SOCIOLOGY

MODULE – 1

The term “Sociology”

 Comte Combined two terms:

1. “Socius” (Latin for Society) &
2. “Logos” (Greek for Studying)
 It literally means ‘study of society’.

Durkheim (1858 – 1917)

 Defined Sociology as “The study of social facts which are the collective ways of feeling, thinking,
and acting.”

Weber (1864 – 1920)

 Defined Sociology as “The study of social action and social relationship”

The reasons to Study Sociology: (Emergence of Sociology)

 It emerged somewhere in Europe during 1839 (1838).

 In Industrial Revolution, Renaissance, setting up new cities (Urbanization), French Revolution, rise of
Nationalism in Europe, American war of Independence, Glorious revolution & Feudalism (Agrarian
Economy) (Substance Economy).
 After the industrial revolution mass market produce started, when there is large scale of produce,
then you’ll have to expand your market, (expansion of market), (sea trade route).
Trade brought language, police, clergy, tradition, concept of colonialism they started to colonize the
masses for their benefits.
 So, there was a need of a specialized subject to give answer to the new problems.
 Anonymity leads to stalking, bullying, drug addiction.
 The Dark Age was when the church was above all and no one was able to question it.

On Own:

Factors Responsible for Emergence of Sociology as a subject:

1. Renaissance The Renaissance brought scientific interest back to widespread

attention, which contributed to the atmosphere in which sociology developed.
 The reformation affected religious beliefs in society, which pertains to sociology
as some of the early sociologists focused their work on the effects of religion.
2. 18th and 19th Century:
Industrial Revolution and French Revolution reshape society. Saint Simon,
Auguste Comte, and others analyze societal changes.
Comte coined the term "sociology" and emphasized social institutions. Comte's
"Positive Philosophy" advocates the creation of a distinct science of society.
Sociology born as a response to the intellectual endeavor prompted by societal
transitions.
3. Enlightenment:
It helped in the development of secular, scientific and humanistic attitudes of
mind during the late 17th and 18th centuries. This is because ‘enlightenment’
positioned the human being as the central figure of the universe, with rational
thought at its core. Rational and critical thinking transformed human beings into
both producer and user of all knowledge. Those who did not adopt the new ways
of thinking and reasoning were deemed as deficient and primitive. This
development influenced society as it was a product of human interaction. Thus,
it helped sociology to grow as a rational and scientific subject with critical
analysis.
4. Urbanization
Partly as a result of the industrial revolution, large numbers of people were
uprooted from rural areas and they migrated to urban settings. This massive
shift was caused because of jobs created by the new industrial set up in urban
areas. However, this migration and expansion of cities resulted in endless
problems such as overcrowding, pollution, traffic, lack of health care,
growth of slums, etc.
Urbanization is the process of setting of new cities and movement. Changes the
whole demographic of the nation. Increases population in cities, brings
opportunities and drawbacks.
Example: Good schools, hospitals and industries.

Contributors of sociology

 Sociology was previously known as social physics.

 Because most of the thinkers were scientists and are from science background.

St Simon (1760-1825)
  He was a father in a church.
 He was one of the initial contributors of sociology.
 Before it was coming out of philosophy.
 He coined the term social physiology, His Sociology focused on the concept of social physiology,
where reason, science, intelligence, and rationality would produce a stable society.

His Pupil

1) Auguste Comte (1978 – 1857)

 Defined Sociology as “Abstract and theoretical science of Social phenomena.”
 It is a social science to deal with society as a whole.
 Known as Father of Sociology
 He was a French person and a scientist.
 He was influenced by the words of Sir Isaac Newton, laws of motion.
 In the same line he gave “Positive Philosophy” (3 vol, book), I.e. law of three stages.

Law of Three Stages

Stage 1, Theological Stage:

It is very old and most primitive stage, in these individuals believed that everything that happened was the
will of God. Human beings believed that behind every occurrence there is supernatural power.

