Form 1 English Notes 1
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SECONDARY ENGLISH NOTES
FORM ONE
LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM ONE
PRONUNCIATION
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
In English, we have various vowel sounds. We shall study them one after the other.
Sound /ᵆ/
Consider the letter ‘a’ in the words below. Each says this sound.
Pan Pat Track Rag
Fan Dad Cram Sand
Ban Slam
Ham Fanned
Tag
Brash Mat Flash
Man
Cat Pack
Rash
Sound /ᶾ˸/
➢ This sound is more like the sound you make when you are disgusted.
➢ The letters in boldface say this sound. Study them carefully.
Bird Berth Cur Pert
Shirt Her Fur Stir
Flirt Heard Firm Blur
Turn Hurt Herd Shirk
Learn Purse Burn Surge
First Birth Curt
Sound /a:/
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➢ It is pronounced by having a much wider open mouth position.
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➢ Inside your mouth is shown in the process of saying this sound.
➢ Examples of words bearing this sound include:
Far Heart Bard Dart
Farm Hard Cart Card
Guard Bar Car Par
Sound /ə/
➢ This sound (referred to as schwa) is a short vowel sound.
➢ It mostly found in words containing letter ‘o’, for example,
Confuse s Condolence
Contemptuou
Continue
➢ Also in words such as:
Business
Sound /Ʌ/
Examples of words containing this sound include:
Sun Cum Fun Brush Drum
Son Cup Sung Hum Dumb
Some But Rung Fund
Swum
Pun Truck
Much Bug
Fun
Bunk Stunned
Begun
Sound /ɔ˸/
➢ It is a long sound.
➢ The mouth doesn’t move while saying this sound, and it can be pronounced as long as you
have breath.
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➢ It is said in words such as:
Or Pork Nor Horn Chalk
More Door Law Lord Jaw
Chores Four Cord Saw Scorn
Dorm Fore Form Shore
Sound /ᶛ/
➢ It is a short sound.
➢ The mouth doesn’t move.
➢ Each of the words below bear this sound:
Got Boss Cop Pot Swatch
On Blot
Stock Mop
Cost Plot Rod Crock
Frog
Lost Block Sock
Swat
Cock
Odd Shot
Sound /ᶹ/
bosom
Sound /I:/
➢ Long sound
➢ Said in words such as the ones below:
Sheep
Feet
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Meat
Tweet etc.
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Sound /ᶦ/
It is a short sound.
In words such as:
Fit
Bit
Quit
Blip etc.
Exercise
The table below has columns with different sounds. Pronounce each of the words in the list and
classify, according to the highlighted letter(s), under the column that bears that sound.
Chip Greased Still cheat jet
Jeep Teal Blip blink
Creek Hill Fill
Wet Sit Bed thrill
/i:/ /ᶦ/ /e/
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
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The sound /ᵗᶴ/
➢ Made by releasing the stopped air through your teeth by the `tip of your tongue.
➢ It is voiceless because vocal cords do not vibrate when you say it.
➢ Most words with letters ‘CH’ say this sound, for example,
Church Teach Crunch
Chips Pinch Much
➢ There are those with letters ‘TCH’ for example,
Catch Batch Kitchen
Watch Itch witch
➢ Some are with letters ‘TU’, for example,
Century
Spatula
The Sound /ᵈᶾ/
➢ Pronounced the same way as /ᵗᶴ/. It is just that it is voiced.
➢ Letters representing this sound include:
(a) Letters ‘DG’
Fudge Budge Bridge Judge
(b) Letter ‘J’
Judge Joy Jake
Eject
Jump Joke Project
July
(c) Letters ‘DU’
Procedure Graduate Individual
(d) When letter ‘G represents the sound
It does that when it is in front of an ‘e’, ‘i’, or ‘y’
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(i) Letters ‘GE’, for example,
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Gel Gentle Large Ridge
Angel Bilge Singe Emerge
Danger Urgent Enlarge
Emergency Knowledge Challenge
(ii) Letters ‘GI’, for example,
Agile Gist Engineer Original
Allergic Digitize Fragile Vigilant
Apologize Eligible Fugitive
Contagious Giraffe Legion
(iii) Letters ‘GY’, for example,
Allergy Analogy Gym
Clergy Zoology Liturgy
Egypt Stingy Panegyric
The Sound /f/
➢ The sound is unvoiced or voiceless.
➢ Air is stopped by pushing the bottom lip and top teeth together. The air is then pushed
through to produce this sound.
➢ The /f/ sound has the following letters saying it:
(a) Letter ‘F’
Four Knife Family Puff
Wife Life Staff Five
(b) Letters ‘PH’
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Paragraph
Phone
Phrase
Graph
() Letters ‘GH’
Cough Laugh Tough
Rough Enough Draught
The Sound /v/
➢ The same mouth shape as /f/ is formed when pronouncing the sound /v/.
➢ It is voiced.
➢ Your top teeth is put on your bottom lip.
➢ Words bearing this sound include:
Van Voice Save Wolves
Vehicle Jovial Knives
Obvious
Vice
Virtue
Previous
Unvoiced Care
Drive
The Sound /d/
➢ /d/ is voiced. The vocal cords vibrate.
➢ The low of air is stopped at the front of the mouth by tongue.
➢ Practice speaking the words below:
Dog Bad And
Dad
Mad Done
Do
Sad Loud
Did
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Sound /t/
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➢ To make this sound, your tongue stops the flow of air at the front of your mouth.
➢ It is a voiceless/unvoiced sound.
➢ It said in words like:
To Hot Later Tuesday
Top Pot What
Get Butter Today
The sound /k/
There are various letters that say the sound /k/. let’s study these letters.
➢ Letter ‘K’ always say this sound. Examples of words include:
Kill
Key
Kick
Sake
Kitten
Keep
➢ Letter ‘C’, for example,
Call
Corn
Cane
Campaign
Camp
Confusion
Cucumber
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Colic etc.
➢ Letters ‘CK’ for example
Kick
Mock
Truck
Back etc.
➢ Letter ‘Q’ for example,
Quack
Quail
Quartz
Quarter
Quick
➢ Letters ‘CH’, for example,
Chaotic
Character
Ache
The Sound /g/
Found in words such as:
Geyser
Galaxy Gibbon Gazelle Gown
Garbage
Game Give Gecko Girl
Gate Goat Gold
Ghost
The Sound /ᶴ/
➢ This sound is unvoiced – only air passes through the mouth when said.
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➢ The teeth are put together and the corners of the lips are brought together towards the
middle.
➢ Most words with letters ‘sh’ this sound. For example,
Shape Shop bishop
➢ There are words with letters ‘CH’ that say this sound, for example,
Brochure Chute Chicago Quiche
Cache Chef Michigan chaise
Cachet Chiffon Chevrolet
Chagrin Niche Fuchsia
Champagne Ricochet Cliché
Charade Charlotte Chivalry
➢ Some words with ‘SU’ also say it, for example,
Sugar Sure Pressure
Surmac Issue
➢ There are yet those with letters ‘TIO’, for example,
Nation Option
Motion Caution
➢ Then there are those with letters ‘SIO’, for example,
Submission Commission Confession
Sound /ᶿ/
➢ Pronounced with your tongue between your teeth.
➢ It is unvoiced.
➢ The words bearing this sound include:
Three Math
Mouth Fourth
Myth
Thick Thought
Thing Thumb
Tenth
Faith Think
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Youth Truth Thimble Thigh
Thrive Pith Three Thickness
Growth Thank Theme
North Thorn Therapist
Sound /ᶞ/
➢ Unlike /ᶿ/, it is voiced.
➢ It also pronounced with tongue touching or between your teeth.
➢ It is found in such words as:
With Their
Clothing Thence
they
There These Then
Sound /s/
➢ This is a hissing sound like a snake.
➢ It is voiceless.
➢ The few rules for some of the common spellings that say the sound /s/ are: (a)
Letter ‘S’, for example,
Sit Say Boss Misty
Wise Sad This Sunday
Dogs Sound Lips
(b) Letter ‘SC’, for example,
Muscle Descend Science Scream
(c) Letter ‘X’, for example,
Fix Fox Next Mix
(d) Letter ‘C’, for example,
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Face Practice City
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Circle Fence License
Sound /z/
➢ The /z/ is like the sound of buzzing bees.
➢ It is voiced.
➢ Most words with the letter ‘Z’ say /z/, for example,
Buzz Doze
Zoo Zebra
prize
Quiz Freeze
Zip
➢ There are those words with letter ‘S’ saying this sound, for example,
Is Frogs Pose Flows
Was Girls Reason Because
His Friends Rise Shoes
Hers Lies Eyes Visit
Nose Busy These Those
Noise Tuesday Days Bananas
Noises Wednesda Says cows
y
Rose Ties
Sounds
Roses Has
➢ The other group of words are those with letter ‘X’, for example,
Exist, anxiety
Sound /ᵌ/
➢ Words bearing this sound are borrowed from French.
➢ Pronounced in the same way as /ᶴ/ only that is voiced.
➢ The examples of words with this sound are:
Garage Sabotage Treasure Leisure
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Beige Genre Closure Persian
Massage Measure Seizure Conclusion
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Casual Collision Occasion Vision
Casually Division Persuasion Lesion
Usual Version Cashmere Decision
Usually Television Asia Caucasian
Amnesia Exposure Visual
Practice in sentences
(a) Measure the beige door on the garage.
(b) It was my decision to fly to Asia to seek treisure.
Sound /r/
➢ Raise the back of your tongue to slightly touch the back teeth on both sides of your mouth.
The centre part of the tongue remains lower to allow air to move over it.
➢ It is voiced.
➢ It is found in words with letter ‘R’ e.g.
Red
Friday
Worry
Sorry
Marry
➢ It is also said in words with letters ‘WR’ e.g.
Write
Wrong
Wrath
Wry
Wring
Sound /w/
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➢ Your lips form a small, tight circle when making the sound /w/.
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➢ Letters representing the /w/ sound are:
Letter ‘W’
Woman New Win Towel
Wife Sweet Rewind Wait
Letters WH
Why When What Whom Whole
Where While White Who
Letters ‘QU’
Quit Quite Queer Quota
Quick Quiet Queen Quickly
Others
One
Choir
Sound /m/
➢ Made by pressing the lips lightly.
➢ The words that follow contain the sound:
Mum Me Farmer Meat
Mine Morning Shame Myself
Exercise 1
Read the sentence below pronouncing each word correctly and then group the words in their
appropriate columns. Consider the highlighted letters.
The seven students took the first test for their driver’s licenceson Thursday.
/s/ /z/
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Exercise 2
Considering the pronunciation of highlighted letters, pick the odd word out. (a)
Judge, gesture, garage
(b) Jump, gift, geological
(c) Fungi, just, go
(d) Digit, game, gamble
(e) Hygiene, prodigy, entangle
(f) Gecko, gem, zoology
Exercise 3
Pronounce each word correctly and then group it under the column containing the sound that the
highlighted letter(s) bear.
Tissue Cautious Persian Decision
Caucasian Leisure Casual Collision
Division Solution Chef Sure
Passion Pressure Conclusion Precious
Ocean Vision Television Exposure
/ᶴ/ /ᶾ/
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Exercise 4
Circle the letter(s) that say /f/ and underline those saying /v/ in the sentences below. (a)
Please forgive me for forgetting the leftover food.
(b) Save the four wolves that live in the cave.
DIPHTHONGS
➢ A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds.
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➢ Some of the diphthongs include:
/ᵊᶹ/
/ᵃᶸ/
/ᵉᶦ/
/ᵊᶹ/
In words like;
Role Bonus Own Tomato Road
Bone Focus Bowl Logo Load
Phone Vogue Blow Motto Boat
Stone Social Grown Cold Coast
Close Soldier Throw Gold Coat
Note Coworke Go Bold Oak
r
Notice Ago Sold Soak
Most
Lonely No Told Approac
Post h
Home So Roll
Host Boast
Hope Toe Poll
Ghost Ok
Open Hero Control
Both Obey
Ocean Zero Bolt
Low Omit
Remote Veto Colt
Know Hotel
Solar Ego Folk
Mow Motel
Polar Echo Comb
Sow
Modal Radio Won’t
Show
Total Studio Don’t
Tow
Motor Mexico Soul
Owe
Moment Potato Shoulder
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/ᵃᶸ/
Said in words such as:
How Crowd Noun Count Flower
Cow Powder House Amount Shower
Now Browse Mouse Mountain Hour
Allow Loud Mouth Announc au) Our
e
Owl Proud South av) Sour
Bounce
Brown Cloud Couch Flour
Allowing
Down Out Found coward
Towel
Town Shout Ground
Bowel
Clown About Around
Power
Drown Doubt Pound
Tower
Crown Foul Sound
/ᵉᶦ/
The words containing this diphthong are:
wait gate Angel Rail Fate
late waste Stranger Raise Rate
bait wade Basis Raid Kate
date baby Lazy Afraid Race
tale bacon Crazy Wait Base
bail paper Fail Straight Place
bale April Mail Faint Lake
sale Danger Sail Paint Take
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Name Fatal Neighbo Cave May
ur
Ache Patriot Wave Pray
Break
Rage Radio Ray Convey
Steak
Patient Vacant Gray Survey
Age
Racial Weight Play Stain
Wage
Nation Eight Lay Change
Save etc.
Nature Vein Day
Exercise
Write another word pronounced the same way as:
a) Gait e) Pain i) Vain m) Sew
b) Made f) Plain j) Waist n) No
c) Mail g) Sale k) Wait o) Toe
d) Pale h) Tale l) Eight p) Grown
MINIMAL PAIRS
Study the pairs of words below carefully.
