THE SELF IN WESTERN what do you feel, when you say the word I—I,

myself. I don’t think there can be any more

AND EASTERN fascinating preoccupation than that," was the
opening to a lecture made by the late great
THOUGHTS British philosopher Alan Watts, who is also
known for his interpretations of Eastern
Individualism versus Collectivism philosophy and mythology.
Individualism stresses, or places great
emphasis, on individual goals and the rights of In various talks and numerous books,
the person. By contrast, collectivism is focused Alan Watts explored the two significant myths
on group goals, what is best for the collective about the self. Here, the term "myth" isn't
group, and personal relationships. about something untrue but serves as a way to
interpret and understand oneself and one's
Individualism reality.

⮚ Individualist is motivated by personal The myth of the "world as an artifact"

rewards and benefits. pervades in the West, wherein there is a
⮚ Individualist people set personal goals and distinct difference between the creator and the
objectives based on self. created, the godhead and the godhead's
⮚ Individualistic workers are comfortable creations, in the same way that a potter is
working with autonomy and not a part of a distinct from pots and a carpenter is distinct
team. from his/her constructions. In the East, there is
⮚ Geographic clusters of individualism may be that myth of the world as sort of a drama,
found in Anglo countries, Germanic Europe, wherein all of the things in the world are not
and Nordic Europe. made, but acted, same as a player acts parts,
where there is, for contrast, no distinction is
made between creator and created, and the
Collectivism godhead is no longer distinct from the
godhead's creations. All that exists is a function
⮚ Collectivist is motivated by group goals.
of the same existence.
Long-term relationships are essential.
⮚ Collectivistic persons readily sacrifice As said by Alan Watts, "these are the
individual benefits or praise to recognize and two great images which govern respectively
honor the team’s success. Being singled out the religions of the West, descending from
and honored as an individual from the rest of Hebraism, that is to say, Hebraism itself,
the group may be embarrassing to the Christianity and Islam, and on the other hand,
collectivistic person. the myth that governs those religions which
⮚ Geographic clusters for collectivism are have had their origins in India, most
often located in Arab countries, Latin America, particularly, Hinduism itself, and to a lesser
Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, and Sub- extent Buddhism." Watts quickly followed this
Saharan Africa. up by clarifying that this is how the two myths
of the self are expressed at a popular level,
that is, they are what it is like and not what it
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
is, and that the majority of sophisticated
Various cultures and environments see
adherents or followers of the particular
the concept of "self" in different ways. We often
religions of the East or the West have a deeper
compare cultures using the East-versus-West
and more profound understanding of
idea, where East is like Asia, and West is like
themselves and their reality.
Europe and North America. Even if countries
are close, they can still be different because of Genealogical Self and a Confucian Way of
various factors. In the Philippines, each region Self-Making
might have a similar or different view of the In Anglo-European West and East Asia,
"self" due to its diverse makeup. moral philosophy starts from understanding the
self's true nature. Different conceptions of self
In the Search for the Self: Eastern versus
or answers to the questions such as "what am
Western Perspectives
I?" and "how do I become myself?" often lead
“I believe that if we are honest with
to varying ways of moral life to varying
ourselves, that the most fascinating problem in
the world is ‘Who am I?’ What do you mean,
answers for the question "what ought I do to predicament. The point they're making is that
live my life?" there is a need to be mindful of the limitation
that is inherent in language. Chuang-tzu's witty
The three main ways of understanding aphorisms, anecdotes, and arguments are also
the relationship between myself and the forceful in inducing skepticism as to whether
surrounding contextual others in contemporary any utterance makes sense at all.
studies of Confucianism are as follows:
Taoism itself is the very embodiment of
1. the “universal self” paradoxes and contradictions. Here, the sage
acts without action, and the ruler rules without
2. the “organismic self”
governing. (Ho, 1995) An intelligent person is
3. the "relational self” similar to a small child. Things are relative yet
at the same time identical because the Tao is
All these three influential unitary. Being and nonbeing produce each
understandings of the Confucian conception of other; each of them derive their own meaning
self either still stand in the shadow of the Indo- from the coexistence of the other. Taoism even
European metaphysical traditions of self or are predates Derrida's 1978 critique of the concept
not sufficient to go beyond that shadow. Thus, of logocentrism and his apparent
they may not lead us to a complete and deconstructive aim to undermine the notions of
appropriate understanding of the unique and identity and hierarchy fundamental to Western
the true spirit of the conception of self in thought.
Confucianism.

