Module II: Ceramics

•Introduction to Ceramics: Definition,

• Types based on sources: Natural and artificial
synthesized by heat treatment method,
•Properties and uses of Ceramics
•Glass: Definition, properties, uses, types: Soda-lime,
Borosilicate, Lead, Optical, Alumina silicate, Laminated
Glass
•Abrasive: Natural, Artificial, Examples, Properties and
Uses
 Ceramics: Introduction
• Ceramics (Gk. Keramos = burnt matter) consist of a combination of
non – metallic substances mostly, silicates and metal oxides.
• The chemical combination of different metallic and non-metallic
elements gives rise to ceramic materials with a variety of properties.
• The term ceramic is used to include structural clay products such as
bricks and tiles, glass, abrasives, refractories, etc., which are mostly
produced from naturally occurring minerals of silica and alumina.
• Highly refractory carbides, borides, nitrides, silicides, beryllides,
suphides and aluminides are also called “CERAMICS”.
 Ceramic: Properties
• In general, ceramics have desirable mechanical properties such as:
• Good tensile and compressive strengths,
• Resistant to weathering and chemical attack,
• Capability to withstand high temperatures as well as good electrical
resistance.
• Ceramics generally consist of three major components: (1) a plastic
component which imparts plasticity and workability to the raw material
mix (2) a refractory non – plastic component giving mechanical
strength to the finished product and (ii) a flux or glassy material which
improves the workability, lowers the fusion temperature and provides
bonding of the ingredients in the finished ceramic.
COMPONENTS OF CERAMICS
 Plastic Component of Ceramic: Clay
• Clays are naturally occurring layered alumino-silicate minerals e.g., kaolin or
China clay, bentonite, etc.
• The structure consists of sheets or layers made of SiO4 tetrahedron in which
a few Si atoms have been replaced by Al atoms. The adjacent sheets are
held by Vander Waals and ionic forces giving rise to soft and soapy feel as
well as easy slipping of the layers.
• Clays exhibit plasticity which is their ability to form a workable plastic mass
on mixing with water.
• Dry clay is not plastic but the incorporation of water makes the clay into a
dough like plastic mass, making it amenable to be shaped, moulded or
extruded.
• The plastic mass is sufficiently rigid and retains its shape on standing and on
drying, the water is desorbed, leaving the shaped structure intact.
• The shaped articles are hardened and became vitreous retaining the shape
on heating at high temperatures of about 1000-1300° C. The hardened
articles are unaffected by water.
• The plasticity of clay can be modified by weathering, ageing, or storing
under wet conditions or by the use of non-plastic materials such as
quartz or flint.
 Non-Plastic Component of Ceramic: Silica
• The refractory non-plastic component of ceramics is silica.
• The most common naturally occurring mineral is quartz.
• Other crystalline forms of silica such as crystobalite, tridymite and
vitreous silica as well as crystalline and amorphous materials such as
flint, agate, opal, jasper, etc., also occur in nature.
• Quartz is mostly used as the refractory component in ceramics.
• Quartz undergoes a reversible phase transition between α - and β -
forms at 573° C accompanied by rapid changes in volume. The
transition is of importance as ceramic wares are susceptible to cracking
during rapid cooling close to the transition temperature.
 Flux Component of Ceramic: Feldspar
• The flux component of the ceramic is feldspar, a constituent of
igneous rock. Naturally occurring materials which are used as flux
are:
• Albite (Sodium feldsparNa2O.Al2O3.6SiO₂)
• Orthoclase (Potash feldsparNa2O.Al2O3.6SiO₂)
• Anorthite (Lime feldspar-CaO. Al₂O3. 6SiO₂)
Classification of Ceramics
Classification based on Heat treatment
 I. Sintered Ceramic
• Sintering is a process where ceramic powders are heated below their melting
point to fuse particles together, improving strength and density. These are
further classified as Oxide sintered ceramic and non – oxide sintered
ceramic.
• A. Oxide Sintered Ceramics
• 1. Alumina (Al₂O₃) Ceramics
• Properties: High hardness, excellent wear resistance, and electrical
insulation.
• Uses: Cutting tools, biomedical implants, electrical insulators, and bulletproof
armor
• 2. Zirconia (ZrO₂) Ceramics
• Properties: High strength, crack resistance, and excellent thermal insulation.
• Uses: Dental crowns, fuel cells, and thermal barrier coatings in jet engines.
• 3. Magnesia (MgO) Ceramics
• Properties: High-temperature resistance and good corrosion resistance.
• Uses: Furnace linings, crucibles, and steel production.
 Contd..