 Animism: refers to the belief that non-human entities are spiritual beings, either intrinsically or
because spirits inhabit them for a period of time. (Firstly, humans worship nature, spirits, ghosts)
 Polytheism: It is the belief in more than one god, people created names of multiple gods, Hinduism
and Greek mythology can be an example of this.
 Monotheism: It is the belief in one God oneness of God this was a journey to one singular god,
Christianity and Islam is the example of this.

Stage 2, Meta-Physical stage:

In this stage people believed in God however they do not explain everything which happens in the society
was the will of God and most problem took place due to the inadequacy of humans.

 This was a transitionary stage; it would not remain forever.

 Started questioning and had doubts and queries.
 The answer was not reached, only the questions were raised and was challenged.
Stage 3, Positive/Scientific Stage: In this stage every social phenomenon was explained by the scientific
findings and empirical research.

 This stage was going to remain forever science is going to be the supreme.
 Scientists/Researchers: Superior. The religious head is there but is not supreme.

Positivism: According to Comte, Positivism is absolutely intellectual way to determine social phenomenon,
there is no place for supernatural power in it. In this stage religion became less predominant and scientific
methods became more predominant in obtaining knowledge.

 Focused on: Methodology of Study, Usage of Science for Study of Society, E.g. Test, Verification &
Lack of Human Error.
 Auguste Comte and Durkheim applied empiricism to the social sciences, claiming that society can be
studied like nature and that the rules of social existence can be shown using natural science
techniques like observation, categorization, evaluation, experimentation, and statistics.

Empiricism (Individual 1st Hand Data.)

It refers to using empirical techniques in scientific inquiry. It is a way of thinking about knowledge that
says the only way to know anything is through direct experience through the senses.

Social Static and Social Dynamic:

Auguste Comte divided sociology into two major parts, namely, static and dynamic sociology. The idea of
this division is borrowed from biology, which is in keeping with his notions of a hierarchy of sciences.
1. Social Static
 Stable/Permanent; Does not change
 It is static in all parts of times of society
 It focuses on how order is maintained in the society.

Comte identifies language, religion, and division of labor as crucial elements for social stability. According to
him:

 Language: Essential for communication and community bonding. It facilitates

the transfer of knowledge and skills across generations, fostering solidarity and
social order.
 Religion: Acts as a positive guide, compensating for language limitations by
uniting society through common beliefs. It provides moral guidance, preventing
societal disintegration and serving as the foundation of social order.
 Division of Labor: Creates interdependence by binding society through
classes. While essential for state cooperation, there is a risk of individuals
prioritizing personal interests, potentially leading to a weakened connection with
the broader community.

2. Social Dynamics
 It deals with phenomena of change in society.
 It keeps on changing.
 Comte placed greater emphasis on the study of social dynamics, or social change.
 His theory of social dynamics is founded on the law of the three stages.
 It begins with the study of the process of social changes. Therefore, it is concerned with the matter
of social progress.
 According to Comte, social dynamics describe the successive and necessary stages in the
development in the human mind and the society.
E.g. Evolution of Laws, Technological Advancements, Educational reforms, Globalisation and
International laws. Etc
2) Herbert Spencer 1820-1903:
1. Organic Analogy
2. Concept of Functionalism Simple
3. Social Darwinism (Theory of Evolution) Compounded
4. Lassiez Faire Doubly Compounded
5. No intervention Tribley Compounded
6. Simple to Complex
(Militant) (industrialist)

 Spencer was Initially Educated by parents, later he became engineer in British railway.
  But he was inclined towards writing and he wrote his first book that was Social static (which was
appreciated by radicals).
 Hit second book was principles of psychology (unappreciated).
 Other Books: >Principles of Biology
> Principles of Sociology
> Study of Sociology
> Synthetic Philosophy

