MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY (MEC 303)

LECTURE NOTE 3

Engineering Analysis of Pouring

Fluidity

2.1.4. Solidification and Cooling:

Solidification of metals
Solidification Time
Shrinkage
Directional Solidification
Riser Design

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Engineering Analysis of Pouring
 Among the relationships that govern the flow of liquid metal through the
gating system and into the mold are Bernoulli’s theorem and continuity
law.
 Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of the energies (head, pressure,
kinetic, and friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal. That is:

 Where







 Bernoulli’s theorem can be simplified to give equation 2.3 with the following
conditions/assumptions:
 Ignoring friction losses, i.e.
 Assuming that the system remains at atmospheric pressure
throughout, i.e.
 If point 1 is at the top of the sprue and point 2 is at its base. Taking
point 2 as reference point, therefore and

 At point 1 where the metal is poured into the cup, its initial velocity,

 Simplified Bernoulli’s equation with the above 4 conditions/assumptions

becomes from this flow velocity is
 √ eqn. 2.3
 Where



 Continuity law states that the volume rate of flow remains constant
throughout the liquid. The volume flow rate is , therefore, continuity
law is

 Where




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  From equations 2.3 and 2.4 it shows that:
 An increase in area results in a decrease in velocity , and vice versa
 As the velocity of the flowing metals increases toward the base of the
sprue, air can be aspirated into the liquid and conducted into the mold
cavity (because the ross sectional area of the liquid will be reduced) to
prevent this, the sprue should be tapered.
 Mold filling time TMF(s) assuming that the volume flow rate through the
gate and into the mold cavity remains equal to vA at the base, therefore the
time required to fill a mold cavity of volume V is

 Where



 Since equation 2.5 ignores friction losses and possible constriction of flow in
the gating system, the actual time will be longer than what equation 2.5 will
be given.
 Calculation on Pouring:
Question: A mold sprue is 20cm long, and the cross-sectional area at its base is
2.5cm2. The sprue feeds a horizontal runner leading into a mold cavity whose
volume is 1560cm3. Determine: (a) velocity of the molten metal at the base of
the sprue, (b) volume rate of flow, and (c) time to fill the mold.
Solution:
h = 20cm
A = 2.5cm2
V = 1560cm3

(a) Using equation 2.3

√ = √

(b) Using equation 2.4

(b) Using equation 2.5

= 3.2s

Fluidity
 Fluidity is the term used to describe the flow characteristics of molten metal.
 It is the measure of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mold
before freezing.
 Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity; as viscosity increases, fluidity decreases.
 Factors that affect fluidity include:
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point.
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  Metal composition:
 Viscosity of the liquid metal, and
 Heat transfer to the surroundings.
 A higher pouring temperature relative to the freezing point of the metal;
 increases the time it remains in the liquid state,
 it allows it to flow further before freezing.
 This causes casting problems such as oxide formation, gas porosity,
and penetration of liquid metal into the interstitial spaces between
the grains of sand forming the mold.
 This causes the surface of the casting to contain imbedded sand
particles, thus making it rougher and more abrasive than normal
 Composition also affects fluidity, particularly with respect to the metal’s
solidification mechanism.
 The best fluidity is obtained by metals that freeze at a constant
temperature (e.g., pure metals and eutectic alloys).
 When solidification occurs over a temperature range (most alloys are
in this category), the partially solidified portion interferes with the
flow of the liquid portion, thereby reducing fluidity.
 Metal composition also determines heat of fusion-the amount of heat
required to solidify the metal from the liquid state.
 A higher heat of fusion tends to increase the measured fluidity in
casting.

2.1.4. Solidification and Cooling:

Solidification of metals: Solidification involves the transformation of the molten

metal back into the solid state. The solidification process differs depending on
whether the metal is a pure element or an alloy.
 Pure Metals:
 A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature which is equal to its
freezing point also equal to its melting point.
 Solidification occurs over time as shown in fig. 2.3 called a cooling
curve.