• B. Non-Oxide Sintered Ceramics

• 1. Silicon Carbide (SiC) Ceramics
• Properties: High hardness, excellent thermal conductivity, and
corrosion resistance.
• Uses: Armor plating, brake discs, and high-temperature components.
• 2. Boron Carbide (B₄C) Ceramics
• Properties: Extremely hard, lightweight, and good neutron absorption.
• Uses: Bulletproof vests, nuclear reactor shielding, and abrasives
• 3. Silicon Nitride (Si₃N₄) Ceramics
• Properties: High toughness, thermal shock resistance, and
lightweight.
• Uses: Engine components, bearings, and aerospace applications.
 II. Vitrified Ceramic
• Vitrification involves heating ceramics to a temperature where some
materials become glassy, creating a dense, non-porous structure.
• 1. Porcelain
• Properties: High strength, translucency, and chemical resistance.
• Uses: Fine tableware, dental ceramics, and electrical insulators.
• 2. Sanitary Ware (Vitreous China)
• Properties: Water-resistant, smooth surface, and easy to clean.
• Uses: Toilets, sinks, and bathtubs.
• 3. Glazed Tiles and Bricks
• Properties: Non-porous, weather-resistant, and decorative.
• Uses: Wall tiles, flooring, and architectural facades.
 III. Refractory Ceramic
• These ceramics are fired at very high temperatures and can
withstand extreme heat and harsh environments.
• 1. Alumina-Silica Refractories eg. Firebricks
• Properties: High thermal resistance and mechanical strength.
• Uses: Furnace linings, kilns, and chimneys.
• 2. Magnesia Refractories
• Properties: Excellent resistance to chemical corrosion and high
temperatures.
• Uses: Steelmaking, glass melting, and cement kilns.
• 3. Graphite Refractories
• Properties: High-temperature stability and good thermal conductivity.
• Uses: Crucibles, electrodes, and foundries.
 IV. Glass Ceramic
• These are produced by controlled crystallization of glass through heat
treatment, combining properties of both glass and ceramics.
• 1. Lithium Alumino-silicate Glass-Ceramics
• Properties: High thermal shock resistance, transparency, and mechanical
strength.
• Uses: Cookware (e.g., Corning Ware), telescope mirrors, and aerospace
applications.
• 2. Bioactive Glass-Ceramics
• Properties: Bonds with bone, bio-compatible.
• Uses: Bone grafts and dental implants.
• 3. Optical Glass-Ceramics
• Properties: High transparency and controlled light transmission.
• Uses: Optical lenses, fiber optics, and laser applications.
 Types of Glass: Their Properties & Uses
• 1. Soda-Lime Glass (Common Glass)
• Properties:
• Inexpensive
• Easy to manufacture.
• Moderate hardness and transparency.
• Susceptible to thermal shock.
• Uses:
• Windows, bottles, tableware, mirrors.
• Composition: as shown in the following table:-

Component %
SiO2 70-75
Na2O 12-15
CaO (Lime) 10
 Contd..

• 2. Borosilicate Glass: composition is shown in following table:

• Properties:
• High resistance to thermal shock and chemicals.
• Stronger than soda-lime glass.
• Uses:
• Laboratory glassware (Pyrex)
• Cookware
• LED lights
• Telescope lenses

Component %
Silica SiO2 80.5
B2O3 13
Al2O3 3
K2O 3
Na2O 0.5
 Contd..

