Unit 4: Maintaining Life

Unit 4.1: Plants and Water

Tap Root System Diagram:

Fibrous Root System Diagram:

Root Hair Cell Diagram:

How Root Hairs Absorb Water:
 Plants:
o made mostly of water.
o need to absorb water almost all of the time through roots.
 Soil → tiny particles of rock
 Particles of rock:
o irregularly shaped.
o all sorts of different sizes.
o do not pack together tightly.
o spaces between them filled with air and water.
 Special cells → root hairs → grow out of the surface of roots
 Adaptations of Root Hair Cells:
o Large surface area so that water and mineral ions can be absorbed.
o Have a thin cell wall and membrane.
o Cell sap will have a high concentration so water diffuses inside easily.
 Each root hair is a part of a single cell.
 Water moves into the root hair cell from the soil.
 It passes through the cell wall and cell membrane into the cytoplasm.
 Minerals including magnesium and nitrate also move in the root hair cell along
with the water.
 These minerals are in the form of ions dissolved in water between soil
particles.
How Water Moves Up the Plants:
 Xylem vessels → water transport system of plants
 Post water absorption into the root hair cell, it moves from the outside to the
inside of the root.
 It goes to the xylem vessels in the center of the root.
 Xylem Vessels:
o Long, tube-like cells.
o Dead cells – all of their contents, such as cytoplasm and a nucleus have
disappeared.
o All that is left is their cell walls, with an empty space inside. Their end
walls have completely disappeared too.
o Many xylem vessels stack on top of one another, making long empty
tubes that reach from the roots, up to the highest parts of the plant.
o The wood in a tree trunk is made up of xylem vessels.
 They carry water from the roots to the top of the tree.
o Range of different sizes with an average diameter of 0.5 mm.
Xylem and Phloem in Roots and Stems:

 Xylem vessels are shown in red.

Unit 4.2: Transpiration

Definition of Xylem:
 The plant cells that move water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves.
Definition of Phloem:
 The plant cells that move food from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Xylem and Phloem Diagram:

Function of the Xylem:

1. The plant receives water from the roots.
2. As the plant receives sunlight, water in the plant evaporates and escapes the
plant.
3. The plant must replace the water. The water that is evaporating at the top
creates suction that helps the water from the roots climb to the leaves
through the xylem.
 4. Water passes from cell to cell until it gets to where it is required.
Function of the Phloem:
 The food prepared by the process of photosynthesis in the leaves of a plant is
transported to other parts like stems, roots, branches, etc. through a kind of
tube called phloem.
 The transport of food from leaves to other parts of a plant is called
translocation. The food made by the leaves is in the form of simple sugar.
Transpiration – Definition and Diagram:
 Transpiration is the biological process by which water is released in the air as
water vapor through minute pores called stomata. It occurs through the aerial
parts of the plant, such as leaves, stems, and flowers.

The Cohesion-Tension Theory:

 The upward flow of sap in plants occurs due to the evaporation of water from
leaf surfaces.
 This process is known as transpiration and primarily happens through tiny
pores called stomata (singular: stoma).
 As water evaporates from the leaves, tension is created in the xylem vessels.
 This tension pulls more water upward, maintaining a continuous column of
water.
 Normally, a continuous column of water cannot rise beyond 10 meters without
breaking.
 Some trees, like sequoias and eucalyptus, grow up to 100 meters—raising the
question of how water reaches such heights.
 Water moves through thin xylem vessels, where strong cohesion between
water molecules helps maintain continuity.
  The cohesive forces prevent the column from breaking, allowing efficient
transport.
 A column of water in a xylem vessel has a tensile strength comparable to a
steel thread of the same diameter.
 However, this mechanism reaches its limit at around 100 meters, beyond
which water transport becomes increasingly challenging.
Process of Transpiration:

 When water arrives at a leaf, it moves out of the xylem vessels and into the
leaf cells.
 The cells that have chloroplasts use some of the water for photosynthesis.
 But they do not need a lot of water for that and most of the water does not
stay in the cell.
 The liquid water in the cell soaks into the cellulose cell wall and then changes
to water vapor – it evaporates.
 The water vapour diffuses through these holes into the air spaces between
these cells.
 These air spaces connect with the air outside the leaf through tiny holes in the
underside of the leaf – the stomata.
 The water vapour can diffuse through these holes and into the air.
 The loss of water vapour from leaves is called transpiration.
Opening and Closing Stomata:
 Stomata can be closed to prevent water loss.
 Guard cells curve apart when turgid.
 When flaccid, the edges of the cells lie close together.
 However, this drastically slows transpiration and means that no carbon dioxide
can enter the leaf (no photosynthesis).