Based on how Chinese characters get

themselves generated “genealogically,” the Buddhism
genealogical self is an alternative Buddhism has evolved into many sects
understanding of the Confucian conception of in other great traditions, each of which, with its
self. It is rooted much deeper in the Chinese school of thought departing in various ways,
social, cultural, and linguistic traditions than occasionally radically, from its founder
any other three conceptions. Gautama's teachings. Making the diagnosis
that holding onto the illusion of individual
Taoism: Deceptiveness of Language selfhood is the source of our suffering.
Buddhism provides a prescription for
Taoism shows us how language deceives
enlightenment. Self-renunciation holds the key
us. (Ho, 1995) Centuries later, Berkeley argued
to salvation. Given that life is viewed as
that words impede thinking. Taoism predates,
intrinsically futile, the goal is deliverance from
or existed before, the philosophy of linguistic
the self and "not from worldly sufferings due to
analysis that started in the 20th century.
social conditions." (Ho, 1995) Nirvana, which is
The Tao De Ching, specifically, (Classic of the
the ideal to be attained, is a state of
Way and of Potency, Graham, 1989) begins by
transcendence that is devoid of self-reference.
asserting the following:
Buddhism has worked out a particularly
The Way that can be ‘Way’-ed elaborate system of practice to enable one to
attain this transcendence. Meditation is an
Is not the constant Way. instrumentality central to this system. (Ho,
The name that can be named 1995)
Is not the constant name. (p. 219)
Hinduism
The Tao is timeless and all- “In Hinduism, the conception of selfhood
encompassing yet also nameless and is strongly informed by monistic metaphysics.
indescribable. Any particular representation of This conception is elaborated in Vedanta, which
the Tao through language is false, that is, "the is one of the major orthodox systems of Indian
knower does not say, the sayer does not know" philosophical thought.” (Ho, 1995)
(Ho, 1995). This idea presents an
insurmountable predicament for the Taoists; it The Social Construction of the Self in
places them in the rather awkward position of Western Thought
being unable to ever articulate what the Tao
 Plato was one of the very first
is." (Ho, 1995) However, being mystics, Ho
philosophers to state that the soul is
says that Taoists are not troubled at all by this
eternal (H, 2017); thus, a man's soul
 makes up his enduring self because the  On education. Western educational
soul continues to exist even after systems are focused on the ideas of
death. creativity. The system means that
numerous things are bound together,
 Rene Descartes also stated that but it still does its best to elevate
"thinking is an attribute of the soul", individual ways to deal with various
and "the continuity of his thinking mind students. Western education moves
is what makes him remain the same further and aims to transform students
person." In other words, our into undeniable members of the
consciousness is a result of our "soul" training procedure. They are urged to
or "enduring self." He believed that if make inquiries and think critically.
he cannot think, then he cannot exist.
Thus, thinking in and of itself is what  Leadership. It is informal and
constitutes a self. egalitarian, with the belief being all
people are equal and deserve equal
 John Locke said that the self is a rights and opportunities (source:
person’s memory. In other words, our Oxford Languages).
memory allows us to identify ourselves,
and the process of identifying ourselves  On Leadership. People are the most
enables us to formulate the idea of a comfortable with their social equals
self. because the importance of social
rankings is minimized[1].“Leadership is
West done from in front. Never ask others to
The eternal reality of the universal truth do what you, if challenged, would not
is self-liberation by getting rid of the false “Me” be willing to do yourself.” – Xenophon.
and discovering the true “Me.” In terms of evolution and improvement,
hence has a goal. Development stops
 Regarding the lifestyle. Western
when the goal is reached.
influence developed early
independence. Self-expression is given  Regarding beauty. Men are more
freely. You are responsible for yourself attracted to women with tanned,
and must live on your own. One’s own copper skin with mature features.
goals take priority as motivated by “I- Meanwhile, women are attracted to
dominated” materialistic preferences, muscular guys—however, personality-
needs, and rights. wise, women like sassy, witty, strong,
and real men.
 Regarding relationships. Tasks are
more important than relationships. Confucianism: Concept of Religion and
Cognitive skills are independent of Spirituality
social skills. Concepts such as arranged “According to Confucians, spiritual
marriages are not expected. They go development comes after physical, emotional,
for unions based on love as they and mental development. One must first learn
believe in the idea that love comes to know, respect, and honor oneself as one
before marriage. goes about daily business. As Confucius said,
“if you don't know how to live as a person, how
 How is a child taken care of? The
can you serve the spirit?” (Confucian Analects,
overriding goal of the parents is to
Confucius 1971 [500 B.C.E.]).” (JRank, n.d.)
make the child independent and "self-
reliant." Babies are filled with potential, Concept of Jen as a loving
and a good parent is one who can relationship. Jen is a proper relationship
unearth and nurture the latent abilities between two parties, that is, “a loving and
and talents in their child and caring relationship to reach humanity.
encourage the good while discouraging Meditation is considered a cornerstone to
the bad. search for self, find the truth, and achieve
individual and collective goals.” (JRank, n.d.)
 How does senior life look like? An elder
is given preference over the family. Concept of harmony. “A central