• 3. Lead Glass (Crystal Glass):

• Formula:- K2O.PbO.6SiO2
• Properties:
• High refractive index (sparkling appearance).
• Good electrical insulation.
• Uses:
• Decorative glassware
• Chandeliers
• Optical lenses
• Radiation shielding.

Composition %
PbO 80%
K2O, Na2O and SiO2 20%
 Contd..

• 4. Alumino-silicate Glass:
• Properties:
• High mechanical strength
• High thermal strength.
• Scratch-resistant.
• Uses:
• Smartphone screens (Gorilla Glass)
• Aerospace applications
• Industrial glass.
.
Component %
SiO2 55%
Al2O3 23%
B2O3 7%
MgO 9%
CaO 5%
K2O + Na2O 1%
 Contd..

• 5. Laminated Glass:
• Composition: Two layers of glass bonded with a plastic (PVB) interlayer.
• Properties:
• Shatter-resistant (holds together when broken).
• Provides sound insulation and UV protection.
• Uses:
• Car windshields
• Bulletproof glass
• Skyscraper windows
• 6. Optical Glass:
• Composition: High-purity silica with controlled refractive index.
• Properties:
• High clarity
• Precise light transmission.
• Uses:
• Camera lenses, microscopes, telescopes, binoculars.
 ABRASIVES
•Introduction
•Types: Natural & Artificial, their examples
•Properties & Uses
 Introduction
• A material or a mineral that is used to shape, polish or finish a work
surfaces through rubbing is an abrasive. These are substances
characterized by their hardness and they are used to wear down
softer surfaces by cutting, grinding or polishing. Common uses of
abrasives include grinding, polishing, cutting, drilling, sharpening,
sanding, etc.
• Examples: Abrasive stones are needed to keep the kitchen knives
and agricultural tools sharp.
• Dentists use an abrasive powder when they clean the teeth and
during smoothening of the fillings
• Abrasives play important role in various industries such as grinding
of wood into paper pulp, cutting stone into carved structures and
sharpening of cutting tools.
 Hardness of Abrasives
• It is measured roughly on Moh’s or Vicker’s scale as shown in the
following figure. Generally, artificial abrasives are superior in
uniformity than natural abrasives and consequently, they are used in
industrial grinding preferably.
 Types of Abrasives
Natural Abrasives Artificial Abrasives
• Diamond • Carborundum or Silicon
• Corundum Carbide
• Emery • Alundum (Al2O3)
• Garnets • Boron Carbide or Norbide
• Quartz (B4C)
 Natural Abrasives: Diamond
• It is a crystallized carbon having highest hardness, hence it can cut the
surfaces of any other substances, whereas only another diamond can
scratch with a diamond.
• It is chemically inactive and not attacked by acids, alkalis or fused
potassium chlorate.
• Diamonds that are off colour or otherwise faulty are known as borts.
• Black diamond from Brazil is called as Carbonado and has no value for
jewellery.
• Borts and Carbonado are used in drill points as saw teeth for cutting
rocks, stones or grinding wheels, dressers and in operations, where
great hardness is required.
 CORUNDUM
• It is crystallized aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and comes next to diamond in
hardness.
• Corundum is not of gem quality but finds use as abrasives for grinding
glasses, gems, lenses, metals and metal cutting.
• Corundum commonly forms hexagonal barrel-shaped prisms that taper
at both ends or as thin tabular hexagonal plates.
• It has a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale, making it one of the most
durable commercial gemstones.
• It has no dominant cleavage and fractures in a conchoidal manner.
 EMERY
• Emery possess the following properties :
• Fine-grained
• Opaque
• Massive mineral
• Dark grey to black in color
• It is formed by the combination of corundum and iron
oxide.
• It is widely used as an abrasive for polishing metals and
metal-cutting.
 GARNETS
• Garnets are present in metamorphic rocks, stones, and sedimentary
quartz sands.
• The presence of quartz in the deposit is about 12% of the alumina
content.
• A garnet is a complex of calcium aluminium iron silicates with the
approximate chemical ranges from Ca3Al₂(SiO₄)₃ to Fe3Al₂(SiO₄)₃.
• Hardness of garnets ranges from 6.0 to 7.5 on Mohs scale.
• Garnets are used for finishing, grinding, and polishing.
 QUARTZ
1. Quartz has a hardness of about 7.0 on Mohs
scale.
2. It is used in sandpaper.
3. The main advantage of quartz is the abrasive
effect it has when combined with feldspar,
clays, carbonates, and other minerals.
 ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES: 1) CARBORUNDUM