Internal Factors Affecting Transpiration:

● Structure of leaf:
o Compact arrangement of leaf cells, presence of hairs, cuticles, and
hydrophilic substances such as gums and mucilage reduce the rate of
transpiration.
● Number of leaves:
o The more the number of leaves in a plant, the higher the rate of
transpiration.
● Number of stomata:
o Leaves with more stomata have a higher rate of transpiration.
● Surface area of the leaf:
o The wider the leaf surface, the higher the rate of transpiration.
External Factors Affecting Transpiration:
● Temperature:
o An increase in atmospheric temperature increases the rate of
transpiration.
● Pressure:
o Decrease in atmospheric pressure enhances evaporation and thus
increases the rate of transpiration.
● Light:
o An increase in light intensity raises the temperature of leaf cells and
thus increases the rate of transpiration.
● Relative humidity:
o An increase in atmospheric humidity decreases the rate of
transpiration.
● Wind:
o The more the wind velocity in the atmosphere more is the rate of
transpiration.
● Water Content of the soil:
o Sufficient availability of water in the soil allows stomata to remain open
and thus helps transpiration to continue at a faster rate.
● Concentration of carbon dioxide:
o A decrease in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere favors
the opening of stomata and thus increases the rate of transpiration.
Why Plants Need Water:
1.Water for Support:
 It helps them stand upright.
 Plant cells contain a lot of water, especially inside the vacuoles.
 A plant cell that has plenty of water is strong and firm.
 When all cells in a plant are like this, they press on one another and make the
whole plant firm and well-supported.
 When a plant cell doesn’t contain enough water, it becomes soft and floppy.
 When all cells in a plant are like this, the plant collapses.
 We say that it has wilted.
 2. Water for Transport:
 As water moves through the xylem vessels, it carries dissolved mineral salts.
This is how these mineral salts are transported from the roots to all the other
parts of the plant.

3. Water for Cooling:

 When water evaporates, it takes heat away with it. So, when water evaporates
from the cell wall in a leaf, it cools the cell.
 This is important for plants that live in very hot places.

4. Water for Photosynthesis:

 Water is one of the reactants in photosynthesis.
 In photosynthesis, plants change water and carbon dioxide to get glucose and
oxygen.

Unit 4.3: Excretion in Humans

Excretion:
 Excretion is a process of removing cellular waste from the body, i.e., getting rid
of waste materials.
Materials Included in Excretion:
1. Urea – Wate substance made in the liver due to excess amino acids.
2. Excess Water and Salt – Filtered from the blood by the kidney and excreted as
urine. Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance
(osmotic balance) across membranes within the body.
3. Carbon Dioxide – A waste product which body cells make in respiration,
carbon dioxide exits cells and is dissolved in the blood where it is carried to
the lungs to be excreted.
Difference Between Excretion and Egestion:
Excretion Egestion
The process of removal of waste products
produced in the cells of any animal. And The process of discharging undigested
any substance that is in excess. food.
The discharged materials have passed The discharged materials have not passed
through the cells. through the cells.
It is associated with kidneys, sweat glands, It is associated with the alimentary canal.
and lungs.
The process of excretion can take place in The process of egestion can take place
both animals and plants. only in animals.
Excretory System Overview:
 The excretory system, also known as the urinary system or urinary tract, is the
body's filtration mechanism.
 As it eliminates toxins and waste products from the body, the resulting
substance is urine.
 The body undergoes a sequence of actions involving various organs, ducts, and
tubes to achieve this.
 Any disruptions or issues at any stage of this process can impact the normal
voiding of urine.
Excretory System and Its Functions:
 The excretory system in humans consists mainly of the kidneys and bladder.
 The kidneys filter urea and other waste products from the blood, which are then
added to the urine within the bladder.
 Other organs, such as the liver, process toxins but put their waste back into the
blood.
 It is up to the kidneys to filter the blood so that toxic substances do not accumulate.

