TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

TOPIC 4: Differentiation
A. DERIVATIVES

1. DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE

Definition:
If f (x) is a function defined on an open interval I = (a, b) that contains the point c , the
derivative of f at c , denoted by f ' (c) , is
f (c + h) − f (c )
f ' (c) = lim .........(*)
h→0 h
provided the limit exists.

The slope of the tangent line at P is

If f is differentiable at all x ∈ I , we say that f is differentiable on I . In this case, we

can define a new function f ' on I where f ' ( x) assumes the value of the derivative of
df d
f at x ∈ I . We call f ' the derivative of f , and we also write f ' ( x) = or (f).
dx dx

Other notations
f (c + h ) − f (c )
Letting x = c + h in equation (*), which is f ' (c) = lim , then equation (*)
h→0 h
f ( x ) − f (c )
becomes f ' (c ) = lim .
h →0 x−c

Equation (*) rewritten with x instead of c, and ∆x instead of h, becomes

f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
f ' ( x) = lim .
∆x → 0 ∆x
The numerator f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x ) represents the change in the value of f when one
changes the argument x by a small amount ∆x .
∆y
We let ∆y = f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x ) denote the change in the y-value. Then f ' ( x) = lim
∆x → 0 ∆x
dy ∆y
Leibniz's notation: = lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Different notations are used to represent the derivative of a function y = f (x) with f ' (x)
df dy d
being the most common. Some others are , y', , f ( x ), Df ( x ), and Dx f ( x ) .
dx dx dx

One interpretation of the derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the tangent
line at this point. The slope of the tangent line at the point (c, f (c)) on the graph of
y = f (x) is f ' (c) , the derivative of f at c. Another interpretation: f ' (c) is also the
dy
instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = c ; sometimes or
dx x =c
dy 
is used to denote f ' (c) .
dx  x = c

dy
The notation is referred to as the derivative of y with respect to x.
dx

Example:

Given the graph of the function f ( x) = 3 x 2 (which is a parabola), use the definition of the
derivative to obtain the slope of the tangent to the graph at the point (2, 12).
[How do yu know that (2, 12) lies on the graph?]
Solution:
To find f ' ( 2) .
f ( 2 + h ) − f ( 2)
f ' (2) = lim
h→0 h
f ( 2 + h) − f ( 2) 3( 2 + h) 2 − 12 3( 4 + 4h + h 2 ) − 12 12 h + 3h 2
= = = = 12 + 3h
h h h h
f ( 2 + h ) − f ( 2)
f ' (2) = lim = lim (12 + 3h ) = 12
h →0 h h→0

[Can you obtain an equation for the tangent to the graph at the point (2, 12)?]

[Reminder: Try doing it for another point on the graph, say, one with x = −1 .
Then try doing it for a general point (a, _?__ ) . ]

Example:
Use the definition for derivative to find the derivative of y = x for x > 0 .
Solution: Let f ( x) = x

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
=
x+h − x
=
(x + h ) − x = 1
h h (
h x+h + x ) x+h + x
1 1
f ' ( x) = lim =
h→0 x+h + x 2 x

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) 1 1
In short, f ' ( x) = lim = lim =
h →0 h h →0 x+h + x 2 x

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Example:
Is the function f ( x) = | x | differentiable at x = 0 ? Let’s see.

[We cannot take for granted that every function we see is differentiable everywhere.]

Continuity and Differentiability

Theorem: If a function f is differentiable at a number c , then it is continuous at c .
In other words, if c is a discontinuity of f , then f is not differentiable at c .

Differentiability implies continuity.

2. DERIVATIVE RULES
1 Derivative of d d
a Constant k =0 k =0
dx dx
Function
2 Power Rule d n d n
x = nx n −1 , n ∈ R x = nx n −1 , n ∈ R
dx dx
3 Constant d df d du
Multiple Rule (kf ) = k , (ku ) = k (ku )' = ku '
dx dx dx dx
where k is a constant.
4 Sum Rule d df dg d du dv (u + v)' = u '+v'
( f + g) = + (u + v) = +
dx dx dx dx dx dx
5 Product Rule d dg df d dv du (u ⋅ v)' = u ' v + uv'
( f ⋅ g) = f +g (u ⋅ v) = u +v
dx dx dx dx dx dx
6 Quotient Rule df dg du dv  u  vu '−uv'
g −f v −u  ' =
d f  d u v v2
  = dx 2 dx  =
dx
2
dx
dx  g  g dx  v  v
for x with g ( x) ≠ 0
[** If you have studied calculus before, you are probably more familiar with only one of the three columns
on the right.]