• Carborundum or Silicon Carbide (SiC):- Carborundum is

a bluish-black crystallized artificial mineral with hardness
between corundum and diamond.
• It is made by subjecting a mixture of silica and carbon
(coke or coal) to high temperature (1650°C – 2200°C) in
an electric furnace:
• SiO2 + 3C → SiC + 2CO
 CARBORUNDUM: PROPERTIES & APPLICATIONS

• Properties:- It is very hard and on Mohs scale its hardness is

about 9.3.
• It is chemically inactive.
• It can withstand high temperatures without damage.
• It is not tough and is somewhat brittle.
• Uses:- 1) It is mainly used in cutting wheels, abrasive papers,
and cloths.
• 2) It is extensively used for grinding materials of low tensile
strength like cast iron, brass, bronze, porcelain, marble, leather,
glass, and optical grinding of lenses.
 2) ALUNDUM (ARTIFICIAL CORUNDUM)
• Alundum (Al₂O₃)It is prepared by subjecting a mixture of calcined
bauxite, coke, and iron to high temperature, about 4000°C, in an electric
arc furnace.
• The iron, titanium, and other impurities settle down at the bottom of the
furnace, and after solidification, the hard crystalline alumina is
separated, crushed, and ground.
• It is sold under various trade names, including Aloxite.
• Alundum, or Artificial Corundum, is not as hard as carborundum but is
less brittle and tougher. Therefore, it is used in preference to
carborundum for grinding hard steel and other materials of high tensile
strength or abrasive papers and cloths.
• It is also used for finishing works.
BORON CARBIDE or NORBIDE (B4C)
• Synthesis:- It is made by heating boron oxide with coke
in an electric furnace to approximately 2700°C.
• 2B₂O₃ + 7C →B₄C + 6CO
• Properties:- It is inert and one of the hardest artificial
abrasives.
• It has a hardness of about 9 on Mohs scale.
• Uses:- It is used on hard materials for making grinding
dies and for cutting and sharpening hard, high-strength
materials.
 QUESTION BANK ON MODULE II
• Give a schematic classification of ceramics along with suitable examples of each type. [3]
• State synthesis, properties of applications of boron carbide. [4]
• State synthesis, properties and applications of Carborundum. [4]
• Enlist a few properties and applications of Borosilicate glass.[3]
• Enlist a few properties and applications of Laminated glass.[3]
• State the composition of Lead glass along with its properties and applications. [4]
• Describe the components of Optical fibre Communication System. [4]
• Explain the components of Optical fibre. [3]
• What are the advantages of Optical fibres? [2]
• State a few applications of optical fibres. [3]
• Discuss in brief the composition, properties and significance of clay in ceramics.
• Discuss any one Sintered Ceramic in brief with respect to its composition, properties and
uses. [4]
• Discuss any one Refractory Ceramic in brief with respect to its composition, properties and
uses. [4]
• Explain the components of ceramics with suitable examples. [3]
 Module 2: Part D) Optical Fibres