Organic Analogy:
 Human beings compared with society. In the society there are different institutions, all these
institutions have different functions comparison between these institutions.
 Concept of Interdependent: Dependent on each other.
 Example: education is independent, nations growth is
dependent on good education. Spencer and particularly
Durkheim’s ideas grew in
 Spencer maintains that we can understand popularity during the 1950s and
society best, if we compare it with an organism. 1960s, partly due to the
He thinks that society is like a biological system, resurgence in conservative values
in the USA and were developed
a greater organism, alike in its structure and its
by an American called Talcott
functions. Like an organism society is subject to
Parsons (1902-7979).
the same process of gradual growth or
development from a simple to complex state.
Like any organism, society also exhibits “differentiation in
functions and integration structure.”

 In this connection, it must be noted that Spencer does not subscribe to the view
that society is an organism; he maintains it only as an analogy.
 As humans started at simple sense and later become complex humans, similarly society started with
simple humans and slowly became compounded (clan) and at last tribly compounded (tribe)

Concept of functionalism, functionalism school of Thought

 Each component of society has a particular role, example Sati system and its abolishment,
 Gives emphasis on order and stability, coexistence
 Everything in society has a purpose
 These are not in conflict; they are interconnected and interdependent.
Functionalism was 'founded' by French sociologist, Émile Durkheim. Further key
theorists of this sociological perspective were Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton.
They established functionalist arguments in several areas of sociological research,
including education, family formation and social inequality.
In functionalist theory, the different parts of society are primarily composed of social
institutions, each designed to fill different needs. Family, government, economy,
media, education, and religion are important to understanding this theory and the
core institutions that define sociology. According to functionalism, an institution only
exists because it serves a vital role in the functioning of society. If it no longer serves
a role, an institution will die away. When new needs evolve or emerge, new
institutions will be created to meet them.
Social Darwinism:
 Based on survival of the fittest by Charles Darwin
 Whatever the wrong is happening in the state is it is not the fault of the state, the state is not to
blame, it is a destiny of the weak people to die. example Jalia Walla Bagh
 They use social Darwinism to justify their inhuman act.
 Simple: Separate Family unit
 Compounded: Families into Clans
 Doubly Compounded: Clans into Tribes
 Trebly Compounded: Tribes into a Nation
It believed that the process of natural selection acting on variations in the
population would result in the survival of the best competitors and in continuing
improvement in the population. Societies were viewed as organisms that evolve in
this manner.
Spencer’s theory of social evolution points out to two stages:
1. The movement from simple to compound societies.
2. Change from militant society to industrial society.
The movement from simple to compound societies—This is seen in four types of
societies in terms of evolutionary levels.
1. Simple Society:
Spencer defined the simple society as “one which forms a single working whole un-
subjected to any other and of which the parts co-operate with or without a
regulating center for certain public ends.” These societies were predominantly
small, nomadic, and lacking in stable relationship structure. They had low degrees
of differentiation, specialization, and integration. Examples are the Eskimos, the
Fuegians, Guiana tribes, the new Caledonians and the Pueblo Indians.
2. Compound Societies:
Compound societies were presented as having generally come about through
either a peaceful or a violent merger of two or more simple societies. They tended
to be predominantly settled agricultural societies, although a majority are mainly
pastoral, and tended to be characterised by a division of four or five social strata
and an organised priestly group. They are also characterised by Industrial
structures that show in advancing division of labour, general and local. Examples
are the Teutonic peoples in the fifth century, Homeric Greeks, Zew Zealanders,
Hottentots Dahomans and Ashantees.
3. Doubly Compound Societies:
Doubly compound societies were completely settled, were more integrated and a
larger and more definite political structure, a religious hierarchy, a more or less
rigid caste system and more complex division of labour. Furthermore, in such
societies to a greater and lesser extent, custom has passed into positive law and
 religious observances have grown definite, rigid and complex. Towns and roads
have become general, and considerable progress in knowledge and the arts has
taken place.” Examples are thirteen-Century France, Eleventh Century England, the
Spartan Confederacy, the ancient Peruvians and the Guatemalans.
4. Trebly Compound Societies:
It includes “the great civilized nations” such as the Assyrian Empire, the modern
Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Spencer does not outline their
traits in detail but points to their increased overall size, complexity, division of
labour, popular density, integration and general cultural complexity.
Militant to Industrial;
Spencer distinguished between "militant" and "industrial" societies. In a militant
society, cooperation is compulsory, akin to an army where orders must be followed
under penalty of death. This compulsory cooperation requires a strict hierarchy to
prevent chaos. Such societies are marked by status-based systems prevalent in
ancient times.
On the other hand, an industrial society operates on voluntary cooperation, where
individuals agree to specific terms and can freely leave if dissatisfied. This
voluntary cooperation is facilitated through contracts, leading to a regime of
contract prevalent in modern Western nations like Britain and the United States.
While businesses may have hierarchies, obedience to orders is fundamentally
voluntary, as workers can opt to quit. Thus, industrial societies are based on
contractual relationships rather than status.
Laissez-faire (No Intervention)
 Modern society: liberty, Freedom, co-existence and heterogeneous
 Simple society: Strong military because of fear is the only factor it is like a tribal society.
In the economic arena, Spencer advocated a laissez-faire system that tolerated no
government regulation of private enterprise. He considered most taxation as
confiscation of wealth and undermining the natural evolution of society.

