. Extra heat trapped causes the earth’s
temperature to rise (global warming).

By: Gai Samuel Pandak Deng

Tel: 0925599881/0916974881/0923777819/0921813012/0916289291
Email: [email protected]