Excretory (Renal) System:

 Renal means to do with kidneys.
Structure Function
Kidneys Removes waste, and extra water in the blood and helps keep
chemicals balanced in the body.
Ureter It carries urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder It stores urine.
Urethra Carries urine from the bladder and expels it outside.
1. Kidneys

 The kidneys are bean-shaped organs positioned on either side of the

backbone and protected by the ribs and back muscles.
 They are primarily responsible for producing urine. Kidneys collect waste from
our bloodstream and turn that waste into a simpler form (urine) which is then
eliminated from the body.
 The kidneys are situated below the diaphragm, one on either side of the
spine. They are just below the rib cage and weigh 120-170g.
 Kidneys are divided into three regions:
o renal cortex - the outer layer
o renal medulla - inner layer
o renal pelvis - carries the urine from the kidney to the ureter
 Nephrons –
o The functioning units of the kidney are known as nephrons.
o Each of our kidneys has as many as 1 million nephrons, also known
as kidney tubules or renal tubules.
o These are positioned across the cortex and medulla of the kidney.
o This is where filtration of the blood and reabsorption takes place.
o The contents of the nephrons drain into the innermost part of the
kidney and the urine collects there before it flows into the ureter to be
carried to the bladder for storage.
2. Ureter
 Each kidney is connected to the renal pelvis by a thin and muscular tube.
 This tube is called the Ureter.
 The function of the ureter is to propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder from time to time.

3. Urinary Bladder
 The urinary bladder is a temporary reservoir of urine.
 It is a muscular sac-like structure present above the pubic bone that stores
400-600 ml of urine and expels it by the process of micturition when it is full.
 By the contraction of the wall of the urinary bladder, urine is eliminated from
the body from time to time.
 Micturition –
o The urinary bladder is stretched and filled with urine formed in the
nephrons.
o The receptors present on the walls of the urinary bladder send signals
to the Central Nervous System, thereby, allowing the relaxation of
sphincter muscles to release urine.
o This is known as micturition.
o
4. Urethra
 The urethra acts as a passage to expel urine from the urinary bladder to the
outside of the body.
Excreting Urea:
 Main reasons for the production of urine → removal of urea
 Urea is produced in the liver from excess amino acids.

Storage of Digested Food:

Filtering Urea:
 Food is digested into smaller molecules and moves into the blood.
 The blood transports them to the liver, and excess proteins are converted into
urea.
 As soon as urea is made in a liver cell, it is taken away from the liver in the
blood.
 The urea is removed from the blood by the kidneys.
 As the blood flows through the kidney, the kidney filters the blood.
 They remove all of the urea from it.
 The kidneys also remove excess water from the blood
 The urea dissolves in the excess water. The solution made of urea dissolved in
water is called urine
Formation of Urine:
Urine formed is carried to the urinary bladder through the ureter.
↓

Urine is stored in the bladder till a voluntary signal is received from the nervous
system.
↓

This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with
urine.
↓

Relaxation of the urethral sphincter causes the release of urine outside the body.
↓

The process of release of urine is called micturition.

Difference between Urea and Urine:

Urea Urine
It is a chemical compound. It is a mixture of metabolic waste.
It is formed in the liver. It is formed in the kidneys.
It is odourless. It has a smell.

Disorders of the Excretory System – Uremia:

 Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a
condition called uremia, which is highly harmful and may lead to kidney
failure.
 Uremia is often a sign of end-stage kidney disease.
 Treatments include medication, dialysis, and kidney transplant.
Disorders of the Excretory System – Kidney Stones:
 Kidney stones are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form inside
your kidney.
 Diet, excess body weight, some medical conditions, and certain supplements
and medications are among many causes of kidney stones.
 Passing kidney stones can be quite painful, but stones usually cause no
damage, if they are recognized in a timely fashion.
Kidney Failure:
  Kidney failure leads to a build-up of toxins.
 When the kidney fails, it can no longer remove waste products from the body.
 This has dire consequences, as it could cause a build-up of toxins in the body.
 Humans may need treatment for kidneys.
 Humans can usually survive with one functional kidney, however once both
kidneys are impaired, intervention is required.
 Kidney treatment can come in different forms, such as kidney transplant or
kidney dialysis.
Dialysis:
 This is an artificial method of blood filtering to remove toxins and excess
substances.
 Patients are connected to a dialysis machine which acts as an artificial kidney
to remove most of the urea and restore/maintain the water and salt balance
of the blood.
 Blood is removed from a vein in the arm and is kept moving through dialysis
tubing in the dialysis machine using a pump.
 The tubing is very long to provide a large surface area.
 The dialysis fluid has a composition like blood plasma but with no urea or uric
acid.
 Urea or uric acid and excess mineral salts are removed from the blood,
by diffusion, into the dialysis fluid.
 The cleaned blood then exits the machine and re-enters the patient's arm.