Criticism:
 Spencer’s support of a “laissez-faire” philosophy was also questioned at the beginning of the 20th
century, when war, inflation, unemployment, etc., were causing chaos in Europe and the United
States. As a result, more and more people thought that society and politics needed to be controlled
by rationale.
 Herbert Spencer’s idea that society is a super-organic system was flawed in many ways. He couldn’t
see how culture fit into the world as a whole. His explanation of how societies change from simple
to complex was also incorrect.
 Timasheff says that because his law of evolution is a cosmic law, his theory is strictly philosophical
and not sociological.
 Critics said he made what is now called the “naturalistic fallacy,” which is the mistake of trying to
find morality and ethics in nature.
 According to some social thinkers Herbert Spencer’s theory lacks
practicability. It is not practical and realistic. Even today there are several
tribes and aboriginals that do not show any sign of evolution.
  It also lacks uniformity. It is not possible to have a uniform pattern of social
evolution in all societies. Because the factors and circumstances responsible
for evolution differ from one another.
 Mere survival for existence is not enough for man. In human society qualities
like sympathy, sacrifice, kindness, love etc. are also present. These are quite
different from struggle for existence.
In spite of the above criticisms made by some of the social thinkers, Spencer’s theory
of social evolution is a master key to the riddles of the universe.

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/herbert-spencers-theory-of-social-evolution-explained-with-
diagram/43739#:~:text=of%20evolutionary%20levels.-,1.,lacking%20in%20stable%20relationship
%20structure.

Emile Durkheim: (1858-1917)

Books:
The Division of Labor in Society (1893), The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), Suicide (1897) and The
Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912).
 Social fact, (collective consciousness)
 Sui Generis
 Functionalist school
 Crime is a necessary evil
 Theory of division of labor
 Mechanical solidarity
 Organic solidarity
 Theory of suicide:
1. egoistic,
2. altruistic,
3. anomic
 The element form of religious life
He was the first official professor of sociology. A French person, at the time France was the symbol of liberal
society, He is known as the founding contributor of sociology.
Collective consciousness
 There is some kind of commonality, you identify as those commonalities. The Society wants to
maintain those collective commonalities. Settle disputes as a collective unit.
 Even if you don’t want to do it sometime but you have to do it, for social acceptance, not to get
excommunicated, as society cannot work as a disruptive unit.
 Example, reduction of age bar in juvenile offenders.
 Durkheim defines collective consciousness as the reason why and how
individuals who are different can come together and form a society. This is
because collective consciousness refers to a set of common beliefs, values, and
behaviours that are found within a society.
Social Fact:
 Social customs are taken as it is, you don’t get to choose. Group Coerciveness.
 It is imposed on individual, example: black dress for lawyers
  It has been there so we have to accept it, beyond the individual choice and it is external and
coercive.
 Example: Russia Ukraine War, Israel Palestine War, if there was a collective consciousness it will be
resolved,
 Positive example: G20, made for interest of everyone.
 Collective consciousness it’s strong because of the institution and not the individual.

