Engineering Physics I

•Quantum Physics
•Crystallography
•Semiconductors
•Interference
•Superconductivity
•Engineering Materials
 Qunatum Physics
• De Broglie hypothesis and matter waves
• Wave Function
• Phase velocity and Group velocity
• Heisenberg Uncertainity Principle
nonexistence of electron in nucleus
• Schrodingers Equation
particle in a box, quantum computing
 Einstein’s postulate

A beam of light can be treated as a stream of particles (PHOTONS) with zero

rest mass

Each photon has energy:

hc
E p = h =

where h is a constant (Planck’s constant, h ≈ 6.63 x 10 -34 Js)

 , λ, c, are frequency, wavelength and velocity of light (in vacuum) respectively.

 From Special Theory of Relativity……………

E = mc
2
( 2 2
) + ( pc ) 2

consequently, particle with zero rest mass (eg photon) (m=0) has momentum p
given by:

E h h
p= = =
c c 
 Wave-particle Duality

So, an electromagnetic wave of wavelength λ and frequency f can be thought of as a

stream of particles with energy E and momentum p given by:

E = h
h
p=

 The de Broglie Hypothesis
In 1924, de Broglie suggested that any moving particle is associated with a wave
known as matter wave. If matterwaves of wavelength λ are associated with
particles of momentum p, then p=h/λ
A particle of mass m, moving with velocity v has momentum p given by:

h
p = mv =

 Kinetic Energy of particle

2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 p h  k
KE = mv = mv = = =
2 2m 2m 2m2
2m
h
Where,  =
2

p= 2mE Where, E= Kinetic energy

h
 =
2mE
 De Broglie wavelength for Accelerated Charged
Particle
• If a charged particle of charge q is accelareted by a potential difference V
volts then its kinetic energy is given by
E= qV
Hence,

h
 =
2mE
h
 =
2mqV
For electron
12.26
 =
V
Group Velocity and Phase velocity
• Wave function
• Wave packet
• Relations between group velocity and phase
velocity
 Particle
______________________________

Our traditional understanding of a particle…

“Localized” - definite position, momentum,

confined in space
 Wave
____________________________
Our traditional understanding of a wave….

“de-localized” – spread out in space and time

 Waves
Normal Waves
• are a disturbance in space
• carry energy from one place to another
• often (but not always) will (approximately) obey the
classical wave equation
Matter Waves
• disturbance is the wave function Y(x, y, z, t )
– probability amplitude Y
– probability density p(x, y, z, t ) =|Y|2
 General Wave properties

Osillations at a particlar point

Y = A cos 2t
travelling waves (1 - d)
Y = A cos(t − kx )
 = 2 (angular frequency)
2
k= (wave number)

( )
 
in 3 − d : Y = A cos t − k  r
How do we associate a wave nature to a
particle?
___________________________________

What could represent both wave and particle?

Find a description of a particle which is
consistent with our notion of both particles
and waves……
• Fits the “wave” description
• “Localized” in space
 A “Wave Packet”
____________________________________

How do you construct a wave packet?

 What happens when you add up waves?
________________________________
The Superposition principle
Adding up waves of different frequencies.....
____________________________________
Constructing a wave packet by adding up
several waves …………
___________________________________
If several waves of different wavelengths
(frequencies) and phases are superposed
together, one would get a resultant which
is a localized wave packet
 A wave packet describes a particle
____________________________

• A wave packet is a group of waves with slightly

different wavelengths interfering with one
another in a way that the amplitude of the
group (envelope) is non-zero only in the
neighbourhood of the particle

• A wave packet is localized – a good

representation for a particle!
 Wave Function ψ
The state of a quantum mechanical system is completely specified by a wave function ψ (r,t) that
depends on the coordinates of the particles (r) and time t.

Y = Y ( x, y , z , t )
Interpretation of the wave function
• The wave function of a particle is related to the probability density for finding
the particle in a given region of space:
Probability of finding particle between x and x + dx:

 ( x) dx
2

Probability of finding particle somewhere = 1, so we have the NORMALISATION

CONDITION for the wave function:
+

  ( x) dx = 1
2

−

Ψ and its first derivatives should be Finite, continuous and single valued.
 Wave packet, phase velocity and group
velocity
• The velocities of the individual waves which
superpose to produce the wave packet
representing the particle are different - the wave
packet as a whole has a different velocity from the
waves that comprise it
• Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the
wave propagates in space
• Group velocity: The rate at which the envelope of
the wave packet propagates
Group velocity and phase velocity
 Phase velocity
• Phase velocity is the rate at which the phase
of the wave propagates in space.
• This is the velocity at which the phase of any
one frequency component of the wave will
propagate.
• You could pick one particular phase of the
wave and it would appear to travel at the
phase velocity.
• The phase velocity is given in terms of the
wave's angular frequency ω and wave vector k
by
 Group velocity
Group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the
variations in the shape of the wave's amplitude (known as the
modulation or envelope of the wave) propagate through
space.
The group velocity is defined by the equation

where:
vg is the group velocity;
ω is the wave's angular frequency;
k is the wave number.
The function ω(k), which gives ω as a function of k, is known as the
dispersion relation.
 Phase Velocity