[** Some authors or teachers like to include the power rule and the root rule; these are not really necessary
after you master the chain rule.]

Example:
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
1 1 t 2 −1
a) y = x 4 + 12 x − 4 b) f ( x) =  x 2 +  c) g (t ) =
x x t2 +1
( x − 1)( x − 2 x)
2
1
d) y = e) y = 2
x 4
( x − 1)( x 2 + x + 1)

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Solution:
a) y = x 4 + 12 x − 4
dy d 4 d d
= x + 12 x + ( −4 )
dx dx dx dx
= 4 x + 12
3

1 1
b) f ( x) =  x 2 + 
x x
1 d  2 1  2 1 d 1
f '( x) = x + +x +   
x dx  x  x  dx  x 
d 
= x −1  x 2 + x −1  + ( x 2 + x −1 ) x −1
d d
 dx dx  dx
= x −1 ( 2 x − x −2 ) + ( x 2 + x −1 )( − x −2 )
= 2 − x −3 − 1 − x −3
= 1 − 2 x −3
[The steps shown here are to illustrate the derivative rules; it would be easier if you
1
rewrite f (x) as x + 2 .]
x
( x − 1)( x − 2 x)
2
d) y =
x4
d d
x4 ( x − 1)( x 2 − 2 x)  − ( x − 1)( x 2 − 2 x) x 4
dy
= dx dx
(x )
2
dx 4

 d d  d
x 4 ( x − 1) ( x 2 − 2 x) + ( x 2 − 2 x) ( x − 1)  − ( x − 1)( x 2 − 2 x) x 4
=  
dx dx dx
8
x
x ( x − 1)(2 x − 2) + ( x − 2 x)(1)  − ( x − 1) x( x − 2) ( 4 x3 )
4 2

=
x8
( x − 1)(2 x − 2) + ( x 2 − 2 x) − ( x − 1)( x − 2) ( 4 )
=
x4
− x2 + 6 x − 6
=
x4
[Here, we apply he quotient rule and also the product rule. Is there a simpler way?]

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses

For any x for which a trigonometric functions or its inverse is defined, we have the
following formulae:

(Note that these formulae are valid only when x is measured in radians.)

d d
sin x = cos x. (*) cot x = − csc 2 x.
dx dx
d d
cos x = − sin x. (*) sec x = sec x tan x.
dx dx
d d
tan x = sec 2 x. (*) csc x = − csc x cot x.
dx dx
d 1 d −1
sin −1 x = , x < 1. cot −1 x = .
dx 1− x 2 dx 1+ x2
d −1 d 1
cos −1 x = , x < 1. sec −1
x = , x > 1.
dx 1− x2 dx x x2 − 1
d 1 d −1
tan −1 x = 2 . csc −1 x = , x > 1.
dx 1+ x dx x x2 − 1
[** You are required to remember the three forms shaded; those marked with (*) can be
obtained by using differentiation rules. The others will be provided when required.]
d
[**Derivatives of sin and cos are obtained from definition using limits; tan x = sec 2 x.
dx
can be obtained using the quotient rule. Most people would take the trouble to memorize
this because it crops up quite often in problems.]

Example:
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
cos x
a) y = tan x b) y = x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x − 2 sin x c) y =
1 + sin x
sec x 1
d) y = e) y = sin x + 10 tan x f) y = x 2 cot x −
1 + tan x x2

Solution:
a) y = tan x
d d
cos x ( sin x ) − sin x ( cos x )
d d  sin x 
( tan x ) =  =
dx dx
dx dx  cos x  cos 2 x
cos x cos x − sin x ( − sin x )
=
cos 2 x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x
1
= 2
= sec2 x
cos x

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions.