Thus, he is flexible and free to make feature of Confucianism is harmony between
decisions on his own. people and their environment, nature, or Tao.
The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of (Confucius is primarily a political thinker).”
the value of harmony with the environment. It (Messerly, 2014)
is also applied to the concept of health for
energy (qi/chi), balance for disease prevention, Confucius remains metaphysical when
healing, and the development of human he says that morality is embedded in the
potential. Meditation is a way of managing universe and within humans. The essence of
energy that is applied to reach physical, morality is a concern with the general welfare.
emotional, mental, and spiritual harmony for Plato, Aristotle, Locke, and Hobbes, and
individual holistic health.” (JRank, n.d.) American Presidents Jefferson, FDR, LBJ, Jimmy
Carter, etc., shared this view. Such concern is
This core value of Confucianism had out of fashion with large parts of American
positive and negative effects on Chinese politics today. Confucius claimed that the
history; it became detrimental to women and decree of heaven would not support rulers
children. Contemporary Confucians who rule for their benefit instead of the general
recommended family conflict resolution as a welfare.
solution to this problem. “Younger generations
are not allowed to express their opinions before "Another metaphysical concept in the
their elders. According to social standards, school of Confucian thinking is the idea that
women and children who have been abused several things are beyond our control—these
are still expected to be submissive. Social things are the result of destiny. Confucius
workers and helping professionals must talked as if destiny is a design of the heavens
understand the hidden cultural dynamics to that is beyond human understanding. Humans
deal with the root philosophies and beliefs as can conform or align with the decree of heaven
they help people.” (JRank, n.d.) if they choose by promoting the general
welfare, but our destiny is beyond our
Family conflict understanding and control. Humans should
resolution. “According to Yin Yang theory from thus follow the decree of heaven by not being
the Tai Chi diagram, contemporary Confucians, concerned with wealth, status, longevity, etc."
such as Douglas K. Chung (1993a), (Messerly, 2014)
recommended the family conflict resolution
model. It is an example of an innovation of The Tao is the way of the sages, in
Confucianism in redefining the image of Tao essence the way that previous good rulers
through daily practice. In the model, any followed the decree of heaven and endorsed
system’s solutions to conflict resolutions and the common good, thereby promoting social
goals for development aim to integrate love cohesion.
(Jen), justice, freedom, and fidelity (the image
Theory of Human Nature –
of Tao) in the dynamics. This approach aims to
Confucius had high hopes about human
fulfill human needs (love). Justice is seen by the
potential; he desired for people to be sages or
end of the cycle under perfectly equal
wise persons who instantiate and bring forth
treatment. Freedom is practiced by volunteer
the goodness of the heavens within them. This
choice and participation in negotiation and
is accomplished by being benevolent. The
compromise, that is, the flexibility of mean line
result of being moral, or benevolent, is joy.
and the possibility of forming new systems.
(Messerly, 2014)
Faithfulness is reached by the stability,
repeatability, and accountability of leadership Confucius was not clear on why only a
and/or revealed by natural laws. Therefore, role few people become wise, benevolent sages,
equity and change in the role are the core but he put forward the suggestion that it may
implications of Yin-Yang theory.” (JRank, n.d.) be because we choose of our own free will not
to be good. He also thought
Theory of the
that our environment plays a significant role
Universe (humanism or secularism, instead
in shaping us. Thus, we need to be molded to
of the supernatural) Confucius cared about
achieve moral perfection that is "molded
humans, that is, the human condition and not
especially by a culture and a social system that
metaphysics (grand theories of the
is conducive to our moral development."
universe.) Confucius said, ‘worry about
(Messerly, 2014)
humans, not gods; worry about life, not death.’
He emphasized that good government would Diagnosis – "Social discord is 'caused
promote social harmony and general well-being by selfishness and ignorance of the past'. As a
consequence, human interaction is marred and ergo, actions should reflect words. If we
marked by strife, rulers govern with attention all lie, then trust will disappear. Words
only for their personal gain, common people are easy to generate; if a person or
suffer under the load of unjust burdens, and government uses them thus to conceal
social behavior as a whole is determined by the truth, then from this social chaos
egoism and greed." (Messerly, 2014) Why is life ensues. Trust is a key component of all
so bad? According to Confucius, it is because of dependable social interaction.
1) profit motive (seeking profit), 2) lack of
respect for parents (disrespect), 3) lying, 4)  According to Messerly, “The answer
ignorance of the past and 5) minimal to ignorance of the past is
benevolence. education, study, and scholarship." The
most important thing for Confucius is
Prescription – Confucius the study of the cultural legacy of our
prescribed self-discipline for individuals and past to revealing how moral perfection
rulers to cure the ills of society. "In other words, can be achieved. "Such education is
society will be better when the people who also crucial for good government."
comprise it are better. This approach provides (Messerly, 2014) Only after one
answers to the five problems listed above." received good education should one be
(Messerly, 2014) allowed to be a leader.