Need for Two Kidneys:

  Humans have two kidneys but only need one for survival.
 People may be born with just one kidney, or have one removed after injury or
for a donation.
 In general, people with one kidney have few or no health problems and have a
normal life expectancy, according to the National Kidney Foundation.
 However, possessing two functioning kidneys is having sort of a reserve in case
of accident or injury.
Ethics Involved in Kidney Donation:
 Safety of the operation of the donor.
 Motivation of the donor.
 The approach to and evaluation of the donor.
 Donation by strangers.
 Commercialization of donation.
 Surrogate consent for donation.
 Acceptance
 of minors as donors.

Unit 4.4: Keeping A Fetus Healthy

A Healthy Pregnancy:
 For the first nine months of its life a new human being grows inside its mother.
 Fetus: Baby before it is born.
 Every pregnant mother hopes that her baby will be healthy when it is born.
 A fetus growing in its mother's body needs to: gain nutrients, respire to
release useful energy, and excrete waste substances.
 The fetus relies on its mother to supply it with everything that it needs, and to
remove the substances it needs to excrete.
 If the pregnant mother makes sure that she stays healthy, this helps the fetus
to stay healthy too.
 The substances that the fetus needs are brought to it in its mother's blood.
 The substances that the fetus needs to excrete diffuse in the opposite
direction.
 The fetus is connected to the umbilical cord through the placenta.
 The placenta is responsible for providing nourishment
 The placenta grows into the uterus wall.
 The mother’s blood does not mix with the blood of the fetus since it is
separated by a membrane, but the placenta lets substances pass between the
two blood supplies through diffusion
Diet:
  A good diet during pregnancy has a big effect on fetal health.
 Pregnant women need to have a balanced diet.
o She should eat all of the different nutrients required to remain healthy.
 She needs to eat a little more than usual because some of the nutrients that
she eats are passed on to the growing fetus.
Essential Components of a Pregnant Woman’s Diet:
1. Protein:
 Helps the fetus produce new cells and grow.
 Mother also needs protein for herself, to keep her muscles strong and working
well.
 She also needs extra protein to make extra haemoglobin – she needs more
because her blood has to transport oxygen to give her fetus, as well as enough
for herself. Of course, her fetus also needs to make hamoglobin for itself.

2. Carbohydrates:
 It supplies energy.
 Glucose is a carbohydrate, and cells get their energy by combining glucose
with oxygen in respiration.
 Both the mother and fetus need carbohydrates for this, she needs to eat
enough carbs to make sure they both have enough energy.
 But she should not eat too much, or the extra could be changed to fat and
make her put on too much weight, which is not healthy.

3. Vitamins and Minerals:

 Vitamin A: Helps bones and teeth grow
 Vitamin D: Helps the body use and form Ca and P, for stronger bones and teeth
 Vitamin C: Helps the body absorb iron, prevent tissue damage, and develop
immunity
 Vitamin E: Helps the body form and use RBC and muscles
 Folic acid: Helps support placenta
 Vitamin B12: DNA synthesis, prevents neural tube defects
 Iron: So that her body can make the extra RBC needed to carry oxygen to the
fetus. Her growing fetus is also making RBC. They both need the extra iron in
the diet to make more haemoglobin, the substance in RBC that carries oxygen
 Calcium: As the bones of the fetus are growing, helps prevent blood clots, and
helps muscles and nervous function