Fit – feet
Let – late
Van – fan
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Pun – pan
➢ What do you notice? You realize that only one sound makes the pronunciation of one word
distinct from the other. Each pair is called a minimal pair.
➢ A minimal pair is therefore a pair of words that vary by only one sound especially those that
usually confuse learners, such as /l/ and /r/, /b/ and /p/, and many others.
Minimal Pairs of Vowel Sounds
Sound /i/ and /i:/
1. Bid – bead 10. Sin – seen/ scene
2. Bit – beat 11. Still – steal/ steel
3. Bitch – beach 12. Sick – seek
4. Bin – bean/ been 13. Is – ease
5. Chip – cheap 14. Itch – each
6. Fit – feat/ feet 15. Risen – reason
7. Fist – feast 16. Piss – piece/ peace
8. Fizz – fees 17. Pick – peak/ peek
9. Gin – gene 18. Mill – meal
Exercise
Write another word in which either sound /i/ and /i:/ will make it vary from the one given.
(a) Hit (d) Peach (g) Kip (j) Pill
(b) Sheet (e) Lip (h) Eel (k) Skied
(c) Tin (f) Neat (i) Greed (l) Skim
Sounds /i/ and /e/
1. Did – dead 6. Middle – meddle
2. Disk – desk 7. Fill – fell
3. Built – belt 8. Bid – bed
4. Bit – bet 9. Bill – bell
5. Lipped – leapt 10. Lit – let
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11. List – lest 12. Clinch – clench
Exercise
Complete the table below with a word in which either the sound /e/ or /i/ brings the difference in
pronunciation.
/e/ /i/
1 Head
2 Miss
3 Hymn
4 Led
5 Fen
6 Lid
7 Den
8 Peg
Sounds /e/ and /ei/
The following words vary by one having the vowel sound /e/ and the other a diphthong /ei/
1. Wet – wait 10. West – waste/ waist
2. Bread – braid 11. When – wane
3. Fen – feign 12. Edge – age
4. Bed – bade 13. Gel – jail
5. Get – gate/ gait 14. Lens – lanes
6. Let – late 15. Breast – braced
7. Met – mate 16. Sent – saint
8. Lest – laced 17. Test – taste
9. Tech – take 18. Best – based
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19. Wren – rain/ reign 21. Bled – blade
20. Led – laid 22. Fed – fade
Exercise
Each word below has another word in which either the sound /e/ or /ei/ will bring the
distinction in pronunciation. Write that word.
(a) Fell (d) Sell (g) Raid (j) Stayed
(b) Pain (e) Well (h) Date (k) Bet
(c) Hail (f) Mate (i) Men (l) Jail
Sounds /ᵆ/ and /ᶺ/
1. Batter – butter 13. Drank – drunk
2. Cap – cup 14. Fan – fun
3. Cat – cut 15. Hat – hut
4. Back – buck 16. Badge – budge
5. Brash – brush 17. Hang – hung
6. Dabble – double 18. Massed – must
7. Rang – rung 19. Rash – rush
8. Track – truck 20. Sank – sunk
9. Bad – bud 21. Ran – run
10. Began – begun 22. Swam – swum
11. Bag – bug 23. Ban – bun
12. Pan – pun 24. Ham – hum
Exercise
Complete the table below with the minimal pair of the word. Consider the sound indicated in
each column.
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/ᵆ/ /ᶺ/
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(a) But
(b) Match
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(c) Mad
(d) Flush
(e) Cam
(f) Dumb
(g) Sang
(h) Uncle
(i) Crash
(j) Sack
(k) Dump
(l) Tug
Sounds /ᵆ/ and /e/
look at the list below.
1. Bad – bed 6. Sat – set 11. Pan – pen
2. And – end 7. Shall – shell 12. Sad – said
3. Had – head 8. Man –men 13. Manned – mend
4. Jam – gem 9. Bag – beg 14. Land – lend
5. Pat – pet 10. Ham – hem
Exercise
Complete the table with appropriate word that vary with the sound indicated in the column.
/ᵆ/ /ᵉ/
(a) Marry
(b) Blend
(c) Cattle
(d) Vat
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(e) Sacks
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(f) Trek
(g) Trad
(h) met
Minimal Pairs of /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/
1. fast – first 7. guard – gird 13. par – purr
2. bath – berth/birth 8. pa – per 14. park – perk
3. heart – hurt 9. bar – bur 15. star – stir
4. bard – bird 10. barn – burn 16. arc – irk
5. car – cur 11. carve – curve
6. card – curd 12. dart – dirt
Exercise 6
Considering the sounds /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/, write the minimal pair of:
(a) far (c) pass (e) shark
(b) heard/herd (d) farm (f) curt
Minimal Pairs of /b/ and /v/
1. bat – vat 6. bale – veil 11. broom – vroom
2. beer – veer 7. bane – vein 12. dribble – drivel
3. bowl – vole 8. curb – curve 13. dub – dove
4. bow – vow 9. bolt – volt 14. jibe – jive
5. gibbon – given 10. bowl – vole 15. rebel – revel
Exercise 7
There is another word that will vary with the one written below with just one sound. Depending on
the sounds /b/ and /v/, write that word.
(a) van (b) boat (c) Vest (d) Vowels
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(e) Vent (f) Bury (g) Loaves (h) Verve
Minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/
Fan – van Fie – vie Feel – veal
Off – of Foal – vole Staff – starve
Fat – vat Guff – guv Feign – vain/ vein
Fee – v Waif – waive Foist – voiced
Foul – vowel Gif – give Fox – vox
Fender – vendor Life – live Reef – reeve
Serf/Surf – serve Safe – save
Duff – dove Belief – believe
Exercise 8
Write the minimal pair of the word below with consideration being either the sound /f/ or /v/.
(a) Ferry (d) Fine (g) Veil (j) Fault
(b) Leaf (e) Half (h) Grief (k) Vile
(c) Vast (f) Proof (i) Calf (l) Strive
Minimal Pairs of Sounds/s/ and /ᶿ/
Mouse – Sort – thought Some – Sin – thin
mouth thumb
Tense – tenth Sum – thu mb
Sing – thing Song – thong
Mass – math Piss – pith
Face – faith Miss – myth Worse –
worth Sawn – thorn
Force – fourth
Pass – path Gross – Symbol –
Sick – thick growth thimble
Saw – thaw
Sink – think Sigh – thigh Sore – thaw
Seem – theme
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Truce – Sought – Moss – moth Sump –
truth thought thump
Sank – thank
Suds – thuds
Sounds /t/ and /d/
Town – down Tick – dick Tout – doubt Team – deem
Touch – Tine – dine Tug – dug Tent – dent
Dutch
Hat – had Tale/ tail – Toast – dosed
Tear – dare dale
Spent – spend Tomb – doom
Ten – den Teed – deed
Too/ to/two – Tower – dour
Tongue – do Tier – deer
dung Tux – ducks
Train – Tint – dint
Tart – dart drain Tamp – damp
Sheet – she’d
Tech – deck Tide – Tell – dell
dyed/died Wait –
Tin – din weighed Till – dill
Torn –
Toe – doe dawn Tie – die Tusk – dusk
Tough – duff Teal – deal Try – dry Sight – side
Tuck – duck Teen – dean Tear – dear Beat – bead
Tab – dab Tyre/tire – Tip – dip
dire
Tank – dank Tame – dame
Toes – doze
Exercise 9
Each word below has another word in which all the sounds are the same except either the
sound /t/ or /d/ is different. Write that word.
(a) Bat (d) (f) Bed (j) Feet
(b) God And (g) Bored
(c) Write (e) At (h) Eight
(i) Bet
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(k) Hit (l) (p) Nod
Hurt (m)Mat (q) Set
(n) Mend (o) (r)
Played
Neat
(s) Sat
(t) Dead
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Minimal Pairs of /k/ and /g/
Initial
Came – game Course – Clamour – Clam – glam
gorse glamour
Card – guard Cord – gored
Cram – gram Clad – glad
Cold – gold Coup – goo
Crepe – grape Crane – grain
Clean – glean Crate – grate
Crew – grew Creed – greed
Crate – great Cuff – guff
Croup – group Krill – grill
Cap – gap
Crow – grow Cunning –
Coast – ghost gunning
Key – ghee
Kale – gale Cab – gab
K – gay
Can – gone Cape – gape
Final
Clock – clog brogue Snuck – snug Luck – lug
Dock – dog Crack – crag Stack – stag Beck – beg
Frock – frog Prick – prig Whack – wag Cock – cog
Muck – mug Puck – pug Wick – wig Hack – hag
Brick – brig Shack – shag Jock – jog Pick – pig
Broke – Slack – slag Lack – lag
Exercise 10
Complete the table with appropriate word that only differs with one sound with the one given.
Consider the sounds in the columns.
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(a) Tack
(b) Flog
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(c) Tuck
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(d) Gum
(e) Gash
(f) Jack
(g) Cave
(h) Sag
(i) Leak
(j) Crab
(k) Class
(l) Good
(m) Goat
(n) Blog
(o) Kill
(p) Dug
(q) Gut
(r) Log
(s) Rack
(t) Cot
HOMOPHONES
Words pronounced the same way but have different spellings and meanings are the
homophones. The list below is English homophones.
1. Accessary accessory 7. Allowed, aloud
2. Ad, add 8. Alms, arms
3. Ail, ale 9. Altar, alter
4. Air, heir 10. Ante, anti
5. Aisle, I’ll, isle 11. Arc, ark
6. All, awl 12. Aural, oral
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13. Away, aweigh 39. Bight, bite, byte
14. Awe, oar, or, ore 40. Billed, build
15. Axel, axle 41. Bitten, bittern
16. Aye, eye, I 42. Blew, blue
17. Bail, bale 43. Bloc, block
18. Bait, bate 44. Boar, bore
19. Baize, bays 45. Board, bored
20. Bald, bawled 46. Boarder, border
21. Ball, bawl 47. Bold, bawled
22. Band, banned 48. Boos, booze
23. Bard, barred 49. Born, borne
24. Bare, bear 50. Bough, bow
25. Bark, barque 51. Boy, buoy
26. Baron, barren 52. Brae, bray
27. Base, bass 53. Braid, brayed
28. Bay, bey 54. Braise, brays, braze
29. Bazaar, bizarre 55. Brake, break
30. Be, bee 56. Bread, bred
31. Beach, beech 57. Brews, bruise
32. Bean, been 58. Bridal, bridle
33. Beat, beet 59. Broach, brooch
34. Beau, bow 60. Bur, burr
35. Beer, bier 61. But, butt
36. Bell, belle 62. Buy, by, bye
37. Berry, bury 63. Buyer, byre
38. Berth, birth 64. Call, caul
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65. Canvas, canvass 91. Council, counsel
66. Cast, caste 92. Cousin, cozen
67. Caster, castor 93. Creak, creek
68. Caught, court 94. Crews, cruise
69. Caw, core, corps 95. Cue, queue
70. Cede, seed 96. Curb, kerb
71. Ceiling, sealing 97. Currant, current
72. Censer, censor, sensor 98. Cymbol, symbol
73. Cent, scent, sent 99. Dam, damn
74. Cereal, serial 100. Days, daze
75. Cheap, cheep 101. Dear, deer
76. Check, cheque 102. Descent, dissent
77. Choir, quire 103. Desert, dessert
78. Chord, cord 104. Deviser, divisor
79. Cite, sight, site 105. Dew, due
80. Clack, claque 106. Die, dye
81. Clew, clue 107. Discreet, discrete
82. Climb, clime 108. Doe, dough
83. Close, cloze 109. Done, dun
84. Coarse, course 110. Douse, dowse
85. Coign, coin 111. Draft, draught
86. Colonel, kernel 112. Dual, duel
87. Complacent, complaisant 113. Earn, urn
88. Complement, compliment 114. Ewe, yew, you
89. Coo, coup 115. Faint, feint
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90. Cops, copse 116. Fair, fare
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117. Farther, father 143. Friar, fryer
118. Fate, fete 144. Furs, furze
119. Faun, fawn 145. Gait, gate
120. Fay, fey 146. Gamble, gambol
121. Faze, phase 147. Gays, gaze
122. Feat, feet 148. Genes, jeans
123. Ferrule, ferule 149. Gild, guild
124. Few, phew 150. Gilt, guilt
125. File, phial 151. Gnaw, nor
126. Find, fined 152. Gneiss, nice
127. Fir, fur 153. Gorilla, guerrilla
128. Flair, flare 154. Grate, great
129. Flaw, floor 155. Greave, grieve
130. Flea, flee 156. Greys, graze
131. Flex, flecks 157. Groan, grown
132. Flew, flu, flue 158. Guessed, guest
133. Floe, flow 159. Hail, hale
134. Flour, flower 160. Hair, hare
135. Foaled, fold 161. Hall, haul
136. For, fore, four 162. Hangar, hanger
137. Foreword, forward 163. Hart, heart
138. Fort, fought 164. Haw, hoar, whore
139. Forth, fourth 165. Hay, hey
140. Foul, fowl 166. Heal, heel, he’ll
141. Franc, frank 167. Hear, here
142. Freeze, frieze 168. Heard, herd
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169. He’d, heed 195. Knows, nose
170. Heroin, heroine 196. Laager, lager
171. Hew, hue 197. Lac, lack
172. Hi, high 198. Lade, laid
173. Higher, hire 199. Lain, lane
174. Him, hymn 200. Lam, lamb
175. Ho, hoe 201. Laps, lapse
176. Hoard, horde 202. Larva, lava
177. Hoarse, horse 203. Lase, laze
178. Holey, holy, wholly 204. Law, lore
179. Hour, our 205. Lay, ley
180. Idle, idol 206. Lea, lee
181. In, inn 207. Leach, leech
182. Indict, indite 208. Lead, led
183. It’s, its 209. Leak, leek
184. Jewel, joule 210. Lean, lien
185. Key, quay 211. Lessen, lesson
186. Knave, nave 212. Levee, levy
187. Knead, need 213. Liar, lyre
188. Knew, new 214. Licker, liquor
189. Knight, night 215. Lie, lye
190. Knit, nit 216. Lieu, loo
191. Knob, nob 217. Links, lynx
192. Knock, nock 218. Lo, low
193. Knot, not 219. Load, lode
194. Know, no 220. Loan, lone
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221. Locks, lox 247. Mode, mowed
222. Loop, loupe 248. Moor, more
223. Loot, lute 249. Moose, mousse
224. Made, maid 250. Morning, mourning
225. Mail, male 251. Muscle, mussel
226. Main, mane 252. Naval, navel
227. Maize, maze 253. Nay, neigh
228. Mall, maul 254. None, nun
229. Manna, manner 255. Od, odd
230. Mantel, mantle 256. Ode, owed
231. Mare, mayor 257. Oh, owe
232. Mark, marque 258. One, won
233. Marshal, martial 259. Packed, pact
234. Mask, masque 260. Pail, pale
235. Maw, more 261. Pain, pane
236. Me, mi 262. Pair, pare, pear
237. Mean, mien 263. Palate, palette, pallet
238. Meat, meet, mete 264. Paten, pattern,
239. Medal, meddle 265. Pause, paws, pores, pours
240. Metal, mettle 266. Pawn, porn
241. Meter, metre 267. Pea, pee
242. Might, mite 268. Peace, piece
243. Miner, minor 269. Peak, peek
244. Mind, mined 270. Peal, peel
245. Missed, mist 271. Pearl, purl
246. Moat, mote 272. Pedal, peddle
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273. Peer, pier 299. Ring, wring