d 1 d 1
1. (ln x) = (for x > 0 ); ln x = (for x ≠ 0 )
dx x dx x
d x
2. e = ex
dx
[** Some authors/teachers like to include
d x
dx
(a ) = a x ln a , where a is a positive constant
as rule for students to memorize.
This is not really necessary if you already knew a x = e x ln a ]

3. THE CHAIN RULE

If g is differentiable at the point c and f is differentiable at the point g (c) , then the
composite function f g is differentiable at c , and
( f g )' (c) = f ' ( g (c)) ⋅ g ' (c)

In Leibniz’s notation, if y = f (u ) and u = g (x) , then

dy dy du
= ⋅
dx du dx
Again, some authors/teachers like to include the following two formulas for students to
memorize.
d 1 d d g ( x) d
1. ln g ( x) = ⋅ g ( x) and 2. e = e g ( x ) ⋅ g ( x)
dx g ( x) dx dx dx

[** These two items are just special cases of the chain rule; there is no real need to
memorize remember. Practise using the chain rule to derive these two formulas.]
For #1, we let f (u ) = ln u and u = g (x) ; for #2, we let f (u ) = e u and u = g (x) .

Example: How to determine

d 2
dx
(x + 1) ?
5
[Could this be done without the chain
rule?]
(x 2
)5
+ 1 = ( f g )( x ) = f ( g ( x )) where f ( x) = x 5 and g ( x ) = x 2 + 1 .
(f ( )
g )( x ) = f (g ( x ) ) = f ( x 2 + 1) = x 2 + 1
5

( )
Let y = x 2 + 1 , i.e., y = ( f g )(x )
5

or ( f g )' ( x) ?
dy
What is
dx
f ( x) = x 5 and g ( x ) = x 2 + 1 . Let u = x 2 + 1 and y = u 5 . [ u = g (x) , y = f (u ) ]
f ' ( x ) = 5 x and g ' ( x) = 2 x .
4
Then y = u = ( x + 1)
5 2 5

( f g )' ( x) = f ' ( g ( x)) ⋅ g ' ( x)

dy du
= f ' ( x 2 + 1) ⋅ 2 x = 5u 4 , = 2x
du dx
= 5( x 2 + 1) 4 ⋅ 2 x dy dy du
= ⋅ = 5u 4 ⋅ 2 x = 5( x 2 + 1) 4 ⋅ 2 x = 10 x( x 2 + 1) 4
= 10 x( x 2 + 1) 4 dx du dx

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Example:
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
4
 x2 1
a) y = (2 x + 1) 5
b) y =  + x −  c) y = sin( x 2 + x)
 8 4
d) y = ln( x 3 + 1) e) y = e 2 x − x
2
( )
f) y = e 2 x + e x ln 2 x
x
g) y = 10 x h) y = sin(cos(tan x)) i) y = j) y = x + x + x
2

x − 2x + 3
2

Solution:
a) y = (2 x + 1) 5
Let u = 2 x + 1 Then y = u 5 .
du dy
= 2 and = 5u 4 .
dx du

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 5u 4 ( 2 )
= 10 ( 2 x + 1)
4

Here 's a very important training

(a) Obtain the derivatives of the following functions of x by using the chain rule, with all
the steps properly written.
sin 3 x , cos 3 x , tan 3 x , e3 x , ln(3 x)
(b) Obtain the derivatives of the following functions of x by using the chain rule, without
writing down detailed steps.
sin 3 x , cos 3 x , tan 3 x , e3 x , ln(3 x)

4. HIGHER DERIVATIVES
For a differentiable function f , the derivative f ' is also a function.
If f ' is also differentiable, its derivative is denoted by
( f ' )' = f ' '. .
It is called the second derivative of f .
d  dy  d 2 y
Using Leibniz's notation, the second derivative of y = f ( x ) is  =
dx  dx  dx 2
There are several ways of writing the second derivative.

( f ' ( x) ) = d  dy  = d 2y = dy ' = y ' '

2
d
f ' ' ( x) =
dx dx  dx  dx dx
In general, the n -th derivative of f with respect to x for any positive integer n, denoted
dn d d n−1
by f ( x) = n f , is defined as f ( x) =
( n) ( n)
f , i.e,. as the (first) derivative of
dx dx dx n−1
the (n − 1) th derivative of f with respect to x .