So according to Durkheim, Sociology is a study of institution.

Institution:
Collective ways of Doing things.

Social Facts of things:

 Durkheim defined social facts as things external to, and coercive of, the actor.
These are created from collective forces and do not emanate from the
individual.
 Taking things at Substance
Sui Generis:
 Society as a thing in itself, something of its own kind, or a thing apart.
Durkheim’s view was that society has an existence of its own, apart from the
individuals in it, and is thus a proper object of study.
 Things that have been on its own, the Origin of these Practices/Customs can’t be tracked.

Theory of Suicide:
 Suicide is a social problem, caused of social facts and not Individuals. According to Durkheim,
suicide is not an individual act nor a personal action.
 Suicide as primarily a social phenomenon in terms of the breakdown of the vital
bond of life.
Types of Suicide:
Emile Durkheim classified different types of suicides on the basis of different types of
relationship between the actor and his society.
(1) Egoistic suicide:

 According to Durkheim, when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that

he has no place in the society he destroys himself. This is the suicide of
self-centred person who lacks altruistic feelings and is usually cut off from
main stream of the society.
 Lack of Social Integration, need to learn to face the failure, man is isolated, need social support
to cope.

(2) Altruistic suicide:

 This type of suicide occurs when individuals and the group are too close
and intimate. This kind of suicide results from the over integration of the
individual into social proof, for example - Sati customs.
  Doing it for others, Strong Social integration, Strongly Socially regulated, you enjoy your
death, thinking you are doing it for a good cause. You will be rewarded, (glorified by society
for the larger cause)
 E.g. Soldiers

(3) Anomic suicide:

 This type of suicide is due to certain breakdown of social equilibrium, such

as, suicide after bankruptcy or after winning a lottery. In other words,
anomic suicide takes place in a situation which has cropped up suddenly.
 Normlessness, you don’t know that to do, there is no control, there is no purpose of living,
Weak Social Regulation leads to mayhem, chaos, and bloodbath.
 E.g.: Kibbutz system: it's a community where people voluntarily live and work together on a
noncompetitive basis. Sense of community: Kibbutzim are known for their strong sense of
community, with residents sharing resources and working together to achieve common
goals, taking care of children and old people in a common hall.

(4) Fatalistic suicide:

 This type of suicide is due to overregulation in society. Under the

overregulation of a society, when a servant or slave commits suicide, when
a barren woman commits suicide, it is the example of fatalistic suicide.
 These individuals are placed under extreme rules or high expectations are
set upon them, which removes a person’s sense of self or individuality.
 Strong Social Regulation, individual choice,
 E.g. Thallai Koothal: the traditional practice of senicide (killing of the elderly) or involuntary
euthanasia, by their own family members, Also, Leaving Elderly people in Mathura and
Vrindavan.

Division of Labour by Durkheim

Durkheim argues that the division of labour serves social and economic purposes.
“The division of labour can take place only among members of a pre-existing society,”
Durkheim believed that the division of labour is proportional to a society’s moral or
dynamic density. He describes it as a combination of a group’s or society’s population
density and level of socialisation.
Durkheim states there are two types of social solidarity: organic and mechanical.
1. Mechanical Solidarity: (simple division of labour)
 Mechanical solidarity means that there is no mediator between the
individual and society. That means that society functions as a group.
Everyone in the group does the same things and shares their central
beliefs.
 Rural Society, Homogeneous in nature, repressive laws, Strong integration and close
bonding.
 Independence because of religion and custom.
 A repressive law is a legal system where anyone who breaks the law faces
severe punishment. People in mechanical societies have a strong
 collective conscience or set of social values upon which to build their laws.
That is why such a law is prevalent within mechanical solidarity.