274. Pi, pie 300. Road, rode
275. Place, plaice 301. Roe, row
276. Plain, plane 302. Role, roll
277. Pleas, please 303. Roux, rue
278. Plum, plumb 304. Rood, rude
279. Pole, poll 305. Root, route
280. Practice, practise 306. Rose, rows
281. Praise, prays, preys 307. Rota, rotor
282. Principal, principle 308. Rote, wrote
283. Profit, prophet 309. Rough, ruff
284. Quarts, quartz 310. Rouse, rows
285. Quean, queen 311. Rung, wrung
286. Rain, reign, rein 312. Rye, wry
287. Raise, rays, raze 313. Saver, savour
288. Rap, wrap 314. Spade, spayed
289. Raw, roar 315. Sale, sail
290. Read, reed 316. Sane, seine
291. Read, red 317. Satire, satyr
292. Real, reel 318. Sauce, source
293. Reek, wreak 319. Saw, soar, sore
294. Rest, wrest 320. Scene, seen
295. Retch, wretch 321. Scull, skull
296. Review, revue 322. Sea, see
297. Rheum, room 323. Seam, seem
298. Right, rite, write 324. Sear, seer, sere
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325. Seas, sees, seize 351. Swat,swot
326. Sew, so, sow 352. Tacks,tax
327. Shake, sheikh 353. Tale,tail
328. Shear, sheer 354. Talk,torque
329. Shoe, shoo 355. Tare, tear
330. Sic, sick 356. Taught,taut,tort
331. Side, sighed 357. Tea,tee
332. Sign, sine 358. Team,teem
333. Sink, synch 359. Teas, tease
334. Slay, sleigh 360. Tare, tear
335. Sloe, slow 361. Tern,t urn
336. Sole, soul 362. There,their, they’re
337. Some, sum 363. Threw,through
338. Son, sun 364. Throes,throws
339. Sort, sought 365. Throne, thrown
340. Spa,spar 366. Thyme,time
341. Staid,stayed 367. Tic,tick
342. Stair,stare 368. Tide,tied
343. Stake,stoak 369. Tire,tyre
344. Stalk,stork 370. To,too,two
345. Stationary,stationery 371. Toad,toed,towed
346. Steal,steel 372. Told,tolled
347. Stile,style 373. Tole,toll
348. Storey,story 374. Ton,tun
349. Straight,strait 375. Tor,tore
350. Sweat,sweet 376. Tough,tuff
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377. Troop,troupe 396. Weather, whether
378. Tuba,tuber 397. Weir, we’re
379. Vain,vane,vein 398. Were, whirr
380. Vale,veil 399. Wet, whet
381. Vial,vile 400. Weald, wheeled
382. Wail,wale,whale 401. Which, witch
383. Wain, wane 402. Whig, wig
384. Waist, waste 403. While, wile
385. Waive, wave 404. Whine, wine
386. Wall, waul 405. Whirl, whorl
387. War, wore 406. Whirled, world
388. Warn, worn 407. Whit, wit
408. White, wight
389. Watt, what 409. Who’s, whose
390. Wax, whacks 410. Wood, would
391. Way, weigh 411. Yaw, yore, your, you’re
392. We, wee 412. Yoke, yolk
393. Weak, week 413. You’ll, yule
394. We’d, weed
395. Weal, we’ll, wheel
Exercise
Write two words pronounced the same way as each of the following words.
(a) B (b) C (c) I (d) P (e) T (f) U
SILENT LETTERS
In English there are letters that are usually not pronounced in certain words. Let us have a look
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at these letters and words in which they are silent.
Letter ‘A’
Romantically Artistically
Logically
Stoically
Musically
Letter ‘B’
Limb Succumb
Aplomb Crumb
Thumb
Bomb Debt Numb
Tomb
Climb Jamb
Plumb Womb
Comb Lamb
Subtle
Letter ‘C’
Ascend Crescent Fluorescent Resuscitate
Abscess Descend Isosceles Scenario
Ascent Descent Luminescent Scene
Conscience Muscle Scent
Discipline
Conscious Obscene Scissors
Fascinate
Letter ‘D’
Pledge Handkerchief
Wednesday
Grudge
Hedge
Dodge Sandwich
Letter ‘E’
Hate Like Lessen
Surprised
Name Hope
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Letter ‘G’
Align Benign Champagne Consign
Assign Campaign Cologne Gnarl
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Gnash Gnome Reign
Gnaw Gnu Sign
Letter ‘H’
Honest Archeolog Cholera Echo
y
Hour Charisma Loch
Architect
Heir Chemical Shep herd
Archives
Honour Chemist Mona rch
Chaos
Ache Chorus Sche me
Character
Anchor Choir psyc h
Letter ‘I’
Business
Parliament
Letter ‘K’
Knock Kneel Knight Know
Knapsack Knell Knit Knowledg
e
Knave Knew Knob
Knuckle
Knead 9. Knickers Knock
Knee Knife Knot
Letter ‘L’
Walk Calf Folk
Calm
Balk
Half Would Salmon
Yolk
Talk Should
Letter ‘N’
Autumn Column Condemn
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Damn Hymn Solemn
Letter ‘O’
Lesson
Letter ‘P’
Psychology Psychiatrist Receipt
Psychotherapy Corps
Pneumonia
Psychotic Coup
Pseudo
Letter ‘S’
Apropos
Island
Bourgeois
Aisle
Letter ‘T’
glisten mortgage whistle
Apostle
hustle nestle wrestle
Bristle
jostle rustle
Bustle
listen thistle
Castle
trestle
fasten moisten
Letter ‘U’
disguise guitar
baguette guillotine
guess rogue
biscuit guilt
guide silhouette
build guilty
guild colleague
built guilty
guile tongue
circuit guise
Letter ‘W’
awry sword wrangle
playwright
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wrap wrath
wrapper wreak
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wreath wretched writ wrong
wreck wriggle write wrought
wreckage wring wrote wrung
wren wrinkle wrong wry
wrench wrist writhe
Exercise
Identify the silent letter(s) in:
i. debtor xx. Clothes
ii. isle xxi. Cupboard
iii. mock xxii. Faux
iv. depot xiii. Mnemonic
v. acquit xiv. Numb
vi. womb xxv. Rendezvous
vii. patios xvi. Catalogue
viii. thyme xvii. Vegetable
ix. handsome viii. Asthma
x. sandwich xix. months
xi. government xxx. debris
xii. listen
xiii. Christmas
xiv. Whether
xv. Rapport
xvi. Ballet
xvii. Chalet
xviii. Aplomb
xix. Ricochet
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RIDDLES
➢ A riddle is a statement or a question with veiled meaning posed as a puzzle to be solved.
➢ The riddles play functions such as:
They boost the creativity of kids.
They entertain.
➢ Some examples of riddles include:
What gets wetter and wetter the more it dries? A towel.
What can you catch but not throw? A cold.
What goes around the world but stays in a corner? A stamp.
Give me food, and I will live; give me water, and I will die. What am I ? Fire.
Riddling Process
➢ There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the challenger(or the riddler).
➢ There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
➢ The parts of the riddling process are:
(1) The riddlerchallenges the audience. The challenge differs from community to community.
Some phrases used here include: riddle riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
(2) The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle come! Throw it! Etc.
(3) The riddler then poses the riddle.
(4) The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution. If they are unable,
then the next part follows.
(5) The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any other thing. The
challenger accepts the prize.
(6) Then the solution is given by the challenger.
Exercise
Read the riddling convention below and then identify its six parts.
Challenger: I have a riddle!
Respondent: Throw it.
Challenger: What comes down but never goes up?
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Respondent: Wind
Challenger: no, try again.
Respondent: Bird
Challenger: What will you give me if I offer the solution?
Respondent: You will have the entire fire to yourself.
Challenger: The answer is rain.
FEATURES OF OGRE STORIES AND TRICKSTERS
(a)OGRE STORIES
❖ An ogre usually represents an evil.
❖ Ogre are usually destroyed at the end.
❖ They have happy ending.
Functions of Ogre Stories
1. They warn against strangers.
2. They caution youth against marrying the people they don’t know.
3.
(b)TRICKSTER STORIES
❖ A character makes up for a physical weakness with cunning and subversive humour.
❖ The trickster alternatives between:
i. Cleverness and stupidity;
ii. Kindness and cruelty;
iii. Deceiver and deceived; and
iv. Breaker of taboos and creator of culture.
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MASTERY OF CONTENT
DEBATE
➢ A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is.
➢ Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent points of
view.
➢ There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the opposition.
➢ These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should play in a
mixed football team.’
➢ The teams are given enough preparation time.
➢ The team affirming the resolution speaks first.
➢ The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team and offer
arguments rejecting the resolution.
➢ Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly question the
other team.
➢ Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer constructive
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feedback.
Preparation Time
This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the debate.
During this time:
1. Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other students, etc.
2. Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your presentation.
3. Practice how to speak. Do it in front of friends and relatives, as well as in front of a mirror.
4. If anxious, do some physical exercise. You can also take a deep breath just before your
presentation.
5. Dress decently.
Points Delivery
Here are the points that will help you be successful during your points delivery:
. Deliver your points in a confident and persuasive way.
2. Vary your tone to make you sound interesting. Listening to one tone is boring.
. Speak quite loudly to be comfortably heard by everyone in the room. Shouting does not win
debates.
. Make eye contact with your audience, but keep shifting your gaze. Don’t stare at one person.
5. Concisely and clearly express your points to be understood by your audience members.
. Provide a proof for each point you put across. If you don’t you will not earn a point.
7. Speak slowly and enunciate your words. When you slow down your speech, you give your
audience and the judge more time to process your strong points.
8. Use gestures to elaborate on your points.
9. Pause to divide your major points.
Heckling
➢ Only supportive and argumentative heckling is permitted.
➢ Heckling is a brief phrase (about two words) or other non- verbal actions that are directed to
the judge of the debate.
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➢ They are reminder to the judge to pay close attention to the message immediately
expressed by the speaker.
➢ There are two types of heckles:
Those that are non-verbal, such as,
(a) Rapping the knuckles on the desktop.
(b) Rapping the palm on the desk.
() Stamping the feet
They are meant to encourage the judge to heed a particularly strong point being made by
the speaker.
Those that are verbal, such as,
(a) Objective
(b) Evidence
() Point of information
They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant to alert the
judge to a problem in the opposing side’s argument.
Exercise
After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could you have
delivered your points to earn their heckling?
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ETIQUETTE
Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave.
USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE
➢ When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite and
polished to show respect.
➢ At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite, inconsiderate, or
even thoughtless.
➢ Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships.
➢ To show politeness and respect:
Use the word please in request;
Say thank you to those who help or compliment you.
Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could, may,
will, or would.
Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or privacy.
Use question tags.
➢ In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect.
(a) Please
➢ We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example: Can you
pass that cup, please?
➢ also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me ten
shillings, please.
(b) Thank you
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➢ Use it whenever someone does something for you.
➢ Use it when someone commends you.
(c) Sorry
➢ Say it any time you inconvenience someone.
➢ Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc.
➢ Also when someone asks you something you cannot do. (d)
Excuse me
To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For example
Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives?
(e) Pardon me
Almost as ‘excuse me’
Exercise 1
Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be polite the
next time she comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases could Jennifer have
failed to use?
Exercise 2
Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness. John: I
would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge?
Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps?
John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity card and
receipt.
Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package.
John:Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London.
Jacinta:Please fill in the complete address in capital letters.
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NON VERBAL SKILLS IN LISTENING AND SPEAKING
IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE
A personal space is an imaginary area between a person and their surrounding area. This space
makes the person feel comfortable and should therefore not be encroached.