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Example:
Find y ' ' and y ' ' ' for
a) y = x 3 − 7 x 2 + 100 x + 1 b) y = x cos x
Solution:
a) y = x 3 − 7 x 2 + 100 x + 1
First Derivative: y ' = 3 x 2 − 14 x + 100
Second derivative: y '' = 6 x − 14
Third derivative: y ''' = 6

5. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

The function that we have looked at in the earlier sections can be described by expressing
one variable (the dependent variable) explicitly in terms of another variable (the
independent variable) .
An explicit function is given in the form y = f ( x ) , where y is the dependent variable and
x is the independent variable.

 x2 if x < 2
Examples: y = x +3,
2
y = cos x , y = 
4 x − 4 if x ≥ 2

Some functions are defined implicitly by a relation between x and y through an equation
involving x and y.

Example:

(b) The upper semicircle is the graph of a function f ( x) = 1 − x 2

(c) The lower semicircle is the graph of a function g ( x) = − 1 − x 2 (T*)
Given the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 and solving for y in terms of x, we get y = ± 1 − x 2 .
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 implicitly defines two functions of x ,
i.e., f ( x ) = 1 − x 2 , for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and g ( x ) = − 1 − x 2 , for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Examples:

(S*)

Graphs of three functions defined by the folium of Descartes

The folium of Descartes (S*)

An equation in x and y in the form F ( x, y ) = 0 (or equivalent) may implicitly define one
or more functions of x; but it is not always possible or easy to put in the form y = f ( x )
dy
and then to further obtain in the usual way.
dx

We apply implicit differentiation when a variable is defined implicitly as a function of

another variable.

To find the derivative of y with respect to x, we do not need to solve for y as a function of
x. Instead, we use implicit differentiation. We treat y as a differentiable function of x and
dy
differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x; then solve for in terms of x
dx
and y.

Example:
dy
(a) Given x 2 + y 2 = 1 , find .
dx
3 4
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle at the point  ,  .
5 5
Solution
(a) Differentiate both sides of the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1
d d
(x2 + y2 ) = (1)
dx dx
d d
(x2 ) + ( y2 ) = 0
dx dx

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

d d dy dy
[Using the chain rule, ( y2) = ( y2) ⋅ = 2y ]
dx dy dx dx
dy
2x + 2 y
=0
dx
dy x
=−
dx y
3 4 3 4
(b) At the point  ,  , we have x = , y = .
5 5 5 5
dy 3
3 3 4
So, = − 54 = − ; this is the slope of the tangent at the point  , .
dx 5 4 5 5
3 4
An equation of the tangent to the circle at the point  ,  is given by
5 5
4 3 3
y − = −  x −  or 3 x + 4 y − 5 = 0
5 4 5

Example:
dy
Find for
dx
a) x 2 y − xy 2 + x 2 + y 2 = 0 b) y 2 = x 2 + sin xy c) y = x x .
Solution:
a) x 2 y − xy 2 + x 2 + y 2 = 0
d 2 d d d d
( x y ) − ( xy 2 ) + ( x 2 ) + ( y 2 ) = ( 0)
dx dx dx dx dx
d d d d d
x 2 ( y ) + y x 2 − x ( y 2 ) − y 2 ( x) + 2 x + ( y 2 ) = 0
dx dx dx dx dx
dy  dy  dy
x2 + y (2 x) − x 2 y  − y 2 (1) + 2 x + 2 y =0
dx  dx  dx
dy y 2 − 2 xy − 2 x
(x 2
− 2 xy + 2 y ) dy
dx
=y 2
− 2 xy − 2 x ∴ =
dx x 2 − 2 xy + 2 y
b) y 2 = x 2 + sin xy
d 2 d d
( y ) = ( x 2 ) + (sin xy )
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2 x + cos xy ( xy )
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2 x + (cos xy )( y + x )
dx dx
dy dy
2 y − (cos xy )( x ) = 2 x + (cos xy ) y
dx dx
dy
(2 y − x cos xy ) = 2 x + y cos xy
dx
dy 2 x + y cos xy
∴ =
dx 2 y − x cos xy

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

c) y = xx
Taking logarithms of both sides, ln y = ln x x
ln y = x ln x
d d  d 
ln y =  x  ln x + x ln x 
dx  dx   dx 
1 dy dy
= ln x + 1 ∴ = y (ln x + 1) = x x (ln x + 1)
y dx dx

6. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

Definition: Absolute Extreme Values

Let f be a function with domain D and c ∈ D .
(a) Then f has an absolute maximum value at c if f ( x ) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ D ,
and f (c ) is the absolute maximum value of f on D.
(b) Then f has an absolute minimum value at c if f ( x ) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ D ,
and f (c ) is the absolute minimum value of f on D.
[Sometimes the word ‘global’ is used instead of ‘absolute’.)
Absolute maximum and minimum values are called absolute extrema.