• Definition
• Components of optical transmission system:
Core, Cladding, Jacket with their functions
• Advantages of Optical fibre communication
• Applications of Glass fibre based Optical fibre
 Optical Fibres: Introduction
• Optical fibres are the fibres of about hair diameter made from high
purity, negligible loss, very low dispersion glass and used as medium
for telecommunications by transmission of high frequency pulses of
light.
• The communication field has recently experienced a revolution with the
development of optical fibre technology.
• At present, virtually all telecommunications are transmitted via this
medium rather than copper wire.
• Signal transmission through a metallic wire conductor is electronic (i.e.
by electrons) whereas using optically transparent fibres, the signal
transmission is photonic (i.e. using photons of electromagnetic
radiations)
Components of Optical Fibre Communication System
 Components of Optical Fibres Communication System
• Mainly there are three components of OFCS: 1) Transmitter 2) Transmission
medium and 3) Receiver
• Transmitter: The information (i.e. the telephonic conversation) in electronic
form must be first digitized into bits i.e. 1’s and 0’s. This is accomplished in the
encoder. Then, it is necessary to convert this electrical signal into optical
(photonic) one, which takes place in an electrical-to-optical convertor. This
convertor is normally a semi-conductor laser, which emits monochromatic
and coherent light. The wavelength normally lies between 0.78 to 1.6 μm,
which is the infra red region of the electromagnetic spectrum. With this range
of wavelengths, absorption losses are low.
• Transmission Medium: The output from laser convertor is in the form of
pulses of light; binary of 1 is represented by a high power pulse, whereas 0
corresponds to low power pulse (or absent) as shown in the following figure.
 Digital Encoding Scheme for Optical Communication

• These photonic signals are then fed into and carried through fibre optical cable
(sometimes called as “Waveguide” to the receiving end. For long distance transmission,
“repeaters” may be required. These devices amplify and regenerate the signal.
Contd..
• Receiver: Finally, at the receiving end, the photonic signal is reconverted into an
electronic signal and then, decoded (or undigitized).
• Optical Fibre Cable: The heart of the communication system is the optical fibre
which must guide these light pulses over long distances without any signal power loss
(i.e. attenuation) and pulse distortion. Fibre components are the core, cladding and
coating. These are represented in the cross sectional view in the following figure.
• The signal passes through the core, whereas the surrounding cladding constraints
the light rays to travel within the core. The outer coating protects the core and
cladding from damages that might result from abrasion and external pressure.
Optical Fibre Cable
• High – purity silica glass is used as the fibre material.
• Fibre diameters normally ranges between 5 and 100 μm.
• The fibres are relatively flaw-less and thus, remarkably strong.
• During production, continuous fibres are tested to ensure that they meet
minimum strength standard.
 Medical Application of Optical Fibre
• An endoscopy is a procedure used in medicine to look inside the body. In
endoscopy procedure, the doctor uses an endoscope to examine the
interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike many other medical
imaging techniques, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ.
 Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication

• Enormous Potential Bandwidth: The optical carrier frequency in the range

1013 to 1016 Hz (generally in the near infrared around 1014 Hz or 105 GHz) yields
a far greater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic cable system
(coaxial cable bandwidth upto around 500 MHz)
• Small size and weight: It would require 30000 kg of copper to transmit the
same amount of information as only 1 kg of optical fibre materials.
• Electrical Isolation: Since optical fibres are fabricated from glass (or
sometimes a plastic polymer so they are electrical insulators and therefore
there is no chance of short circuit, unlike the metallic fibres which may cause
fire accident in electrically hazardous environment.
• Signal Security: Optical fibres have high degree of signal security, since the
light from optical fibres does not radiate significantly.
• Immunity to interference and Cross-talk: Since optical fibres form a dielectric
waveguide, so are free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radiofrequency
interference (RFI), switching transients given electromagnetic pulses (EMP).
Hence operation of an optical fibre communication system is not affected by an
electrically noisy environment. Moreover, optical fibre cable is not susceptible
for lightening strikes if used overhead rather than underground.
Contd..

• Low transmission loss as low as 0.2 dB km-1.

• Rugged and flexible, therefore, easy to handle and transport and install.
• System reliability and ease of maintenance: These fibres are durable for
as long as 30 years, therefore, low cost required for maintenance
• Improved speed of transmission, information density, transmission
distance and reduction in error rate: With regard to speed, optical fibres
can transmit information equivalent to three episodes of TV programme in 1
second; or, talking about information density, two small optical fibres can
transmit the equivalent of 24000 telephone calls simultaneously.