Smoking Cigarettes:
  Tobacco contains carbon monoxide, nicotine, and tar.
 When a pregnant woman smokes, carbon monoxide and nicotine diffuse into
the fetus’s blood, making it as if the fetus is smoking.
 Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen transport by haemoglobin, limiting fetal
respiration and energy release as they normally would.
 This can hinder fetal development.
 Babies of smoking mothers are usually smaller than those of non-smokers.
 Nicotine is addictive and damages blood vessels, which may harm fetal
growth.
 Many countries require cigarette health warnings.
Drugs:
 A drug is something that is taken into the body, and that affects the way the
body works.
 Some drugs are good for health.
 Antibiotics are drugs that kill bacteria in the body. They are used to cure
infections caused by bacteria. They are an example of a medicinal drug.
 Some painkillers, such as aspirin are also medicinal drugs.
 Without medicinal drugs, many more people would die or suffer pain from
illnesses that we can now cure. But other drugs are not so good for us.
 We have seen how nicotine, can harm the health of both the pregnant woman
and fetus.
 Any drug that we do not need can cause harm. These drugs can be even more
harmful to a fetus than to an adult person. Most drugs that a pregnant woman
takes will go into her fetus’ blood. So the fetus is taking the drug too.
Recommendations for Women During Pregnancy:
 If she regularly takes a prescribed drug for her health, she should check with
her doctor or pharmacist to see if it is safe for her to keep on taking it. She
should not stop taking it without checking first.
 She should check with her doctor whether it is safe for her to take drugs that
do not need a prescription such as aspirin.
 She must stop smoking.
 She should avoid alcohol.
 She should never take illegal drugs at all, but it is especially important to avoid
these during pregnancy.
 There is some evidence that caffeine – a drug in coffee and cola drinks – harms
a developing fetus. Most doctors recommend that pregnant women should
not drink a lot of coffee or cola.
Antenatal Care:
  Antenatal care is the care you get from health professionals during your
pregnancy.
 It's sometimes called pregnancy care or maternity care.
 A doctor who specializes in pregnancy and birth - an obstetrician.
 Antenatal (before birth), care is the name given to the care and advice given to
expectant mothers along with checks on fetal growth and development.
 Whilst pregnant, expectant mothers are advised on:
o diet including the need to take folic acid to prevent developmental
issues with the fetus and the importance of a balanced diet
o exercise to stay fit
o health precautions such as avoiding infections, tobacco, alcohol, and
other drugs
Growth and Development of the Fetus:
 After fertilization in the oviduct, the zygote travels to the uterus in about 3
days, dividing several times into a ball known as an embryo.
 In the uterus, the embryo implants in the thick lining and continues to grow
and develop (implantation).
 Human gestation lasts 9 months. Major organs develop in the first 12 weeks,
during which the embryo gets nutrients via diffusion through the uterus lining.
 After 12 weeks, organs are in place, the placenta forms and the embryo
becomes a fetus.
 The remaining time is for fetal growth.

The Fetus in the Uterus:

  The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid
(made from the mother’s blood plasma).
 This protects the fetus during development by cushioning it from bumps to
the mother’s abdomen.
 The umbilical cord joins the fetus’s blood supply to the placenta for exchange
of nutrients and removal of waste products.
The Placenta:
 During gestation, the fetus absorbs glucose, amino acids, fats, water, and
oxygen from the mother’s blood.
 The mother’s and fetus’s blood run opposite each other in the placenta
without mixing.
 The fetus’s blood connects to the placenta via the umbilical cord.
 The placenta removes fetal waste like carbon dioxide and urea to prevent
harmful buildup.
 Molecules move across the placenta by diffusion due to concentration
gradients.
 The placenta’s large surface area and thin walls allow efficient diffusion.
 It acts as a barrier against toxins and pathogens, though some, like nicotine
and rubella, can pass through. Hence, a pregnant mother is advised not to
smoke.
 After birth, the umbilical cord is painlessly cut (no nerves, only 2 blood
vessels), tied off to prevent bleeding, and naturally falls off, forming the belly
button.
 The placenta detaches from the uterus and is expelled as the afterbirth
through contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus.
Stages of Birth:
 Muscles in the uterus wall contract.
 Amniotic sac breaks.
 Cervix dilates (gets wider).
 Baby passes out through the vagina.
 The umbilical cord is tied and cut.
 Afterbirth is delivered.