Example:

(T*)
a) y = x 2 , x ∈(−∞, ∞) : no absolute maximum, absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0
b) y = x 2 , x ∈ [0,2] : absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2, absolute minimum of 0 at x =0
c) y = x 2 , (0,2] : absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2, no absolute minimum
d) y = x 2 , (0,2) : no absolute extremum.

Definition: Local (or relative) Extreme Value

A function f has a local maximum value at c within its domain D f if there exists an open
interval I ⊆ D f containing c such that

f ( x ) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ I.

A function f has a local minimum value at c within its domain D f if there exists an open
interval I ⊆ D f containing c such that
f ( x ) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ I .

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Local maximum and minimum values are called local extrema.

We can extend the definition of local extrema to the endpoints of a closed interval by
defining f to have a local maximum or local minimum value at the endpoint c if the
appropriate inequality holds for all x in some half-open interval with c as an endpoint.

(T*)

Extreme Value Theorem for Continuous Functions

If f is continuous on [a,b], then there exist numbers c and d in [a,b] such that f has an
absolute maximum value at c and an absolute minimum value at d.
Fermat's Theorem: Local Extreme Value
If f(x) has a local extreme value at x = c and f(x) is differentiable at x = c (i.e., f ' (c )
exists) then f ' (c) = 0.

Example:
a) f ( x) = x 3 − 3 x has local maximum at x = −1 and local minimum at x = 1. In fact,
f ' ( x) = 3 x 2 − 3 is equal to zero at x = ±1.
The graph of y = x 3 − 3x

Remark.
The converse to Fermat's Theorem does not hold; that is, if f ' (c) = 0 it does not
necessarily follow that f has a local extremum at c. [Example?] Can you suggest?
For a differentiable function,
" f ' (c) = 0 " is a necessary condition, but NOT a sufficient condition for the existence of a
local extremum at c.

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Definition: Critical Point

Let f(x) be a function with domain D f . A point c ∈ D f is called a critical point of f if
either f ' (c) = 0 or f ' (c) fails to exist.
[Sometimes, “critical point” is referred to as “critical number”.]

Definition: Stationary Point

Let f(x) be a function with domain D f . A point c ∈ D f is called a stationary point of f if
f ' (c ) = 0 .

Fermat's Theorem can also be restated as:

If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical point of f.
For a function continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), every
local maximum or minimum will be at one of the endpoints, or at a stationary point of f.
To find an absolute maximum or minimum of a function continuous on a closed interval
[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), we note that either it is local [in which case it occurs at
a stationary point ] or it occurs at an endpoint of the interval.
Thus the following three-step procedure always works.
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f continuous on a
closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b),
1. Find the stationary points of f and the values of f at these points.
2. Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
3. From the values of f obtained in steps 1 and 2, determine the absolute extrema.
[Note: Steps 1 & 2 could be interchanged.]
Example:
Find the absolute extrema (i.e. the absolute maximum and minimum values of the
function f ( x) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 12 x + 1 for x ∈ [−3, 3] .
Solution:
The function f is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 3] ,
and f is differentiable with f ' ( x) = 6 x 2 − 6 x − 12 .
When f ' ( x) = 0 , 6 x 2 − 6 x − 12 = 0 , i.e., 6( x 2 − x − 2) = 6( x − 2)( x + 1) = 0
So, f ' ( x) = 0 when x = −1 or x = 2 . [stationary points]
Checking values of f at ̶ ‒1, 2 and the endpoints of the interval [−3, 3] :
f (−1) = ... = 8 , f (2) = ... = −19 , f (−3) = ... = −44 , f (3) = ... = −8
Therefore, the absolute maximum value is f (−1) = 8 and the absolute minimum value is
f (−3) = −44 .
Many results used in this chapter are results of the Mean Value Theorem. We state here
Rolle's Theorem which is used to prove the Mean Value Theorem.

Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be differentiable on (a,b) and continuous on [a,b]. If f (a ) = f (b), then there is at
least one number c ∈(a , b) such that f ' (c) = 0.

[The theorem does not help you in finding c.]

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

The Mean Value Theorem

Let f be differentiable on (a,b) and continuous on [a,b]. Then there exists c ∈(a , b) such
f (b) − f (a )
that f ' (c) = .
b−a
[The theorem does not help you in finding c.]

[For this course, we would not discuss problems that involve the direct use of the Mean
Value Theorem.]

Increasing, Decreasing and Monotonic Functions

Definitions
A function f is said to be increasing on an interval I if
f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ) whenever x1 < x 2 in I.
A function f is said to be decreasing on an interval I if
f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 ) whenever x1 < x 2 in I.

A function that is increasing or decreasing on I is called monotonic on I.

(Some people use ‘monotone’)

The First Derivative Test for Monotonic Functions

Suppose that f = f (x) is differentiable on (a, b ) , then
1. if f ' ( x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b ) , then f is increasing on (a, b ) ,
2. if f ' ( x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b ) , then f is a constant on (a, b ) , and
3. if f ' ( x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b ) , then f is decreasing on (a, b ) .

Example:
Where is the function f ( x) = x 3 − 3 x increasing? Where is it decreasing?
Solution
f ( x) = x 3 − 3 x ; f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 3 = 3( x 2 − 1) = 3( x − 1)( x + 1)
We wish to find where f ' ( x ) > 0 and where f ' ( x ) < 0 .
Interval ( x − 1) ( x + 1) f ' ( x) = 3x 2 − 3 f
x < −1 − − + Increasing on (−∞, − 1)
−1 < x < 1 − + − Decreasing on (−1, 1)
1< x + + + Increasing on (1, ∞)

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 TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

The First Derivative Test for Local Extrema:

The following test applies to a differentiable function f(x):

(a) At a critical point c:
(i) if f ' ( x) changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum value at c.
(ii) if f ' ( x) changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum value at c .
(iii) if f ' ( x ) has the same sign on both sides of c, then f has no local extrema value at c .

(b) At a left endpoint a:

If f ' ( x) < 0 for x near a with x > a then f has a local maximum value at a.
If f ' ( x) > 0 for x near a with x > a then f has a local minimum value at a.

(c) At a right endpoint b:

If f ' ( x) < 0 for x near b with x < b then f has a local minimum value at b.
If f ' ( x) > 0 for x near b with x < b then f has a local maximum value at b.

(S*)

(T*)

Example
Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function f ( x) = x 3 − 3 x in the
interval [−2.5,2.5] . Then determine the absolute extrema of f on the interval [−2.5,2.5] .
Solution
Find the critical/stationary points: f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 3 = 3( x 2 − 1) = 3( x − 1)( x + 1)
f ' ( x) = 0 when x = ±1
The stationary points: x = ±1

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

Interval ( x − 1) ( x + 1) f ' ( x) = 3x 2 − 3 f
− 2 .5 < x < − 1 − − + Increasing on (−2.5, − 1)
−1 < x < 1 − + − Decreasing on (−1, 1)
1 < x < 2 .5 + + + Increasing on (1, 2.5)

At Value
Local minimum − 2.5, 1 f (−2.5) = ..., f (1) = ...
Local maximum − 1, 2.5 f (−1) = ..., f (2.5) = ...

From the local maxima and local minima, we see that for f on the interval [−2.5,2.5] , the
absolute maximum is _______ (occurring at _______ ) and the absolute minimum is
_______ (occurring at _______ ) .

Definition of Concavity
A function f is convex (or concave up) on an interval if the line segment connecting any
two points on the graph of the function lies above the graph between those two points.
A function f is concave (or concave down) on an interval if the line segment connecting
any two points on the graph of the function lies above the graph between those two
points.