The distance can exist at work, at home and in our social circles.
The personal space varies depending on factors such as:
(a) Gender
(b) Trust
(c) Relationship
(d) Familiarity with the person.
Why Respect People’s personal Space?
1. To make them feel comfortable.
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2. To maintain good relationships.
3. To enhance listening. Especially during a talk.
General Personal Space Rules
The personal space guidelines below will help enhance listening and speaking:
1. Respectfully keep your distance if you walk into a room and see two people in private
conversation.
2. Pay attention to your volume when you speak, whether on the phone or in person, to
ensure you don’t distract attention of others.
3. Maintain physical space at table and chair rows so the people around you have enough
room to write, raise their hands, etc.
4. Be mindful of amount of perfume or cologne you wear as if it is in excess it might
distract others.
5. Never lean on the other person’s shoulder unless invited to.
6. Don’t eavesdrop on another person’s phone conversation. In case you overhear details of
the conversation, keep it confidential.
Dealing with Space Intrusion
Depending on the nature of the intrusion, you would deal with space encroachment in different
ways. Here are the steps of dealing with a person who leans on your shoulder:
1. Lean away or take a step back away from the person hoping they would take a hint.
2. Come right out and say you feel discomfort being too close.
3. Explain why you need more space. You can for example tell them you need more space to
write.
Exercise
You have attended a one day seminar. The person sitting next to you is said to be intruding your
personal space. What four personal space guidelines could this person have failed to follow?
LISTENING AND SPEAKING ANSWERS
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
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/ᶦ/
Hill
Sit
Still
Blip
Fill
Blink
Thrill
/i:/
Jeep
Creek
Greased
Teal
cheat
/e/
jet
bed
wet
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
Exercise 1
Sound /s/: seven, students, first, test, licences
Sound /z/ : driver’s, licences, Thursday Exercise
2
(a) Garage (c) Go (e) Entangle
(b) Gift (d) Digit (f) Gecko
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Exercise 3
Sound /ᶴ/ :tissue, passion, ocean, cautious, solution, pressure, Persian, chef, sure, precious
Sound /ᶾ/ :Caucasian, division, leisure, vision, casual, conclusion, television, decision, collision,
exposure
Exercise 4
Sound /f/ : forgive, for, forgetting, leftover, food
Sound /v/ :forgive, leftover
DIPHTHONGS
(a) Gate (e) Pane (i) Vane/vein (m) Sow
(b) Made (f) Plane (j) Waste (n) Know
(c) Male (g) Sail (k) Weight (o) Tow
(d) Pail (h) Tail (l) Ate (p) Groan
MINIMAL PAIRS
Exercise 1
(a) Heat (d) Pitch (g) Keep (j) Peel
(b) Shit (e) Leap (h) Ill (k) Skid
(c) Teen (f) Knit (i) Grid (l) Scheme
Exercise 2
(a) Hid (c) Hem (e) Fin (g) Din
(b) Mess (d) Led (f) Led (h) Pig
Exercise 3
(a) Fail (d) Sail/sale (g) Read/red (j) Stead
(b) Pen (e) Whale (h) Debt
(c) Hell (f) Met (i) Main
Exercise 4
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(a) Bat (b) Much (c) Mud (d) Flash
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(e) Come (g) Sung (i) Crush () Damp
(f) Dam (h) Ankle () Suck (l) Tag
Exercise 5
(a) Merry (c) Kettle (e) Sex (g) Tread
() Bland (d) Vet (f) Track (h) Mat
Exercise 6
(a) (c) Purse (e) Shirk
Fir/fur
(d) Firm (f) Cart
(b) Hard
Exercise 7
(a) Ban (c) Best (e) Bent (g) Lobes
(b) Vote (d) Bowels (f) Very () Verb
Exercise 8
(a) Very (d) Vine (g) Fail () Vault
(b) Leave (e) Halve (h) Grieve (k) File
(c) Fast () Prove (i) Carve (l) Strife
Exercise 9
(a) Bad (f) Bet (k) Hid (p) Not
(b) Got (g) Bought (l) Heard (q) Said
(c) Ride (h) Aid (m)Mad (r) Plate
(d) Ant (i) Bed (n) Meant (s) Sad
(e) add (j) feed (o) need (t) Debt
Exercise 10
(a) Tag (c) (d) (e) Cash (f) Jag (g) Gave (h)
(b) Flock Tuck Come Sack
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(i) League ( u
(j) Grab m c
(k) Glass (l) ) k
Could C
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(q) Cut (r) Lock (s) Rag (t) got
HOMOPHONES
(a) bee, be (c) aye, eye (e) tea, tee
(b) see, sea (d) pee, pea (f) ewe, you
SILENT LETTERS
i. b xi. n xxi. p
ii. s xii. t xxii. x
iii. c xiii. t xxiii. m
iv. t xiv. h xxiv. b
v. c xv. t xxv. z
vi. b xvi. t xxvi. ue
vii. s xvii. t xxvii. e
viii. h xviii. b xxviii. th
ix. d xix. t xxix. th
x. d xx. e xxx. s
RIDDLES
Challenge – I have a riddle!
Acceptance – Throw it.
Pose/ Riddle – What comes down but never goes up?
Guesses – wind, bird
Prize – Fire
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Solution – rain
Exercise 2
aabcddbceeccffccgghh
DEBATE
I could have:
Spoken confidently
Varied my tone appropriately
Spoken loud enough to be heard by everyone
Made my contact with my audience
Provided proofs for my points in persuasive way.
Spoken slowly and enunciated words correctly
Used gestures that reinforced my ideas
Paused at key points
USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE
Exercise 1
Failed to use ‘thank you’ after being given the bar of soap.
Failed to use ‘please’ when asking to be given the bar of soap.
Failed to use ‘excuse me’ to get the shopkeeper’s attention.
Exercise 2
She has used ‘please’ when asking John to fill the address.
She has used ‘would’ in asking questions.
IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE
He could have failed to:
Speak in a low voice during the talk.
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Maintain the physical distance between the two of us at the table.
Resist leaning on my shoulder or chest.
Resist eavesdropping on my phone conversation
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READING FOR FORM ONE
READING SKILLS
SILENT READING
➢ It involves reading without pronouncing the words out loud.
➢ It is reading to oneself.
Bad Silent Reading Habits
The following are some of the bad silent habits which you must try to break:
(a) Moving your lips when you read
(b) Vocalizing
Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of the throat without making
sounds. This also slows your reading rate to that of speaking.
(c) Regressing out of habit
Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need.
Sometimes, it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual,
unnecessary regressing really slows you down.
(d) Reading one word at a time
(e) Moving of the head as one reads. (f)
Pointing the words as you read. USING
A DICTIONARY
Reasons for using a dictionary
A dictionary is a very important tool for anyone who is learning a new language. With a
good dictionary you can do the following:
look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear
find the English translation of a word in your language
check the spelling of a word
check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
find out other grammatical information about a word
find the synonym or antonym of a word
look up the collocations of a word
check the part of speech of a word
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find out how to say a word
find out about the register of a word
find examples of the use of a word in natural language
To be a good dictionary user, however, it is not enough to know what to use the dictionary
for. You must also decide which is the best dictionary for any of the purposes listed above.
Finding words quickly
✓ You will need to know the English alphabet perfectly.
✓ Use the guide words at the top of each dictionary page.
Finding the right meaning of an English word
Very often when you look up a new English word, you find that it has more than one meaning. If
you are not sure which one is correct, check through all the meanings and find the one that makes
most sense in the context where you found the word.
Finding the right spelling
Another problem you may have is when you want to check your spelling but you can’t find the
word you’re looking for. Here is what to do:
If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until you find the right
spelling.
If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities. You know for
example that some words that start with an -n sound have p as their first letter; e.g. . So if
you can't find the word under N, try looking in the P pages.
USING THE LIBRARY
When you walk into a library, there are many resources at your fingertips. You just need
to know what to use, how to use it, and when to ask for help.
Different Types of Libraries to Use
Depending on the topic you need to study, you might find that different libraries might
serve you better.
The different types of libraries include:
Public: This library is the typical library working to make sure the local
community has the books it needs without having to charge anyone to read them.
Home library
Class library.
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School library
Using the library is easy and it only takes a little direction from you in order to fully
realize how many books can help you with your topic of study.
Consulting the Librarian
At times, you may not know where to begin with a research topic. If you are not sure
where to go or what questions to ask, it can help to bring in a third party who is not
attached to your research: the librarian.
Talking to the librarian will help have book titles that have been helpful to you. If you
already have found helpful books, show the librarian so they can look for similar books in
the stacks.
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COMPREHENSION SKILLS
SUMMARY AND NOTE-MAKING
SUMMARIES
SUMMARY
➢ An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood
something.
➢ You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.
How to produce a summary:
1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.
2.Outline the major points.
3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.
4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.
5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.
6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means
you have to be very careful of your word choice.
7. Write in prose – not point form.
NOTE-MAKING
NOTE MAKING
How to Make Notes
The following tips will come in handy when making notes:
1. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
2. Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
3. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
4. Write the final notes.
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You should have in mind that a note:
1. Should be short and to the point.
2. Contain all the important and relevant information.
3. Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
4. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
5. Must be written in points only.
Notes Template
TITLE …………………….
(a)
………………………………………….
(b)
…………………………………………
(c)
………………………………………..
(d)
………………………………………..
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GRAMMAR FOR FORM ONE
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
() COMMON NOUNS
➢ They are simply words that name people, places, things, or ideas.
➢ They are not the actual names.
➢ The word ‘teacher’ is a common noun, but the word ‘Halima’ is not.
➢ A common noun identifies a thing, etc.
➢ Example of common nouns are:
People: teacher, father, secretary, woman, girl, etc
Animals: Tiger, Dog, Cow, etc
Things: Chair, desk, cup, phone, etc
Places: City, town, continent, etc
Ideas: envy, hate, love, pride, etc
How to Capitalize Common Nouns
The simple rule is: don’t capitalize a common noun, unless it is the first word in a sentence, or
part of a title.
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Examples in Sentences
❖ Let’s go to that hotel.
❖ I visit a town during the holidays.
Exercise
Substitute the underlined word(s) with a common noun. You can add a word before the noun.
. John and Nick were taught.
2. I have visited Asia.
3. She lives in Nairobi.
4. We eat at the Hilton.
. Have you ever swum in the Nile?
6. I drive Mercedes Benz.
7. Everyone went shopping at Tuskys.
8. Corporal Jones has died.
. I come from Rwanda.
10. I am teach at Alliance.
() PROPER NOUNS
➢ A proper noun is a name used for an individual person, thing, or a place.
➢ They always begin in capital letters no matter where they occur in sentences.
➢ Look at the table below.
Common Noun Proper Noun Example in a Sentence
Teacher Mr. Kamau Mr. Kamau is our teacher of English.
President Mr. Uhuru Kenyatta Mr Uhuru Kenyatta is in the state
house.
Mombasa is the place I go every
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City Mombasa weekend.
Exercise
Identify proper nouns in the sentences below.
1. I will take you to Rich’s Palace.
2. Sarah is the girl I told you about.
3. Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
4. Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
5. I am craving Oreos.
6. I used Tilly in cooking.
7. Jupiter is one of the planets.
8. Margaret was a great author.
(c) CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT NOUNS
Concrete Nouns
➢ A concrete noun register to our senses.
➢ You can see, hear, taste, smell, or even feel them.
➢ The examples are:
Table
Ball
House
Rice
Water
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Wool
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Abstract Nouns
➢ They don’t register to one’s senses.
➢ They are just ideas, feelings, or qualities.
➢ Some examples of abstract nouns include:
Health Insurance Anger
Interest Happiness Fun
Sleep Peace Pride
Traffic Confidence
Knowledge
Advice Determination
History
Law
Education Noise
Laughter
Business
Intelligence
Example in Sentences
(i) Education is the key to life.
(ii) All the teacher wanted was a proof.
(iii) I will apply once the opportunity presents itself.
(iv) They are calling for justice.
(v) You need to change your behaviour.
(vi) Love makes the world go round.
Exercise 1
Identify the nouns in the sentences and write whether it they are concrete or abstract.
1. A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.
2. No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
3. My faith in God is very strong.
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4. A person should buy a beautiful dress.
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5. Have you seen the black dog?
6. Love is blind.
Exercise 2
Fill the blank with the appropriate form of the word in brackets.
1. She asked for my about this book. (advise)
2. The in Kenya is not as good as it was 10 years ago. (educate)
3. The way she answers questions shows she has above average . (intelligent)
4. She explained the of physical exercise. (important)
5. means different things to different people. (happy)
6. is all that will help. (confident)
7. It is that comes before a fall. (proud)
8. His led him to kill Ojwang. (angry)
9. The composition she wrote showed a high level of . (imagine)
10. You will die out of . (lonely)
(d) COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS
A concrete noun can either be categorized as count or non-count.
Count Nouns
➢ A count noun can be expressed in plural form, normally with an “-s”, for example,
Season – seasons
Dog – dogs
Teacher – teachers
➢ When you look around the classroom, there are things that you can count. What are they?
The list of things you can probably see are:
Chairs
Tables
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Flag
Textbooks
Desks
Cups
➢ Such nouns can be preceded by appropriate articles, whether singular or plural.
Non-Count Nouns
➢ Also referred to as mass nouns.
➢ Nouns falling under this category are those:
That cannot be counted
That do not have plural forms.
➢ Below are the examples of non-count nouns.