2. Organic Solidarity: (Complex/complicated division of Labour)

 It is a system with diverse functions linked together by specific
relationships
 The job or task that each person does and the ways they act are unique
 Restitutive laws demand a criminal compensate for the harm he caused to
others due to his actions. Restitutive Law concentrates on the victim when
there is a crime because there are no commonly held opinions about what
causes harm to society.
 Urban Society, Heterogenous in nature, Independence is higher because of interest, division
of labour in multiple departments (leading to specialisation).

In modern times, people will move from Mechanical Solidarity to Organic Solidarity.

The Elementary Forms of Religious Life

 Religion is the most powerful adhesive force. Religion brings people together.
 Purpose of religion is peace.
 Totemism is the most elementary form of religion. In totemism, a clan believes
that they are descended from a plant or animal, which they worship and revere.
 It carries a symbolic value; it can be animate or inanimate. It is Sacred and Profane. It is utilised by
society at large.
 Durkheim attributes the development of religion to the emotional security
attained through communal living. His study of totemic societies in Australia led
to a conclusion that the animal or plant that each clan worshipped as a sacred
power was in fact that society itself. According to Durkheim, early humans
associated such feelings not only with one another, but as well with objects in
their environment. This, Durkheim believed, led to the ascription of human
sentiments and superhuman powers to these objects, in turn leading to
totemism.
 E.g. Australian Tribe, Ganesh Pooja history, Guru Granth Saheb in modern times.

Crime as a necessary Evil

 Crime is a negative term but here it is shown as positive as it is considered as a functional thing.
 Crime is violation of law/legal wrong, Crime is an act which is punishable by the law of the land,
eg: Liquor ban in Gujarat.
 Anyone who is doing any unusual activity other than prescribed activity it will be Deviant act.
 Each one of us are Deviant but not a criminal. He recognized deviance as important to
the well-being of society and proposed that challenges to established moral
and legal laws (deviance and crime, respectively) acted to unify those that
were not in opposition to the laws.
 Durkheim held was that deviance and crime also help to promote social change, by developing
new laws and amending previous laws.
  There is no society that is crime free, a crime free society will be a Utopian idea which isn’t
possible in reality. Crime also helps in creation of jobs, Eg: Security guards, Cops.
 Because of all these reasons, Crime is necessary and Functional
Criticisms:

 Social facts should not be reified and treated as social objects, but rather
defined as arrangements of practices . Additionally, Durkheim's interpretation of
social facts as things has been criticized for neglecting the power of ideas and
norms, and being materialistic and deterministic .
 Durkheim doesn’t state which level of crime is the right amount, Just because
crime has a function in society does not necessarily mean that society
is deliberately creating crime in order for the functions of it to be prevalent. It
doesn’t focus on how crime affects individuals or groups in society. It also
doesn’t recognise that crime can weaken solidarity and increase isolation – most
women stay in at night due to the fear of rape.
 Durkheim fails to adequately address the ecological fallacy of studying suicide
rates to understand individual behaviour.
 Durkheim's understanding of religion as a necessarily social phenomenon.
Religion originates in society where the "collective effervescence “of ritual gives
religious practices and beliefs extra-human power. Durkheim relies on accounts
of "primitive cultures" for his theory and argues that the totem of the society
reflects the society as a whole and thus becomes bigger than any one person
and the society itself. The power of the sacred totem comes from the society.
Critics would argue that religion does not necessarily have to be social. For
example, ascetic traditions that prioritize isolation and solitude would not fit
Durkheim's theory.
 For Durkheim all of life is divided between the sacred and the profane and
society maintains the boundaries between the two. But in many ways the
sacred and the profane are not so easily bounded. They ooze into one another
in daily life.