Concave up Concave down

We can use the second derivative to tell where a function is concave up or concave down.
The Second Derivative Test for Concavity
Let y = f (x ) be twice-differentiable on an interval I.
(a) If f ' ' ( x ) > 0 on I , then the graph of f over I is concave up .
(b) If f ' ' ( x ) < 0 on I , then the graph of f over I is concave down.

Definition of Inflection Point

A point P on the graph of a continuous function y = f (x ) is called an inflection point if
the graph changes from concave up to concave down or from concave down to concave
up at P.

At a point of inflection (c, f (c ) ) , f ' ' (c ) = 0 or f ' ' (c ) fails to exist.

" f ' ' (c ) = 0 " here is only a necessary condition when the second derivative exists, but not
a sufficient condition.

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

The Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema:

Let f ( x ) be differentiable on an interval I containing x = a , with f ' (a ) = 0. Suppose
f ' ( x ) is also differentiable near a with f ' ' ( x) is continuous.
(i) If f ' ' (a ) < 0, then x = a is a local maximum.
(ii) If f ' ' (a ) > 0, then x = a is a local minimum.
(iii) If f ' ' (a ) = 0, then no conclusion can be drawn regarding extreme values. (i.e.,
inconclusive)
Example:
1. Find the local maximum and minimum values of the following functions using both
the first and second derivative tests.
a) y = x 5 − 5 x + 3 b) y = x + 1 − x

2. Find the extrema of the following functions and the points where the extrema appear..
x
a) y = x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 2 b) y = 2
x +1

Solution:
1 a) y = x 5 − 5x + 3 [using 2nd derivative test]
dy
At the stationary point, = 0 . Therefore
dx
5x4 − 5 = 0
x = ±1
d2y
To determine whether the stationary point is a maximum or minimum, compute .
dx 2
d2y
= 20 x3
dx 2
d2y
At x = −1, < 0 , thus the critical point is a local maximum.
dx 2
When x = −1, y = ... = 7 . So y has a local maximum value of 7 at x = −1.
d2y
At x = 1, > 0 , thus the critical point is a local minimum.
dx 2
When x = 1, y = ... = −1 . So y has a local minimum value of −1 at x = 1.

(To Students: For comparison, try using the 1st derivative test to find the local extrema for
y = x 5 − 5x + 3 )

1 b)

2 a)
2 b)

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester1, 2017/2018 Topic 4: Differentiation

7. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE

Suppose that lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = 0 and that f and g are differentiable on an open
x→a x→a

interval I containing a. Suppose also that g ' ( x ) ≠ 0 on I if x ≠ a , then

f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim = lim , if the limit on the right exists ( or is ∞ or − ∞ ).
x→a g ( x ) x →a g ' ( x )

Remark
f ( x) 0
When lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = 0 , lim is said to have the indeterminate form .
x→a x→a x→ a g ( x) 0
∞
L’Hôpital’s rule also applies to quotients that lead to the indeterminate form
∞
If f(x) and g(x) both approach infinity as x → a , then
f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim = lim ,
x→a g ( x ) x →a g ' ( x )

provided the latter limit exists. The a here may itself be either finite or infinite.
[a denotes a real number, ∞ or − ∞ .]
Example:
Evaluate the following.
3x 2 − 3 x − sin x x − 2x 2 ln x
a) lim 2 b) lim c) lim d) lim 1 / 3
x →1 x − x x→0 x 3 x →∞ 3x + 5 x
2 x→∞ x

Solution:
3x 2 − 3
a) lim
x →1 x 2 − x

Let f ( x) = 3 x 2 − 3, g ( x) = x 2 − x
lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = 0 and g ' ( x) = 2 x − 1 ≠ 0 for x near 1.
x→a x→a

3x − 3
2
6x 6
∴ lim = lim = =6
x →1 x − x
2 x →1 2 x − 1 1
x − sin x
b) lim
x→0 x3
x − sin x 1 − cos x
lim 3
= lim
x →0 x x →0 3x 2
sin x
= lim
x →0 6 x

cos x 1
= lim =
x →0 6 6
x − 2x 2
c) lim 2
x →∞ 3x + 5 x

x − 2 x2 1 − 4x
lim 2 = lim
x →∞ 3 x + 5 x x →∞ 6 x + 5

−4 2
= lim =−
x →∞ 6 3
(nby, Jun 2017)

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