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  The actual freezing time during which the metal’s latent heat of fusion
is released into the surrounding mold is called local solidification
time
 The time taken between pouring and complete solidification is called
total solidification time.
 After the casting has completely solidified, cooling continues at a rate
indicated by the downward slope of the cooling curve.
 As a result of chilling action of the mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal
is initially formed at the interface immediately after pouring.
 The thickness of the skin increases to form a shell around the molten
metal as solidification progresses inward toward the center of the
cavity.
 The rate at which freezing proceeds depends on heat transfer into the
mold, as well as the thermal properties of the metal.
 Most Alloys:
 Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single
temperature as shown in fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4: Cooling Curve for alloy metals

 The chemical composition varies throughout the entire casting, which

resulted to ingot segregation.
 Ingot segregation occurs because when the regions of the casting that
freeze first are richer in one component than the other, remaining

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 molten alloy is deprived of that component by the time freezing
occurs at the interior.

 Eutectic Alloys:
 Eutectic alloy is a particular composition in an alloy system for which
the solidus and liquidus are at the same temperature.
 In eutectic alloy, solidification occurs at a constant temperature.
 Aluminium-silicon (11.6% Si) and cast iron (4.3%) are good examples
of eutectic alloys that are mostly used in casting.

Solidification Time: The total solidification time is the time required for the casting
to solidify after pouring.
 This time depends on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical
relationship called chvorinov’s rule.
 Chvorinov’s rule is ( )
 Where

 )



 depends on the conditions of the casting operation;
 Mold material(specific heat, thermal conductivity)
 Thermal properties of the cast metal (heat of fusion, specific heat,
thermal conductivity) and
 Pouring temperature relative to the melting point of the metal.
 Value of for a given casting operation is base on experimental data
from previous operations carried out using the same mold material,
and pouring temperature, even though the shape of the part may be
quite different.
 Chvorinov’s rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface
area ratio ( ) will cool and solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.

Shrinkage: Shrinkage occurs in three stages:

 Liquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification
 It causes the height of the metal liquid to be reduced from its starting
level.
 The amount of this contraction is usually around 0.5%

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 Solidification shrinkage, contraction during the phase change from liquid to
solid
 This contraction causes a further reduction in the height of the casting
 The amount of liquid metal available to feed the top center portion of
the casting becomes restricted, and shrinkage cavity (or pipe) is
formed.
 This portion, shrinkage cavity, is usually the last region to freeze.
 Solidification shrinkage occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid phase (exception is cast
iron, due to graphitization).
 Compensation for solidification shrinkage can be achieved by:
 Supplying liquid metal to the cavities by means of risers in
sand casting
 Supplying molten metal under pressure in die casting.

 Thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room

temperature.
 Further contraction in height and diameter while cooling.
 It depends on the solid’s coefficient of thermal expansion

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  Compensation for thermal contraction is by making the mold cavities
oversized by using oversized pattern.

 Pattern shrinkage allowance is the amount by which the mold must be

made larger relative to the final casting size.

Directional Solidification: This is the process to control the solidification of molten

metal, in such a way that the regions of the casting that is distant from the supply of
liquid metal freezes first and for solidification to progress from these remote
regions toward the riser(s). This minimises the damaging effects of shrinkage and is
done by applying Chvorinov’s rule in the design of the casting itself. Damaging
effects of shrinkage can also be achieved by using internal or external chills.
 Internal chills:
 These are small metals parts placed inside the cavity before pouring
so that the molten metal will solidify first round these parts.
 The internal chill should have a chemical composition similar to the
metal being pour or making the chill out of the same metal as the
casting itself.
 External chills:
 These are metals insert in the walls of the mold cavity that can
remove heat from the molten metal more rapidly than the
surrounding sand in order to promote solidification.
 They are often used effectively in sections of the casting that are
difficult to feed with liquid metal
Riser Design:` Riser serves as reservoir in sand-casting mold to feed liquid metal to
the casting during freezing in order to compensate for solidification shrinkage. To
function effectively, the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
 To design riser that will perform this function, Chvorinov’s rule,
( ) could be used.
 Chvorinov’s rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-
surface area ratio ( ) will cool and solidify more slowly than one
with a lower ratio.
 It shows that TTS for the riser must exceed the TTS for the main casting.