 “Do what is right because it Benevolence refers to kindness,

is right and not for profit. In our goodwill, charity, compassion, generosity, and
struggle to be moral, we thus align philanthropy. It is the main means of moral
ourselves with the decree of heaven, perfection. For Confucius, this process of
with something similar to the natural becoming benevolent involves three elements,
order. We also protect ourselves that is, a) clinging to and adhering to
against disappointment because we benevolence at all times, b) the golden rule:
care about moral virtue" (Messerly, treating others as you would like to be treated
2014) instead of things we cannot be and not doing to others what you do (Messerly,
assured of achieving, such as fame and 2014) not want to be done to you, and c)
fortune. Moral excellence is its habituating our action according to moral rules
reward, whether we are recognized for that we learn from studying the classics.
it or not. It encourages us to keep Benevolence is achieved by acting following
working for righteousness in the world, "the moral rules we learn through study, which
although no one appreciates you for it. is to live according to the way of the heavens."
If we are motivated by the things that (Messerly, 2014)
are right, we will find joy in our efforts,
although we do not fully succeed.
Thus, destiny plays a role in human
life. However, our moral excellence is
something definitely within our control,
and we should struggle and strive to
attain it through self-discipline. We
should cultivate self and not social
recognition, fame, or fortune.

 Cultivating self implies that you will be

a better family member. “Being a good
family member has reverberations
throughout society. A person who is
good to their parents and siblings and
children will be good to others as well."
(Messerly, 2014) The transformation of
the self and benevolence begins in the
family and spreads outward.

 About lying, Confucius said that we

need the word and deed to conform;