Luggage Milk Rice
Weather Juice History
Beer News
Equipment
Soccer Mathematics
Oxygen
Biology Electricity
Wood
Reading Meat
Plastic
Glass Furniture
Hair
Air Sunshine
Examples in Sentences
1. This is school equipment.
2. Plastic is a non conductor.
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(e) PLURAL NOUNS
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➢ There are rules for spelling plural nouns.
General Rules for Spelling Plural Nouns
1. Most nouns add “-s”, for example
Book – books
Pen – pens
Phone – phones
2. Most nouns that end in “-ch”, “-sh”, “-s”, “-x”, or “-z” add “-ies”, for example,
Church – churches
Box – boxes
Prize – prizes
Bus – buses
3. Most nouns that end in a consonant and “-y” becomes “-ies”, for example,
Spy – spies
Community – communities
Activity – activities
Country – countries
4. Most nouns that end in “-f”, or “-fe” add “-ves”, for example,
Elf – elves
Wolf – wolves
Half – halves
Knife – knives
Scarf – scarves
5. Some nouns that end in a consonant and “o”, add “-es”, for example,
Tomato – tomatoes
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Buffalo – buffaloes
Volcano – volcanoes
Hero – heroes
Mosquito – mosquitoes
6. Some nouns only change their vowels, for example,
Goose – geese
Man – men
Mouse – mice
Tooth – teeth
There are those that do not change at all, for example,
Deer
Species
Fish
Sheep
➢ There are a few nouns that have plural forms which are left from old English, for example,
Child – children
Ox – oxen
➢ Then there are those of Latin origin. They are like:
Antenna – antennae
Appendix – appendices, appendixes
Cactus – cacti
Stadium – stadia, stadiums
Terminus – termini, terminuses
Referendum – referenda, referendums
Index – indices, indexes
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Formula – formulae, formulas
Curriculum – curricula, curriculums
ARTICLES
➢ An article is a kind of adjective.
➢ It is used with a noun and gives some information about that noun.
➢ There are two articles:
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The
➢ The article “a” has a form “an”.
➢ Article “a” is known as the indefinite article. It is called indefinite since the noun it goes with is
indefinite or general.
➢ The form “an” is used when the noun it precedes begins with a vowel.
➢ The article “a” has the same meaning as number “one”. For example, one can say: I
have bought a pen. Or
I have bought one pen.
➢ The article “the” is definite article.
➢ A definite article indicates a specific thing. Can you identify the difference between the pair of
sentences below?
(i) I bought a pen.
(ii) I bought the pen.
The second sentence shows that I bought a particular pen, and not any other.
➢ The article “the” is used with count nouns when:
We use the noun a second and subsequent times.
The listener knows what you are referring to.
Exercise
Fill in the blank with appropriate article. Leave the space blank if no article is needed.
1. I have to eat apple today.
2. She has dog at home.
3. My son has learnt how to play piano.
4. Tom likes to play basketball.
5. There is new book on the table.
6. teacher is late this morning.
7. ink in my pen is black.
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8. She speaks Japanese.
9. What expensive bike!
10. He is honest person.
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
➢ They represent specific people or things.
➢ They are used depending on:
(i) Number: whether singular or plural
(ii) Person: whether first, second, or third persons
(iii) Gender: whether male, female, or neuter
(iv) Case : whether in the case of subject or object
Number versus Person
Number First Person Second Person Third Person
Singular I You He/she/it
Plural We You They
Gender versus Person
Person Gender
Male Female Neuter
First person
Second person
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Third person He She It
Case
➢ The pronouns used as subjects are:
We
He
She
It
They
You
➢ The pronouns below are used as objects:
Me
Us
Him
Her
It
You
Them
Examples in Sentences
(i) I like it.
(ii) You are my best friend.
(iii) She is running from the truth.
(iv) Get me that book please.
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(v) They are interviewing them.
Exercise 1
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Fill the blanks with correct forms of pronouns in brackets.
1. am the new class prefect. (me)
2. doesn’t matter. (they)
3. Does Martha like ? (he)
4. Killion helped . (I)
5. Did you see ? (she)
Exercise 2
Replace the underlined words with an appropriate pronoun.
1. The old gate doesn’t look good.
2. Tom and Mary went to school.
3. The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
4. Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
5. Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
6. Christine is clever.
7. I brought the dress.
8. Antony drove Junet and me.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
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➢ We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person or people, or thing or things that
belong to a person or people, or things.
➢ Just like personal pronouns, they are used depending on:
(i) Number
(ii) Person
(iii) Gender
(iv) Case
Number and Person
In singular we use: Mine
– first Person Yours --
second person
His/hers/its – third person
In plural, use:
Ours – first person
Yours – second person
Theirs – third person
Gender
For male gender, the pronoun below are used:
His
For female gender use, hers
Case
A possessive pronoun can either be a subject or object.
Examples in Sentences
(i) Mine is that one.
(ii) This one is mine.
(iii) The cars are yours.
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(iv) Yours are those ones over there.
(v) Hers has been stolen.
(vi) This building is ours.
Exercise
Complete each sentence with the possessive pronoun form of the word(s) underlined.
1. Martha did homework in time.
2. Have you got money.
3. I like your name. Do you like ?
4. Hector and Emmy have seen your bag. Have you seen ?
5. Jane, my flowers are dying. are good.
6. I have come with my sister. name is Alice.
7. Sophie and Gerges study Science. teacher is kind.
8. We love new boss.
9. He is in house.
10. Are you and your friend enjoying weekend?
11. The cat has bit tail.
12. Right has a brother. is 10 years old.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
➢ They are special kind of pronouns.
➢ A reflexive pronoun is used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject.
➢ Each personal pronoun has its own reflexive form.
➢ The table below shows personal pronouns with their equivalent reflexive pronouns.
Personal Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun
I Myself
You (singular) Yourself
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You (plural) Yourselves
He Himself
She Herself
It Itself
We Ourselves
They Themselves
When Reflexive Pronouns are Used
Reflexive pronouns are used when:
(i) The object and the subject are similar. For example,
She bit herself.
The subject she and the object herself are similar.
They betrayed themselves.
Matthew likes himself.
(ii) They are used as the object of prepositions. In the sentences below, the words
underlined are the prepositions and the ones in boldface are the objects of those
prepositions.
Young bought a pencil for himself.
Halima mopped the room by herself.
The mad man talks to himself.
(iii) They are also used when emphasizing the subjects. Examples
I ate all the rice myself. This means no one else had any.
Dan will wash the clothes himself. This means she will be helped by no one.
Can you differentiate between the pair of sentences below?
She bought the pen herseif.
She bought the dress for herself.
Exercise
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Fill the correct form of reflexive pronoun for each blank space.
1. In the evening, we went to the market to buy food to cook.
2. I don’t know whether they went to school or whether they taught .
3. If you hurt , don’t cry to anyone.
4. This cat caught the rat .
5. Whenever I see in a mirror, I smile to .
6. That little duck is washing in the pond.
7. Jonathan ate all the food .
8. Good evening everyone? Please make comfortable.
9. Since the school is their father’s, they give break whenever they feel like.
10. Mary bought the dress for .
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FUNCTIONS OF PRONOUNS
➢ A pronoun can be used where a noun or a noun phrase can be used in a sentence.
➢ Pronouns perform the following functions in a sentence:
(1) As the Subject of a Verb
The subject of verb is that which performs that action.
Some of the pronouns used as subjects of the verbs are:
He
She
They
We etc
Examples in Sentences
1. He is my best friend.
ii. You are the one I saw.
3. They are the school administrators.
(2) As the Object of A Verb
An object is the recipient of the action.
Some object pronouns include:
Me
You
Him
Her
Them
It etc
Examples in Sentences
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i. Richard escorted him.
ii. He separated them.
iii. I saw her.
(c) As the Object of a preposition
An object of preposition immediately follows the preposition.
Examples
i. I will think about it.
ii. I bought it for him.
VERBS
➢ A verb is a word that shows an action, state, or even an occurrence.
➢ There are two main verb types:
❖ Lexical verbs
❖ Auxiliary verbs
➢ In this section, we shall study Lexical verbs.
LEXICAL VERBS
➢ A lexical verb is the main verb in a sentence.
➢ It does not need a helping verb as it carries the meaning.
➢ The examples are:
❖ Talk
❖ Sing
❖ Run
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❖ Jump
❖ Eat
❖ Go etc
➢ Depending on how they form their past tense and past participle forms, they are grouped as
regular or irregular verbs.
Examples in Sentences
1. I work at the station.
2. She drives a fancy car.
3. I gave you all I had.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
➢ Verbs are subdivided into regular and irregular verbs depending on how their past tense
and past participles are formed.
➢ A regular verb adds –ed or –d to the end of the base forms.
Examples of Regular Verbs
Verb Past Tense Past Participle
Call Called Called
Plan Planned Planned
Jump Jumped Jumped
Kill killed Killed
Fill filled filled
Examples In Sentences
1. He jumped over the fence.
2. He killed the cat.
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➢ For Irregular verbs, there is no formula that predict their past tense and past participle
forms.
➢ They include:
Verb Past Tense Past Participle
Sweep Swept Swept
Cut Cut Cut
Come Came Came
Go Went Went
Meet Met Met
Is/am Was Been
Examples in Sentences
1. He ran towards the river.
2. Have you repaid the loan?
3. I have swum.
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TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
➢ The simple present tense is used to express:
1. Habitual actions, for example,
i. She eats fish.
ii. She washes her clothes every week.
iii. We see movies every evening.
2. Some general truths, for example,
i. Water boils at 100 degrees.
ii. The month of April has 30 days.
Points to Remember on The Simple Present Third Person Singular
The verb usually ends in –s, for example, i.
He runs
ii. She runs
iii. It runs
Negative and question are “does”, for example, i.
He does not run.
ii. Does he run?
iii. She does not run.
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iv. Does she run?
In case of negative and question, the next verb after “does” does not add an -s
Present Simple Tense – Negative
A negative sentence is usually formed by using “not”.
Examples in Sentences
i. I do not like it.
ii. We do not like it.
iii. You do not like it.
iv. She does not like it.
v. He does not like it.
vi. They do not like it.
Present Simple Tense – Questions
The questions are formed by using either “do” or “does” at the beginning.
Examples in Sentences
i. Do you like it?
ii. Do we like it?
iii. Do you like it?
iv. Does she like it?
v. Does he like it?
vi. Do they like it?
Exercise 1
Rewrite each sentence below following the instruction in brackets. Do not change the meaning of
the sentence.
1. I live in Maragua. (begin with: do)
2. Right comes to school daily. (begin: does)
3. She does not play rugby. (do not use: not)
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4. The train leaves at 8.00 am. (use: 9.00 am)
5. Does he forget his wallet? (begin: he)
Exercise 2
Use the correct form of the verb in brackets to complete each of the following sentences.
1. I fifteen years old now. (be)
2. Moureen at Githurai. (live)
3. Emilly dinner for them. (cook)
4. The students lunch at 1.00 pm. (eat)
5. My grandmother medicine when she is sick. (take)
6. It normally here in April. (rain)
7. It in May as much as it does in March. (rain)
8. They French twice a week. (study)
9. Mr Gregory Geography at Lukenya High School.
10. George to church every Sunday. (go)
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
➢ A simple past tense is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now.
➢ The time of action can be in the recent past or the distant past.
Examples
1. I walked all the way to school.
2. We saw them at the restaurant.
3. They played the piano.
4. She ate her lunch at 1.00 pm.
How to Form the Simple Past Tense
Simple Past in Negative Statement
The pattern here is:
Subject+Auxiliary+not
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She did not call.
Simple Past in Interrogative
Did she call you?
Exercise
Fill in the correct form of word in brackets to complete each sentence.
1. I to the theatre last week. (go)
2. It interesting. (be)
3. I three sites last year. (visit)
4. It as it did the the previous week. (rain)
5. She a single card from her relatives.(receive)
6. We to a new house last month. (move)
7. They us pizza yesterday. (bring)
8. I a big lion. (see)
9. Where your last weekend? (spend/you)
10. It was cold, so I off my coat. (take)
11. Since the door was opened, the bird into the house.
12. The car wasn’t expensive. It very much. (cost)
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ADJECTIVES
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS
Comparatives
The comparative form of an adjective is used to compare two people or things. Example
He is quicker than Ngure.
Superlatives
The superlative form of an adjective is used to compare more than two people or things.
Example
He is the quickest of the three.
Ways of Making Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
(a) Adjectives with One Syllable
In general, if an adjective has one syllable, then –er or –r for comparative and –est or –st for
supelatives are added to the adjective. Examples
Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
Hot Hotter Hottest
Tall Taller Tallest
Small Smaller Smallest
Large Larger Largest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Nice Nicer Nicest
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(b) Adjectives with Two Syllables
➢ There are those that simply add –er or –r for comparative, and –est or –st for superlative.
Examples
i. Feeble Feebler Feeblest
ii.
➢ some use theword “more” for comparative, and “most” for superlative forms. Examples i.
famous more famous most famous
ii.
➢ There are those that can do with either ¬–er or –r , or more for comparative and –est or –st , or
most for superlative. They are special adjectives.Examples
i. Clever Cleverer (more clever) Cleverest (most clever)
ii. Simple Simpler (more simple) Simplest (most simple)
➢ Other special adjectives are:
Quiet
Polite
Pleasant
Likely
Commonly
Sure
(c) Adjectives with Three or More Syllables
Word more for comparative and most for superlatives are used. Examples
Interesting moreinteresting most interesting
Attractive more attractive most attractive
(d) Irregular adjectives
Some adjectives have Irregular comparative and superlative forms. Examples
Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
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Bad Worse Worst
Good Better Best
Little Less Least
Much More Most
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES
➢ The way an adjective make comparative and superlative forms is what determines whether it
is regular or irregular.