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  Since the mold conditions for both riser and casting are the same,
their mold constants, will be equal.
 By designing the riser to have a larger volume-to-surface area ratio( ),
the main casting solidifies first.
 Calculation on Riser Design:
Question: A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold. The
casting itself is a steel rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5cm by 12.5cm by
2.0cm. Previous observations have indicated that the total solidification time
for casting is 1.6min. The cylindrical for the riser will have a diameter-to-
height ratio of 1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so that its total
solidification time is 2.0min.
Solution:
Volume of plate =
Surface area of plate A = 2

= 1.6min

n=2
To calculate the mold constant
= 3.26min/cm2
( )

To design a cylindrical riser that its total solidification time will be 2min.

( )

( )
( )= 0.783

Volume of a cylinder, V =

Since D =h in our design, V = =

Surface area of a cylinder, A =

Since D =h in our design, A = =

Since ( )= 0.783 then

0.167D = 0.783

D = 4.7cm

Since D =h in our design, h = 4.7cm

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Assignment NO 2 (A week for submission)

1. Molten metal can be poured into the pouring cup of a sand mold at a steady rate of
1000cm3/s. The molten metal overflows the pouring cup and flows into the downsprue.
The cross-section of the sprue is round, with 3.4 cm diameter at the top. If the sprue is
25 cm long, determine the proper diameter at its base so as to maintain the same volume
flow rate.

2. A disk 40cm in diameter and 5cm thick is to be cast of pure aluminum in an open-mold
casting operation. The melting temperature of aluminum is 660oC, and the pouring
temperature will be 800oC. Assume that the amount of aluminum heated will be 5% more
than what is needed to fill the mold cavity. Determine the amount of heat that must be
added to the metal to heat it to the pouring temperature, starting from a room temperature
of 25oC. The heat of fusion, density and specific capacity of aluminum are 389.3 J/g,
2.70 g/cm3 and 0.88 J/g-°C respectively. Assume the specific heat has the same value for
solid and molten aluminum.

3. The downsprue leading into the runner of a certain mold has a length of 175mm. The cross-
sectional area of the base of the sprue is 400 mm2. The mold cavity has a volume of 0.001
m3. Determine (a) the velocity of the molten metal flowing through the base of the
downsprue, (b) the volume rate of flow, and (c) the time required to fill the mold cavity.

4. In the casting of steel under certain mold conditions, the mold constant in Chvorinov’s rule
is known to be 4.0min/cm2, based on previous experience. The casting is a flat plate whose
length is 30cm, width is 10cm, and thickness is 20mm. Determine how long it will take for
the casting to solidify.

5. The total solidification times of three casting shapes are to be compared: (1) a sphere with
diameter 10 cm, (2) a cylinder with diameter 10 m and length of 10 cm, and (3) a cube, For
all three geometries, the volume is 1000 cm3. The same casting alloy is used in the three
cases. (a) Determine the relative solidification times for each geometry. (b) Based on the
results of part (a), which geometric element would make the best riser? (c) If the mold
constant is 3.5 min/cm2 in Chvorinov’s rule, compute the total solidification time for each
casting.

Tutorial Questions NO 2

1. Write the Bernoulli’s equation, hence derive its simplified form with all the assumptions
taken into considerations.
2. Why is it advisable to design the sprue in taper form?
3. What are the significances of higher difference between the melting point and pouring
temperature of metal during casting process?
4. How does metal composition affects the fluidity of molten metal?
5. Differentiate between local solidification time and total solidification time.
6. What is the cause of ingot segregation in casting?
7. Explain how internal and external chills could be used to minimise the shrinkage effects of
casting.
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