• Vp = C2/v

• So Phase velocity is greater than the

velocity of light Vp > c
 Superposition of waves
y1 = A cos(t − kx )
y2 = A cos( + d )t − (k + dk )x 
y = y1 + y2
y = A cos(t − kx ) + A cos( + d )t − (k + dk )x 

 (2 + d )t (2k + dk ) x   (d )t (dk ) x 

y = 2 A cos  −  cos  −
 2 2   2 2 
withd   , dk  k

 d 
y  2 A cost − kxcos 
dk
t− x  − − − − − −(1)
 2 2 
Green dot : Group velocity
Magenta dot: Phase velocity
 Group Velocity=Particle velocity
Equation1 represents a wave of angular velocity w and
. wave number k which has superimposed upon it a wave
(the process is called modulation) of angular velocity
d dk
and wave number
2 2

phase velocity = wave velocity of carrier :v p =
k

group velocity = wave velocity of envelope :vg =
k
d
for a large number of wave contiributions : v g =
dk
Group Velocity=Particle velocity
d d ( )
vg = =
dk d (k )
2 2 h p
k= = . =
 h  
p = k
2 E
 = 2 = .h =
h 
E = 
d d ( ) dE d p 2 p
vg = = = = = =v
dk d (k ) dP dp 2m m
Relation Between Group Velocity and
Phase Velocity

 = vpk

d
vg =
dk

d (v p k ) dk dv p
vg = = vp +k
dk dk dk
 dv p
vg = v p + k
dk
k
v g = v p + dv p
dk

k = 2 / 

2
dk = − d
 2
 k 2 / 
=
dk 2
− 2 d


k 
=−
dk d

dv p
vg = v p − 
d

This gives us the relation between Phase velocity and Group velocity
 dv p
vg = v p − 
d

This gives us the relation between Phase velocity and Group

velocity
 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

“ it is impossible to know simultaneously and with exactness

both the position and the momentum of the fundamental particles”

N.B.: • We also have for the particle moving in three dimensions

x  p x   y  p y   z  p z  

• Uncertainty for energy :

E  t 
 PROBLEM 1
In a research laboratory, electrons are
accelerated to speed of 6.0  106 m/s. Nearby, a 1.0  10-9 kg
speck of dust falls through the air at a speed of 0.020m/s.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength in both case

SOLUTION
• For the electron:

h h 6.625 10 −34 J .s

= = =
p mv 9.1110 −31 kg  6.0 106 m / s
 = 1.2 10 −10 m
• For the dust speck:
h h 6.625 10 −34 J .s
d = = = −9
pd mvd 1.0  10 kg  6.0  0.020m / s
d = 3.3 10 −23 m
DISCUSSION: The de Broglie wavelength of the dust speck is so
small that we do not observe its wavelike behavior
 PROBLEM 2 An electron microscope uses 40-keV electrons.
Find the wavelength of this electron.

SOLUTION

The velocity of this electron:

1 2
E = eV = mv
2
v = 2E / m
2  40  103  1.6  10−19
v= = 1.2  108 m / s
9.1  10−31
The wavelength of this electron:

h
=
mv
6.63  10−34 −10
= −31 = 6.1  10 m o
9.1  10  1.2  108
= 6.1 A
PROBLEM 3 An electron is moving along x axis with the speed
of 2×106 m/s (known with a precision of 0.50%).
What is the minimum uncertainty with which we can
simultaneously measure the position of the electron along the x
axis? Given the mass of an electron 9.1×10-31 kg

SOLUTION

From the uncertainty principle: x  p  

if we want to have the minimum uncertainty: x  p = 
We evaluate the momentum: p = mv = (9.1 10−31 )  (2.05  106 )
The uncertainty of the momentum is:

p = 0.5% p = 0.5 / 100  1.87  10−24 = 9.35  10−27 kg.m / s

 6.635  10−34 / 2 −8
 x =
p
= −
= 1.13  10 m  11nm
9.35  10 27
PROBLEM 4 In an experiment, an electron is determined to be
within 0.1mm of a particular point. If we try to measure the
electron’s velocity, what will be the minimum uncertainty?

SOLUTION

p 
v = 
m mx
6.63  10−34 J .s
v 
9.1  10−31 kg  1.0  10− 4 m  2
v  1.2m / s
Observation:
We can predict the velocity of the electron to within 1.2m/s.
Locating the electron at one position affects our ability to know
where it will be at later times
PROBLEM 5 A grain of sand with the mass of 1.00 mg appears
to be at rest on a smooth surface. We locate its position to within
0.01mm. What velocity limit is implied by our measurement of its
position?