Regular Adjectives
➢ A regular adjective adds –er or more in comparative form, and –est or most for superlatives.
➢ The table below illustrates this.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller Smallest
Nice Nicer Nicest
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Irregular Adjectives
➢ They have completely different forms.
➢ It is not easy to predict their comparative and superlative forms.
➢ Examples are:
❖ Good
❖ Bad etc
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GRADABLE AND NON GRADABLE ADJECTIVES
Gradable Adjectives
➢ A gradable adjective has different degrees.
➢ You can say “very hot” or “a bit hot”. Hot is therefore a gradable adjective. Other gradable
adjectives are:
Cold
Warm
Tall
Nice etc
➢ There are grading adverbs that can be used with gradable adjectives. They include:
A bit
Very
Extremely
Quite
Really
So etc
Examples in Sentnces
i. It is extremely cold today.
ii. This novel is quite interesting.
iii. The girl is very beautiful.
iv. She is reasonably popular.
Non-Gradable Adjectives
➢ They do not have different degrees.
➢ Some examples of non gradable adjectives are:
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❖ Domestic ❖ Nearly ❖
❖ Unique ❖ Chemical
❖ Absolutely ❖ Totally
➢ One cannot say “very dead” or “really dead”. The adjective “dead” is thus, a non-gradable
adjective.
➢ A grading adverb cannot be used with the non-gradable adjectives.
Example in a Sentence
i. The dead relative will be buried soon.
ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF MANNER
➢ They tell us the manner in which the action happened, happens, or will happen.
➢ The examples are:
❖ Carefully
❖ Slowly
❖ Loudly
❖ Easily etc
Examples in Sentences
1. She answered it correctly.
2. The problem was solved easily.
3. He drives slowly.
4. He walked quickly.
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5. He runs fast.
ADVERBS OF TIME
➢ An adverb of time tell us when an action happens.
➢ An adverb of time can also tell us for how long that action occurred. For example, three
months.
➢ Some examples of adverbs of time are:
Today
Next week
Late
Early
Morning
Last year
Two months time, etc
Examples in Sentences
i. I saw it yesterday.
ii. He came to school late.
iii. She watched the whole day.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
➢ These are adverbs that answer questions “How frequently?” or “how often?”.
➢ They tell us how often something happens.
➢ There are two types of adverbs of frequency:
i. Adverbs of definite frequency, for example,
Monthly
Daily
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Weekly
Yearly
Every minute
Twice a month
Once
Three times a day, etc
Examples in Sentences
Employees pay taxes monthly.
The storekeeper checks the store every day.
I review my notes every week.
ii. Adverbs of indefinite frequency, for example,
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
Seldom
Frequently
Occasionally
Usually
Examples in Sentences
i. She is never late.
ii. I often do my assignment.
iii. They sometimes visit me.
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PREPOSITIONS
SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS
➢ A preposition joins words together and show the relationship between the different parts of a
sentence.
➢ The following are the simple prepositions with examples in sentences:
1. In, on, at
He is in the house.
The cup is on the table.
He teaches at a school in Wajir.
2. Above, below
Most students scored above 50.
Few students scored below 4o.
3. Over, under
Don’t jump over the fence.
The cat is hiding under the bed.
4. Around, through
The flowers we planted around the house.
The spear went through his body.
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5. Before, after
I will see him before lunch.
He is leaving after lunch.
6. To, from
I am coming from Limuru. I
am going to Nairobi.
7. About, by
Have you read the story about an ogre?
The story was written by Kendagor.
8. With, without
He didn’t want to go with us.
We went without him.
9. Between, among
This is a secret between you and me.
There is no secret among many.
10. Inside, outside
The bottle is inside the box.
The spoon is outside the box.
PREPOSITIONS COMBINATIONS
Adjective+Preposition
Specific prepositions are used after certain adjectives. There is no definite rule to
ascertain which preposition should be used with which adjective. We simply need to
learn them.
Here is a list of some commonly used adjectives and the prepositions that normally
follow them:
ADJECTIVE PREPOSITION
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accustomed To
Afraid Of
Accused Of
acquainted With
Addicted To
Annoyed about/with/at
Allergic To
Amazed at/by
Anxious About
appreciated For
Ashamed Of
associated With
astonished at/by
Aware Of
Angry With
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Afraid Of
Attached To
Bad At
Based On
beneficial To
Boastful For
Bored With
Brilliant At
Busy With
Capable Of
Careful with/about/of
Certain About
characteristic Of
Clever At
connected With
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conscious Of
Content With
Crazy About
Crowded With
Curious About
dissatisfied With
Doubtful About
Delighted at/about
Derived From
Different From
disappointed With
Eager For
Eligible For
enthusiastic About
Excellent in/at
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Excited About
experienced In
Exposed To
Envious Of
Faithful To
Familiar With
Famous For fed
up With
Free of/from
frightened Of
Friendly With
Fond Of
Furious About
Furnished With
Full Of
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Generous with/about
Guilty of/about
Gentle With
Good At
Grateful To
Happy About
Hopeful of/about
Identical with/to
Immune To
impressed With
Inferior To
indifferent To
Innocent Of
interested In
Involved With
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Incapable Of
Jealous Of
Kind To
Keen On
Late For
Limited To
Lucky At
Nervous of/about
Notorious For
Opposed To
Patient With
pessimistic About
Pleased With
Polite To
Popular With
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Presented With
Proud Of
Punished For
Puzzled by/about
Qualified For
Ready For
Related To
Relevant To
respectful For
responsible For
Rid Of
Sad About
Safe From
Satisfied With
Scared Of
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Sensitive To
Serious About
Sick Of
Similar To
Shocked By
Skilful At
Slow At
Sorry for/about
successful In Suitable
For
Sure of/about
Superior To
Surprised At
suspicious Of
sympathetic With
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terrible At
terrified Of
tired Of
thankful to/for
trilled With
troubled With
typical Of
unaware Of
upset About
used To
wrong with/about
worried About
Examples in Sentences
1. It was nice of you to help me.
2. Why are you so angry about it? They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party.
3. I was disappointed with the book she bought me.
4. I was pleased with the present you gave me. Were you disappointed with your examination result
5. They have been astonished by something.
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6. Everyone was surprised by /at the news.
7. Are you excited about going on holiday next week?
8. Are you afraid of dogs?
9. I'm not ashamed of what I did.
10. I'm not very good at driving big cars.
11. Your composition is full of errors.
12. Your name is similar to mine.
Verb +Preposition Combination
➢ Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb.
➢ These kinds are called dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund
(‘ing’ form).
➢ Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions.
account for appeal to SO for ST
accuse SO of ST approve of
adapt to argue with SO about SO/ST
add SO/ST to SO/ST argue with SO over ST
add to arrange for SO (to do
adjust to something)
admit ST to SO arrest SO for ST
admit to arrive at (a place)
agree on ask for
agree to
agree with
apologize to SO for ST
base on be annoyed with SO for ST
be absent from (a place) be anxious about ST
be accustomed to be associated with be
be acquainted with aware of
be addicted to ST be blessed with
be afraid of be bored by
be angry at SO for ST be bored with
be angry with SO for ST be capable of ST
be annoyed at SO for ST be cluttered with ST
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be committed to be guilty of ST
be composed of be happy about ST
be concerned about be innocent of ST
be connected to be interested in
be connected with be involved in ST
be content with be involved with
be convinced of ST be jealous of
be coordinated with ST be known for ST
be crowded in (a building or room) be limited to
be crowded with (people) be made from ST
be dedicated to be made of (material)
be devoted to be married to
be disappointed in be opposed to
be disappointed with be patient with SO
be discouraged by be pleased with
be discouraged from (doing be polite to SO
something) be prepared for
be discriminated against be protected from
be divorced from SO be proud of
be done with ST be related to
be dressed in be relevant to
be encouraged with be remembered for ST
be engaged in ST be responsible for
be engaged to SO be satisfied with
be envious of be scared of
be equipped with ST be terrified of
be excited about be thankful for
be exposed to be tired from (doing something)
be faced with be tired of (doing something)
be faithful to be worried about
be familiar with beg for
be famous for begin with
be filled with believe in
be finished with belong to
be fond of benefit from
be friendly to SO blame SO for ST
be friendly with SO blame ST on SO
be frightened by boast about
be frightened of borrow ST from SO
be furnished with ST
be grateful to SO for ST
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care about cure SO of ST
care for
catch up with
cater to deal with
charge SO for ST decide against
charge SO with ST decide between SO/ST and SO/ST
choose between SO/ST and decide on dedicate
SO/ST
ST to SO demand ST
chose ST from ST
from SO depend on
collide with
derive ST from ST
come from
deter SO from ST
comment on
devote ST to SO
communicate with SO
differ from
compare SO/ST to SO/ST
disagree with
compare SO/ST with SO/ST
disapprove of
compete with
discourage SO from ST
complain about
discuss ST with SO
compliment SO on ST
distinguish between SO/ST and
concentrate on SO/ST
concern SO with ST distinguish SO/ST from SO/ST
confess to distract SO from ST
confuse SO/ST with SO/ST dream about
congratulate SO on ST dream of
consent to ST dress SO in ST
consist of contribute drink to
to ST convict SO of
ST cope with
correspond with SO
count on elaborate on
cover with ST
crash into emerge from
ST
escape from (a place)
exchange SO/ST for feel about
SO/ST feel like
exclude SO from ST fight about
excuse SO for ST fight against
expel SO from (a place) fight for
experiment on fight with
explain ST to SO forget about
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forgive SO for introduce SO/ST to
ST SO/ST
invest in
invite SO to
involve SO/ST in ST
gamble on
gawk at
gaze at
get back from (a jabber about
place) joke about
get married to SO joke with SO about
get rid of SO/ST
get through with jot down ST
get tired of
get used to
give ST to SO laugh about
glare at laugh at
gloat at learn about
grieve for lend ST to SO
gripe at SO listen for
grumble at SO about listen to
ST
long for
look at
look forward
happen to to
harp on
hear about
hear from SO meet with SO
hear of mistake SO/ST for
SO/ST
help SO with ST
hide ST from SO
hinder SO/ST from
nod
ST
at
hinge on
nod
hope for to
object to
insist on insure operate
against interfere on
in ST interfere
with ST
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show ST to SO
participate in ST smile at SO
pay for speak to SO about SO/ST
persist in specialize in ST
plan on spend (money/time) on
praise SO for ST stand for
pray for stare at
prefer SO/ST to SO/ST stem from
prepare for stop SO from (doing
present SO with ST something)
prevent SO/ST from (doing subject SO to ST
something) subscribe to
prohibit SO from (doing something) substitute SO/ST for SO/ST
provide for subtract ST from ST succeed
provide SO with ST at ST
provide SO/ST for SO succeed in (doing something)
punish SO for ST suffer from
suspect SO of ST
react to take advantage of
recover from ST take care of
refer to ST talk about
relate to talk to
rely on tell SO about ST
remind SO of SO/ST thank SO for ST
reply to think about
rescue SO from think of
SO/ST toast to
resign from ST translate ST into (a
respond to language)
result in ST trust SO with ST
retire from ST turn to
use ST for
save SO from ST ST
search for sentence
SO to ST
separate SO/ST from SO/ST vote
shout at vote for
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worry about
write about
write to SO
wait for
warn about
waste (money/time)
on yap
wish for about
work for yearn for
work on
Exercise 1
Fill the blank spaces with the most appropriate prepositions.
1. She has placed the cup the table.
2. I will allow you go the field.
3. She is singing her room.
4. Is he home now?
5. He lives Nairobi.
6. Don’t be late class.
7. Compare your points your friend’s.
8. Are the new student Ethiopia?
9. Rich is still vacation.
10. My daughter’s birthday is May.
Answers
1. On 5. In 9. On
2. To 6. For 10. In
3. In 7. With
4. At 8. From
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Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with the most appropriate prepositions.
1. It was stupid …………………her to go out without a coat.
2. Everyone was pleased ………………….the marks they scored.
3. I am bored ………………..singing every morning.
4. Are you interested ………………..sports?
5. Kenya is famous ……………… her athletes.
6. I will be happy to see married ……………. Gregory.
7. The town is crowded with people.
8. You will be held responsible …………………anything that happens.
9. She is sorry ……………….. her behavior last night.
10. You should be sorry …………………..missing the lesson.
11. Jemimah is fond …………………. dogs.
12. I am keen ………….. leave this school.
13. What are you excited ……………..?
14. It seems she is upset ………………something.
15. You shouldn’t be worried …………………anything as long as I am around.
Answers
(1) Of (6) To (11) Of
(2) (7) (12) On
With (3) With (8) (13) About
With (4) For (14) About
In (9) About (15) About
(5) For (10) For
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CONJUNCTIONS
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
➢ A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses.
➢ And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet are the known coordinating conjunctions.
Examples in Sentences
i. This is a beautiful girl, but a difficult one to convince. ii.
It was cold, so I put on my jacket.
iii. This tea is thick and sweet.
iv. Do you like white rice, or brown rice?
Functions of Coordinating Conjunctions
Conjunction Function Example in a Sentence
And Joins two similar ideas Jane and Mary are in form one.
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But Joins two contrasting ideas He drives slowly, but sure.
Or Joins two alternative ideas We can go to Naivasha, or stay here
and watch news.
So Shows the second idea is the I was sick, so I did not go to school.
result of the first
Nor Joins two negative alternatives. He doesn’t wake up early, nor do I.