Max Weber (1864 – 1920) (Symbolic Interactionist School)

German Scholar
Not only in Sociology but also multiple other Disciplines:
a) Political Science
b) Legal Jurisprudence
c) Management. Etc
Concept of “Ideal Type”
 Ideal (Highest form), It is a particular benchmark which you create for the society,
 To aspire to achieve the ideal type, Society creates an Ought to Be, Like. Caste-free society,
discrimination free society. Etc.
 A yard stick measurement.
 Definition: An Ideal type is an analytical construct that serves investigator as a measuring rod/scale
to ascertain similarities as well as deviations in concrete cases. Example, setting up target is an ideal
type and measuring how close you’re to achieve it. Like laws of attraction.
 Ideal type can be at individual as well as higher level, its about keeping a target and working
towards the target to achieve it.
  It is a kind of abstract model which is created by Max Weber and it is useful in
the standard comparison which enables the person to look at the original aspect
of the real world more clearly and in a more systematic way. It is a constructed
ideal used to approximate reality by selecting and accentuating certain
elements. This is commonly arranged or constructed as a one-sided point of
view.
Three types of Ideal type:
1. Ideal type of Historical Realities: The historical ideal type is related to the realities that have been seen or
found in history. The modern capitalist market is one example of a historical ideal type.
2. Ideal type which refers to abstract elements of the historical reality: that are observable in a variety of
historical and cultural contexts such as ‘bureaucracy’ or ‘feudalism’
3. Ideal types ‘that constitute rationalizing reconstructions of a particular kind of behaviour. This includes
changing and moulding behaviour for acceptance. Eg: Moot court. Focuses on how individuals would behave
under certain ideal conditions.

Max Weber v. Durkihem

According to Durkheim, things need to be taken as it is and there is no clarity and no individual interpretation. Lacks
Subjectivity. [Macro Sociology]

According to Weber: Every activity carried out by an individual have different meanings, he focuses on subjectivity
and is concerned with individuals understanding. [Micro Sociology]

 Every activity has different meaning as for the individual. Eg: Blind men and elephant in the room
 Here different meanings are associated with the same act as per the individual’s understanding.
 Different activity by individual as per the individual’s interpretation of the situation.
 There is a need to understand the entire picture.

Eg: Playing for one hour straight and getting really thirsty, drinking water aggressively, when someone else looks
they will judge them without knowing that the other person is really thirsty. This shows different individual
interpretations of the same situation.

Defining Sociology by Weber:

“Sociology… is a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby
to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects.”

 This means the comprehending or understanding in social sciences. We can understand the action and
comprehend the subjective intention of the actors.
 Sociology seeks to understand social structures by dissecting social processes into meaningful individual
actions.

Max Weber's Verstehen

Max Weber's sociology theory focuses on how certain actions and behaviors "make sense" to agents in society. He
used the German term verstehen, which translates to "understanding," in order to characterize his approach to
studying social relations and actions.

2 Ways:

1. It facilitates direct learning of human action.

2. It facilitates understanding of underlying motives.
Link this With concept of ideal type, Example: Not teaching in class and gossiping by the teacher, this can have two
interpretations:

a. In the short term it will have multiple meaning like not in the mood to teach or tired.
b. In the long run one particular note is that something is wrong.

Value Neutrality By Weber:

 Value neutrality is the ethical duty and practice of maintaining impartiality and remaining unbiased and
judgment-free during the interpretation and publishing of research findings.
 It is difficult for human beings not a machine we are, it is influenced by behavior and also influenced by our
own surroundings. As humans we carry bias.
 Eg: giving Judgement, (uncle judge) Parties are known to the judge,
 Human should perform act as a judge, what you expect a judge to do, keep the emotions and influence aside
and decide on the merits.
 Ethically, sociologists should report whatever they find, even if it goes against their personal values and even
if they don’t agree with or like the findings.
 A person can be a good advocate for himself and the best judge for others, before judging don’t be biased
and know the complete background. One need to learn unlearn and relearn to change biased attitude.
 Eg: India – China Conflict: both party biased, no scope for Dialouge.
 Eg; Justice Khanna: Dissenting opinion on Indira Gandhi (during emergency)