SOLUTION

p 
v = 
m mx
6.63  10−34 J .s
v 
1  10−6 kg  1.0  10−5 m  2
v  1.1 10−23 m / s
Observation:
The uncertainty of velocity of the grain is so small that we do not
observe it: The grain of sand may still be considered at rest, as our
experience says it should
PROBLEM 6 An electron is confined within a region of width
1.010- 10 m. (a) Estimate the minimum uncertainty in the
x-component of the electron's momentum.
(b) If the electron has momentum with magnitude equal to the
uncertainty found in part (a), what is its kinetic energy? Express
the result in jou1es and in electron volts.

SOLUTION
(a)

(b)
 The Schrödinger’s Equation
a. Wave Function and Probability Density
Matter waves:
A moving particle (electron, photon) with momentum p is described
by a matter wave; its wavelength is
= h/ p
A matter wave is described by a wave function: Y( x, y, z; t )
(called uppercase psi)

Y( x, y, z; t ) is a complex number (a + ib with i2 = -1, a, b: real numbers)

Y( x, y, z; t ) depends on the space (x, y, z) and on the time (t)

The space and the time can be grouped separately:

Y( x, y, z; t ) =  ( x, y, z ) e − it
 ( x, y, z ) : space- dependentpart (lower casepsi)
 −i t
e : time - dependentpart ( : angularfrequency)
• The meaning of the wave function:  ( x, y , z )
The function  ( x, y , z ) has no meaning


2
Only has a physical meaning. That is:

The probability per unit time of detecting a particle in a small

volume centered on a given point in the matter wave is

proportional to the value at that point of 2


2
greater → it is easier to find the particle

 =   * with  * is the complex conjugate of 

2
N.B.:
If we write  = a + ib →  * = a − ib (a, b: real numbers)
• How can we find the wave equation?
Like sound waves described by Newtonian mechanics,
or electromagnetic waves by Maxwell’s equation,

matter waves are described by an equation called

Schrödinger’s equation (1926)
 Derivation of Schrodinger’s time dependant wave equation
• By analogy with the classical mechanics we consider the form of wave function as

• (1)
• Now the total energy of a system is,

• E=K.E+P.E=T+V

• Where ‘V’ is the potential energy and ‘T’ is the kinetic energy. We can rewrite the equation as:

• (2)

• Now multiplying by Ψ (x, t) we get,

• (3)
 Derivation of Schrodinger’s time dependant wave equation

Now differentiating wrt t and x

• We know that

• and

• Hence
(4)

Combining (3) and (4) we get 1D time dependant Schrodinger’s equation

A Particle trapped in a one dimensional potential box

We consider a particle trapped in a

one dimensional potential box and
moving along x-axis. Let L is the
width of the box and particle move
between the walls of the box. The
potential energy V inside the box is
0 while on the walls and outside
the wall the box potential energy V
is infinite.
The boundary condition is defined as:
 PROBLEM 8

An electron is confined to a one-dimensional, infinitely deep

potential energy well of width a = 100pm.

1/ What is the least energy (in eV) the electron can have?
2/ Compute the energy level of the first excited state, of the
second excited state. Draw the energy level diagram.

SOLUTION

1/ The least energy corresponds to the least quantum number:

n = 1 for the ground state. Thus:

h2 2 =
(6.625  10−34 ) 2
E1 =  1  12
8ma 2 8  9.1  10−31  (100  10−12 ) 2

6.03  10−18
E1 = 6.03  10−18 J = −19
E1 = 37.7eV
1.6  10
2/ The energy level of the first excited state corresponds to n = 2:

h2
E2 = 2  2 2
= 4E1 E2 = 4  37.7eV E2 = 150.8eV
8ma
The energy level of the second excited state corresponds to n = 3:

h2
E3 = 2  3 2
8ma
400
= 9E1
2nd excited
= 9  37.7eV E3
300
E3 = 339.3eV
200
1st excited E2
100
Observation:
The levels are not equidistant ground E1
0
 PROBLEM 9

The wave function of a particle confined to an infinitely deep

potential energy well is
 ( x) = C sin Kx
Determine the value of C, knowing that the particle must be
somewhere in all space

SOLUTION
2
If the probability density is  (x)
 ( x) dx
2
The probability of finding the particle in width dx is
The probability of finding the particle in all space is
+
  ( x) 2
dx
−
Because we are sure to find the particle somewhere in all space, the
probability equals the unit:
+
Normalization condition:  2
 ( x) dx = 1
−
For a particle confined to an infinitely deep potential energy well:
+ a Ka
  ( x) dx =  C sin( Kx) dx = C K
2 2 1
2
 sin 2 XdX
− 0 0

cos 2 X = 1 − 2 sin 2 X
With:
Ka Ka Ka Ka
 sin 2 XdX = 2  [ 1 − cos(2 X )] dX = 2  dX − 2  (cos 2 X )dX
1 1 1
0 0 0 0
Ka
 dX = 2
1 Ka
2 0
Ka
 (cos 2 X )dX = 2  sin 2 X  0 = 2 sin 2 Ka = 2 sin 2n = 0
1 Ka 1 1
0 Normalization condition:
+
  ( x) dx = C K 2 = C 2
2 1 Ka 2 2 a +
−   ( x) 2
dx = 1 C = 2/a
−
 ( x) = 2 / a sin Kx