For Give a reason I was punished, for I was late.
Yet Joins two contrasting ideas I was punished, yet I arrived early.
(means “but”)
Exercise
Join each pair of sentences with an appropriate coordinating conjunction.
1. I love to travel. I hate travelling by bus.
2. You should go to bed now. You will be tired tomorrow.
3. The bus stopped. Two passengers got out of it.
4. Helen was angry with Jane. Helen went out to cool down.
5. I arrived at school late. I left home early.
Answers
1. I love to travel but I hate travelling by bus.
2. You should go to bed now, or you will be tired tomorrow.
3. The bus stopped and two passengers got out of it.
4. Helen was angry with Jane, so she went out to cool down.
5. I arrived at school late, yet I left home early.
PHRASES
❖ A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a verb and which does not make
sense on its own.
❖ There are various types of phrases. They include:
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✓ Noun phrases
✓ Verb phrases
✓ Adjective phrases
✓ Adverb phrases
✓ Prepositional phrases
❖ At your level, we will only study noun phrases.
NOUN PHRASES
➢ A noun phrase is a group of words that plays role of a noun and has a noun has the
head word (main word).
➢ Look at the example below.
❖ I saw Bingo. The word in bold is a noun
❖ I saw your dog. In boldface, is the noun phrase that has replaced the noun in
above sentence.
Examples of Noun Phrases
The new car
My old shirt
The best car safety device
Constituents of a Noun Phrase
❖ A noun phrase consists of:
✓ A determiner, which can be an article, a number, or an adjective.
✓ Modifiers, which can be an adjective, or combinations of adjectives.
❖ Modifiers can either be premodifier if it comes before the main noun, or post
modifier if it follows the noun.
❖ Determiners precede modifiers.
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❖ Study the noun phrases.
Phrase Determiner Pre Main noun Post Modifier
modifier
The tall woman The Tall Woman
The longest river The Longest River
Your sister Your Sister
Any big Any Big Supermarket Nearby
supermarket
nearby
Exercise
Underline the noun phrase in each of the sentences below.
1. Did you see the tall man?
2. He called all the stubborn students.
3. He wishes to see the president.
4. He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
5. An horse prefers living in dark stables.
6. It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
7. The people’s president is in Mombasa.
8. The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
9. The soldiers are true heroes.
10. My best friend is Teris.
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SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence has one clause —independent
(a) SENTENCE STRUCTURE (SUBJECT, PREDICATE)
➢ A simple sentence has the formula:
Subject + Predicate
➢ Look at the example below.
This desk is mine.
✓ This desk – Subject
✓ Is mine – the predicate
➢ A subject is the one doing the action.
➢ Predicate is the part of the sentence which talks about the subject and which has a verb.
➢ The predicate must contain a verb. The other constituents of a predicate can be an adverb,
adjective, pronoun, etc.
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➢ Can you identify the subject and predicate in each of the sentences below?
❖ She came to see me.
❖ Njoroge was here.
❖ I saw them dancing.
❖ This is the cheapest dress in town.
❖ You are a big fool.
(b)TYPES OF SENTENCES
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
➢ An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions.
➢ There are various question types:
❖ Yes/no questions
❖ Alternative questions
❖ Tag questions
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❖ w/h questions
Yes/No Questions
✓ They are answered with yes or no as answers.
✓ Examples are:
❖ Did you score everything?
❖ Have you seen it?
Alternative Questions
✓ There are options two to be chosen from.
✓ Examples are:
❖ Would you like to take tea, or coffee?
❖ Do you want a red pen, or blue one?
Tag Questions
✓ There is the statement part, which is followed by a comma, and then the question part.
✓ Examples are:
❖ She is the thief, isn’t she?
❖ It does not smell good, does it?
W/H Questions
✓ The first word start with the two letters “w and h”.
✓ Those words used for asking these questions are: who, where, which, how, why, what
✓ Examples
❖ Who sent you?
❖ Where do you live?
Exercise
Form three different question types from the sentence:
You stole my cap.
Answer
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1. Did you steal my red cap? Yes/no
2. Who stole my red cap? w/h
3. You stole me red cap, didn’t you?
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
➢ An imperative sentence issues a request or a direct command.
➢ Usually, imperative sentences begin with verbs.
➢ Depending on the strength of the emotion, and the forcefulness of the command, it can end in
either a full stop (.) or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples
i. Complete your assignment by afternoon!
ii. Kindly open the door.
iii. Turn left at the cross road.
End Punctuation Marks with Imperative Sentences
➢ If the command is forceful, use an exclamation mark (!). for example,
Leave now!
Open the door!
➢ If the command is polite, or in the form of advice, put a period (.). examples,
Please get me my book.
Leave the door open.
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
➢ An exclamatory sentence expresses emotion.
➢ The emotion can be of love, happiness, confusion, anger, etc.
➢ Usually ends with an exclamation mark.
➢ Use the word “what” or “how”before a noun.
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Examples
❖ What a day!
❖ What awful plastic!
❖ What funny people they are!
❖ What a match!
Exercise
Rewrite each sentence beginning with the word “what” or “how”.
1. He is a foolish man.
2. This is a pleasant day.
3. That is clever of you.
4. They are lovely flowers.
5. He came early
Answers
1. What a foolish man!
2. What a pleasant day
3. How clever of you!
4. What lovely flowers!
5. How early he came!
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES
There are two types:
❖ Declarative
❖ Negative
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES/
➢ Used to make statements.
➢ End with a full stop or period (.).
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➢ Here are examples of declarative sentences.
❖ My name is George.
❖ He brings me chocolate.
❖ She visited last year.
❖ I will leave in the evening.
NEGATIVE SENTENCES
➢ A negative sentence states that something is untrue.
➢ A negative adverb is added to negate the validity of the sentence.
➢ A negative statement is formed by adding the word “not” to the first auxiliary verb. Examples
❖ I did not abuse you.
❖ This novel does not have a good ending.
❖ You are not among the lucky ones.
❖ Dan did not steal from me, it was you.
Exercise
Negate the following sentences.
1. She has a bag.
2. I am sick.
3. He sells flowers.
4. They work there.
5. She writes good compositions.
6. It is interesting.
Answers
1. She does not have a bag.
2. I am not sick.
3. He doesn’t sell flowers.
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4. They don’t work there.
5. She doesn’t write good compositions.
6. It is not interesting.
ANSWERS
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
COMMON NOUNS
1. The students were taught
2. I have visited a continent.
3. She lives in the city.
4. We eat in the hotel.
5. Have you ever swum in the river?
6. I drive a car.
7. Everyone went shopping at the supermarket.
8. A soldier is dead.
9. I come from a country.
10. I teach at a school.
PROPER NOUNS
1. I will take you to Rich’s Palace.
2. Sarah is the girl I told you about.
3. Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
4. Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
5. I am craving Oreos.
6. I used Tilly in cooking.
7. Jupiter is one of the planets.
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8. Margaret was a great author.
CONCRETE NOUNS ABSTRACT NOUNS
Exercise 1
1) A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.
Man – concrete
Courage – abstract
2) No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
Hope – abstract
3) My faith in God is very strong.
Faith – abstract
God – concrete
4) A person should buy a beautiful dress.
Person, dress – concrete
5) Have you seen the black dog?
Dog – concrete
6) Love is blind.
Love – abstract
Blind – concrete
Exercise 2
1. Advice
2. Education
3. Intelligence
4. Importance
5. Happiness
6. Confidence
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7. Pride
8. Anger
9. Imagination
10. Loneliness
NUMBER
ARTICLES
(1) An
(2) A
(3) The
(4) No article
(5) A
(6) The
(7) The
(8) No article
(9) An
(10) An
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PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Exercise 1
1) I
2) It
3) Him
4) Me
5) Her
Exercise 2
1) The old gate doesn’t look good.
It doesn’t look good.
2) Tom and Mary went to school.
They went to school.
3) The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
It bit them.
4) Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
He runs faster than Rebecca.
5) Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
They played doubles.
6) Christine is clever.
She is clever.
7) I brought the dress.
I brought it.
8) Antony drove Junet and me.
Anthony drove us.
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POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
1) Her
2) Your
3) Mine
4) Theirs
5) Yours
6) Her
7) Their
8) Our
9) His
10) Your
11) Its
12) His
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
1) Ourselves
2) Themselves
3) Yourself
4) Itself
5) Myself, myself
6) Itself
7) Himself
8) Yourselves
9) Themselves
10) Herself
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PHRASES
NOUN PHRASES
1. Did you see the tall man?
2. He called all the stubborn students.
3. He wishes to see the president.
4. He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
5. An horse prefers living in dark stables.
6. It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
7. The people’s president is in Mombasa.
8. The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
9. The soldiers are true heroes.
10. My best friend is Teris.
WRITING FOR FORM 1
SPELLING
SPELLING RULES
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The following rules will help you spell words correctly.
Rule 1: “I before E except after C”;
achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce,
priest
ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit
Exceptions
neighbor, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to
the rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.
Rule 2: “Dropping Final E”
When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the final e if the ending
begins with a vowel:
advancing
surprising
However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:
advancement
likeness
(However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any
ending: argument, argued, truly.)
Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such as
mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous,
manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without that
e after the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)
Rule 3: “Dropping Final Y”
When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y to i when it is preceded by
a consonant.
supply becomes supplies
worry becomes worried
merry becomes merrier
This does not apply to the ending -ing, however.
crying
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studying
Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.
obeyed
saying
Rule 4: “Doubling Final Consonants”
When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we double that consonant in
many situations. First, we have to determine the number of syllables in the word.
Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel when the last
syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a single
consonant.
submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, so
we double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted.
flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last
consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or
-ed: flapping, flapped. This rule does not apply to verbs that end with "x," "w," "v," and "y,"
consonants that cannot be doubled (such as "box" [boxing] and "snow" [snowing]).
open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the
accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don't double the n before
adding an ending: opening, opened.
refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel
precedes the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as in
referring, referral. The same would apply to begin, as in beginner, beginning.
relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another consonant, not
a vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.
deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a single
vowel, but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as in dealer and dealing. The same
would apply, then, to despair: despairing, despaired.
PUNCTUATION
CAPITALIZATION
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Capitalization Rules
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining
letters in lowercase.
Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a final punctuation mark
(full stop, question mark, exclamation mark).
Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.
Examples:
he is Brian’s father
In Juja
Capitalization Checklist
Brand names
Companies
Days of the week and months of the year
Holidays
Institutions
the University of Nairobi
Natural and artificial landmarks
the Fourteen Fall, the Mount Kenya
Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.
Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
Streets and roads
Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
FINAL PUNCTUATION MARKS
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The Period, Full Stop or Point
➢ The period (known as a full stop) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to
use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length.
➢ Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical
and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.
Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation
Examples
Kisumu is the third largest city in kenya.
I am writing you
soon. Indicate an
abbreviation Examples
I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.
We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.
Period after a single word
Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the
word as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is
understood as in a greeting or a command.
Examples
"come."
"Stop."
Periods in numbers
Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A
period used in a number is also called a "decimal point" and it is read "point" unless it
refers to money.
Examples
Sh. 10.50 is its price.
Her weight is 60.60
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The Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark is used to express astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise a
comment or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks
are used sparingly if at all.
Examples
Help! Help!
That's unbelievable!
Get out!
Look out!
You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or
sarcastic.
Examples
What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)
That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)
The Question Mark
Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions.
Examples
What is your name?
Do you speak Italian?
You're spanish, aren't you?
Do not use a question mark for reported questions
Examples
He asked me what my name was.
She asked if I was Spanish.
Ask them where they are going.
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The Comma
Use comma to separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists
➢ A series of independent clauses (sentences)
Example
I cried to her, she asked me to stop crying, and afterwards she took me out for lunch..
➢ A series of nouns
Examples
Don’t forget to buy milk, ice cream, and fish.
Gregory, David, and Christine arrived in time.
➢ A series of adjectives
A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying
another adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).
Examples
She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.
The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.
➢ A series of verbs
Examples
Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.
The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.
➢ A series of phrases
Examples
The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally
stopped against a tree.
The dog leapt into the air, snatched the Frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the
forest.
More Uses
1. Enclosing details
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Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and
comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.
Examples
China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.
Goats, unlike cows, do not like grass.
2. Participial phrases
Examples
Hearing the sad news, Fred fainted.
Walking home from school, I met my old friend.
3. Tag questions
Examples
She hates you, doesn't she?
We have no business together, have we?
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STUDY WRITING
MAKING NOTES
How to Make Notes
The following tips will come in handy when making notes:
5. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
6. Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
7. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
8. Write the final notes.
You should have in mind that a note:
6. Should be short and to the point.
7. Contain all the important and relevant information.
8. Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
9. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
10. Must be written in points only.
Notes Template
TITLE …………………….
(5)
………………………………………….
(f)
…………………………………………
(g)
………………………………………..
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(h)
………………………………………..
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TAKING NOTES
How to Take Notes
➢ There is no one "right" way to take notes. Very different approaches can be equally
effective, depending on the context.
➢ The key thing is to ensure that you remain actively engaged with the material whilst
taking notes.
➢ If all you do is copy down what you hear or read, then you won't actually be learning
anything at all. You may not even understand your notes when you come back to
review them later!
➢ Do the following:
(i) Be concise
(2) be as neat as possible
(iii) use headings and numbered points
(4) use abbreviations/shorthand
(v) Leave spaces in between your notes in case of any additions.
➢ Avoid the following:
copying out sentences or passages verbatim (i.e. word for word)
copying a mass of factual information
➢ After the lesson, rewrite the notes in a more organized way adding details left out.