Concept of Social Action (Rationalisation)

There are 4 Types:

1. Zweckrational action are the actions that are planned and need to be taken after fixing a relative goal to be
achieved. In the entire purpose of the social action is to achieve that goal for example sledging or trolling.
2. Wertrational Action Fit is value-oriented action, action is defined because of the value that you carry. This
action occurs when individuals use rational with values – that is effective means to achieve goals or ends.
Doing the actions as per the value you inherit. Example Gandhi, he has values to achieve his goals that
become a symbol of self-purification.
3. Affective action merges means and ends, driven by emotion and impulse. Unlike rational action, it lacks calm
assessment of the relationship between means and ends. Instead, the means themselves are emotionally
fulfilling and may become ends in themselves. This type of action arises from the emotional state of the
actor. Eg: Love and Jealousy leading to possessive behaviour and Acid Attacks.
4. Traditional Action occurs when the ends and the means of action are fixed by custom and tradition. This is
an action which is guided by customs and long standing beliefs which become second nature or habit. (eg:
the concept of ‘Dharma’ – righteousness) Judgement: Ram Janam Bhumi- Hinduism is a way of life and not
just a religion.

Concept of Power and Authority:

 Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others, not only physical but influence, financial, muscular etc.
 power made legitimate by laws, written rules, and regulations is termed rational-legal authority.

Example; In China you cannot speak against the government, example of Atik Ahmad.

State is a coercive power.

 Types of Authority:

Weber’s Three Types of Authority

Traditional Charismatic Legal-Rational

Legitimized by long-standing Based on a leader’s personal Authority resides in the office, not
Source of
custom, remains in hand of qualities, the persona that he the person, Modern legitimate
Power
royal families. possesses. authority

Dynamic personality, Not

Leadership Bureaucratic officials, power
Historic personality, Monarch inherited and does not pass
Style given by soverign.
down.

Patriarchy (traditional positions

of authority), royal families with Napoleon, Jesus Christ, Mother
U.S. presidency and Congress,
Example no political power but Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.
Modern British Parliament
social influence. United Gandhi, Modi
Kingdom

Concept of Bureaucracy by Weber:

Bureaucracy as an institution that is highly organized, formalized, and also impersonal. He also developed
the belief that there must be a fixed hierarchical structure for an organization and clear rules, regulations,
and lines of authority that regulate it.
 Administrative work is done on the table. Managing day to day affairs.

 Specialization of labour, your responsibilities and roles are defined.

 A formal set of rules and regulations
 Well-defined hierarchy within the organization: You know your jurisdiction, can’t encroach on others, you’re only
responsible for the work allotted to you and your powers are limited to it. Follow the chain of command
 Impersonality in the application of rules
 Employment-oriented Professional Qualifications - Selection is based on technical qualifications and skills as well
as employee promotion. The selection is done through proper examination and it is fair and transparent process
no nepotism is there and there are parameters set that needs to be fulfilled for selection. EG- UPSC. SSC. Etc

Critique
 Weber’s application of Verstehen in his study of Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism was
similar to Durkheim’s social determinism. Anthony Giddens and Kalberg clarified this by saying that
Weber wanted to include both macro and micro level studies under this method.
 Parsons criticised ideal types by saying that while the idea was valid, the implementation was
lacking. Parsons said that Weber’s ideal type would cause formation of multiple ideal types of the
same object without lending a complete understanding i.e. it would lead to type atomism. Parsons
suggested that ideal types must emerge from a single general theory.
 Many sociologists have commented on the utility of value guided research in gaining new insights.
Value neutrality makes the sociologist a mere observer and thus unable to guide the social process
in any meaningful way. Ex. Alvin Gouldner and reflexive sociology as moral sociology.