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1. CREATIVE WRITING
POEMS
Poem Writing Tips
There are a few things to think about before you start writing your poem. The following
tips on writing poems will help you get started.
Know your purpose. Know why you are writing a poem and what you want it to do.
Pick a subject. Poems can be written about any topic under the sun.
Avoid clichés. These are sayings that have been overused, like busy as a bee, or blind as a
bat.
Use imagery. Paint with your words and use concrete words that appeal to the senses.
Abstract words cannot give the reader a good picture of what you are trying to say.
Use similes and metaphors. Similes compare two things, like “you are sweet as honey” and
usually use the word “like” or “as.” Metaphors state that one thing is another thing, like
“you are a pig.” Things being compared in a metaphor have at least one thing in common
but are very different in other ways.
You can also consider using rhyme, alliteration, consonance, etc
IMAGINATIVE COMPOSITIONS
Elements of Imaginative Compositions
In order to write a good story, use these important elements:
a) Characters: Refers to those who act in the story. They should be people, animals or
objects that think and talk.
b) Setting: Describes time and place of the story for example: classroom, lakeside, town
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etc.
c) Plot: Refers to the series of actions that the characters go through as they try to
solve a problem. In the plot, we have the:
1. Introduction: This is usually short. It presents the character, the situation or the problem,
and part of the setting.
2. Development: This simply shows how the situation affects the characters and what they do
to try and solve the problem.
3. Conclusion: This shows the solution of a problem. It is usually short. It may lead to a
happy, sad or surprise ending.
When writing a story, remember to organise the flow of your events so that the reader’s
interest is maintained throughout the story. The element of suspense should also be
created and maintained so that the reader will want to find out what is most likely to
happen in your story.
You can create suspense by:
1. Including mystery
2. Changing the scene
3. Creating unexpected events
4. Including dialogue
5. Giving surprise ending
6. Moving from one character to another
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2. PERSONAL WRITING
(a) Diaries
➢ A diary is a written record of things that happen each day.
➢ It is also a record of things you plan to do per day and the time you plan to do so.
➢ A diary is also the book in which you write down things that happen to you on daily basis.
Diaries to Record what is planned to be done
➢ Here, we record things we plan to do.
➢ Let us look at the sample below:
MY DIARY
DAY DATE TIME EVENT
Saturday 23rd April, 2015 8.00 am Waking up
8.15 am Taking shower
8.30 am Breakfast
8.40-10.30 Reading History
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10.35am – 12.30pm Going for skating
1.00 pm Lunch
2.00 pm Reading the Bible
7.30 pm Supper
Sunday th
7.00 am Breakfast Attending
24 April, 2015
8.00 am mass Reading CRE(St
11.00 am Luke’s
Gospel)
1.00 pm
Taking lunch
2.30 pm
Playing video games
4.00 pm
Watching movies
6.00 pm
Writing notes
8.00 pm
Supper
Monday th
25 April, 2015 7.30 am Waking Shower
8.00 am Breakfast
8.30 am Washing clothes
9.30am Playing video games
11.30 am Lunch
12.30 pm Reading Chemistry
3.00 pm Watching movies
5.00 pm Supper
8.30 pm
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Diaries for Recording the Daily Observation
MY DIARY
Calendar
April, 2016
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thur Frid
Sat
1 2 3 4
5
6 7 8 9 10 11
12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19
20 21 22 23 24 25
26
27 28 29 30 31
ENTRY
Dear Diary,
Today, I started writing my first poem. I thought of what to write and by
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lunch time, an idea crossed my mind. I decided to write about corruption. I
entitled it “Another Bond - Eurobond”. I had a lot to write about it. As I
write now, my dear, I have completed writing it. Hopefully, I will write
another one before the week ends. I will inform you about it once that is
done. Bye
(b) ADDRESSES
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➢ An address is a superscription of a letter directing who the letter is meant to reach.
➢ The writer also writes their address in the letter to allow for the reply.
➢ An address is written on an envelop, letter, or package.
Addresses in Letters
➢ Address format vary according to the type of letter written.
➢ Even though they are written differently, there are common features such as:
The post office box number
The postcode
The street, road, or building where the post office is located
The city or town
The country
➢ There are two formats of writing addresses:
Block format; and
Indented format
Block Format
➢ Address written in a block.
➢ Paragraphs also blocked.
➢ An example is
KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGE,
P.O. BOX 555-35400,
KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA.
Indented Format
➢ Written on a slant.
➢ The paragraphs in the letter are also indented.
➢ An example is:
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KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGES,
P.O. BOX 555-35400,
KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA.
Exercise
Write each of the addresses below as they would appear on your envelope: (a)
Migori Polytechnic-40400- P.O. Box 654- The Principal-Kenya- Migori ()
Kenya Labour-The Director-30210- P.O. Box 90100- Kenya- Nairobi
(c) PACKING LISTS
➢ At times you find yourself forgetting something when packing for a trip.
➢ It is important to get organized. Writing a packing list will be key in ensuring no item
intended to be carried during a trip is forgotten.
➢ A packing list is therefore a checklist for what to bring along with them.
➢ To make the most out of your trip you have to pack the right items.
➢ What you pack will highly depend on factors such as:
() The place you are visiting. If for example, you are visiting a place where it is hot, there
will be no need of carrying heavy clothes.
() Means of transport. There is a limit to what one should carry depending on the weight. ()
Number of days.
() The reason for visiting. For example if going on a camp, you need carry camping gear.
How to Start
(i) Get a piece of paper and a pen and write “PACKING LIST”. This forms part of the title.
The other part is the place to visit.
() Write number of days. It is advisable to do this as it will help you tell how many
clothes you will need. It might not sound good to carry only two underpants, for
example, if the trip will last a week.
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() Draw a table with columns containing item category, item, quantity, and description.
The various item categories are:
Entertainment list, for example, CDs, Radio, etc.
Clothing List, for example, underpants, skirts, etc.
Camping Gear, for example, sleeping bag,
Toiletries, for example, toothpaste, soap, etc.
(iv) In that table fill all the items and all its columns appropriately.
Sample Packing List
TRIP TO MACHAKOS PACKING LIST
DAYS: 3 Days
NO. ITEM CATEGORY ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION
1. CLOTHING LIST Trousers 3 Purple one
2 white ones
Shirts 3 The pink one
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The one printed
“Newyork”.
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The newly bought one.
The black, yellow, red
and indigo ones.
Underpants 4
2. ENTERTAINMENT LIST CDs 3 Nigerian movies
Laptop 1 The one recently
bought.
Earphone 1
Purple one.
3. TOILETRIES Bathing soap 1-250gm Fa Bathing soap.
Washing soap ½ bar Jamaa
Toothpaste 50 gm Colgate
4. DRINKS Afya 2-500 ml Guava flavored.
Soda 2-500 ml Fanta
Exercise
You are Manchester City Football club Player. During one of the summer holidays, your club go for
a 5 day camp to a very hot place in United Arab Emirates. Here, no beddings are provided. Write a
packing list of all the items you would carry with you to this trip.
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3. SOCIAL WRITING
Informal Letters
➢ Usually written to people known to people you know fairly well. These can be friends and
relatives.
➢ Also referred to as friendly letters.
➢ They are meant to:
(i) Give news;
(ii) Request information;
(iii) Congratulate people;
(iv) Ask questions; or
(v) Give advice.
How to Write Informal Letters
➢ An informal letter has such elements as:
(a) Sender’s address. Write your address here. Example,
MAALIK AHMED
P.O. BOX 6454-90800
KITALE
(b) Date when the letter is written.
(c) Salutation. Example,
Dear Timothy,
(d) Body. Write the body of the text. Include greetings, news, other questions, etc.
(e) Closing. Sign of with your name. example,
See you soon,
Denis
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➢ The table that follows is of a format of an informal letter blended with explanations:
The Format Explanation
Address At the top right hand corner, write your address. For example,
Keicy Kimito
P.O. Box 567
RONGO
Date Below the writer’s address, is the date. For example,
13th December, 2015
Salutation Written on the left hand side of the letter. Start with:
Dear ………. ,
e.g. Dear Drinkwater,
Dearest………, or My Dear……., ( for close friends and relatives)
Example,
Dearest Drinkwater,
Or
My Dear Drinkwater,
Opening Paragraph You may ask about the recipient’s health. For example,
How is your family?
How are you Njuguna? I hope that you and your family are in the
pink.
I am fine and I hope you are as fit as a fiddle.
Content Paragraphs This is where:
You mention your main reason for writing (paragraph 2)
Give the news
Ask questions
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You can start with:
I am writing this letter to…
Closing Paragraph It is proper to inform your recipient that you are ending the letter. Some
phrases you can use are:
Do write me soon.
Please convey my warm regards to…
Allow me to pen off here.
Hope to receive a reply from you.
Bye/ Goodbye
Closing Sign off with your name. you can sign off using:
Your loving friend,
Yours lovingly,
Yours affectionately,
Your nephew,
Yours sincerely,
Keep in touch,
Your name should follow. Your first name is preferred.
The Language of Informal Letters
➢ The language used is simple as well as friendly.
➢ You can use contractions such as I’m, won’t, you’re, etc.
Sample Friendly Letter
Brigit Annabel
P.O BOX 454—40400
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SUNA- MIGORI
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5TH September, 2015
Dear James,
Hi James! Hope you are fine back there in Rongo. My sister and I are very much fine.
I’m just writing to let you know I quit my old job and found something new in Migori town. I
was really fed up with working at Banana Academy as there was little work enough to
challenge me anymore. You know me; if there is no enough, I get bored too easily and have to
find something new.
I’m now teaching at Sunsun in Migori and the kind of work I do suits me to the ground. I teach two
candidate classes. The work here is not only challenging, but it is rewarding as well. I know you
will find it hard to believe… but you just have to.
That is not all for now! I’m getting married in a couple of weeks. He is working in the neighbouring
school. So many promises I hope he will fulfill he has not stopped to give. I also find him the best
among the many. When the time comes I believe you will come and celebrate with us.
Keep in touch,
Brigit
Exercise
You have recently joined another school. Write a letter to your friend. In your letter
Explain why you changed school
Describe your new school
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Tell him/her your other news
4. INSTITUTIONAL WRITING
(a)PUBLIC NOTICES
➢ A public notice is a notice given to provide information for the public that is widespread in a
wide geographical area via media.
➢ They are mostly placed in newspapers by businesses, county and national government, and
individuals.
➢ They include:
(i) Unclaimed property
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(ii) Wanted person
(iii) Dangerous person
(iv) Government contracts
(v) Aunction
(vi) Foreclosures, etc.
Public Notice Format
➢ The parts of a public notice include among others:
i. Name of the organization/institution. Letterhead is preferred.
. Then write/type “PUBLIC NOTICE”.
iii. The topic/theme/subject. Let the public know what you want to inform them about. iv.
Date, time, and venue(if need be).
v. Picture to reinforce the message.
. Name of the writer of the notice and the job position(and signature, for the more
formal ones)
Sample Public Notice
MAJI MACHAFU LANDS DEALERS COMPANY
(P.O. Box 123-00200 Nanyuki, Email: [email protected], Mobile:
0715234343)
PUBLIC NOTICE
Notice is hearby given that son of Amos Kinyanjui resident of Plot(5)
located opposite Kadika Plaza, Kilgoris Estate has agreed to sell the plot
mentioned in the schedule hereto dated 5th June, 2015.
All persons claiming interest in the land or any part thereof by any way are
hearby required to bring their complaints at our Mukomi office within 10
days from the date hearof, failing which the sale will be completed.
Yours Sincerely
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[sign]
Fredrick Wainaina
SALES MANAGER
➢ In the notice above, a picture of the plot can be included.
() INVENTORIES
➢ An inventory is a complete list of items such as equipment,property, goods in stock, or even the
contents of a particular place.
➢ A list of things possessed by a person or company.
➢ It is a good idea to keep the records of items owned by a person or company.
➢ An inventory will have the following basic elements:
(i) Name of the institution. Name of the
person, if individually possessed.
(ii) Date when the records are taken.
(iii) Item number
(iv) Item category
(v) Item
(vi) Quantity of items
(vii) Description of the item
(viii) Approximate value of the item
(ix) The name and designation of the
person keeping the records.
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➢ Here is a sample inventory.
KILIMANJARO MIXED DAY AND BOARDING HIGH SCHOOL
INVENTORY OF THE EQUIPMENT AS AT 24TH MARCH, 2016
NO. ITEM ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION APPROXIMATE
CATEGORY VALUE IN KSH.
1200
1. Test tubes 15 Good condition
LABORATORY 9800
EQUIPMENT Microscopes 2 Damaged
72 000
2 ELECTRONICS Computers 3 New ones
12 000
4 Damaged
6 800
Radios 4 Not working
68 700
Printers 2 New ones
14 600
6 Damaged
48 000
3 Teachers’ tables 14 Good Condition
FURNITURE
110 000
Staffroom 22 Newly Bought
Chairs ones
Good Condition 200 000
400
Classroom Broken 44 500
chairs 89
Good condition 250 000
500
New Ones 60 000
Students’ 6
Lockers New Ones 12 000
3
Office Good Condition 600 000
300
Cupboards
4 GAMES
EQUIPMENT
Beds
Punctured 3 000
3
Good Condition 6 000
2
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Balls
Volley ball nets
RECORDS KEPT BY: Jeniffer Kwamboka
sign
School Store Keeper
Exercise
You are St. Monica’s Mission Hospital Resource Manager. At this hospital, records of items in it are
kept at the end of every August. Write the inventory of all the items here.
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g e 15 4
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