󲀺

www.thestructuralengineer.org

Technical TheStructuralEngineer 39
January 2012

Technic
echnical
al Guidance
Guidance
Notes: an introduction
In his editorial of 18th October 2011, Managing
Editor Lee Baldwin heralded the introduction of a
series of ‘Technical Guidance Notes’. Sarah Fray
- Director: Engineering and Technical Services
provides an introduction to the series.

Sarah Fray Director

The Technical Guidance Notes are one of a range of initiatives Technicians may also find these notes helpful when looking to
planned by the Institution’s Engineering and Technical Services develop a greater understanding of structural design - which may
Department to increase the practical support offered to members. bring benefits to the overall quality of structural detailing and also
The notes have been conceived to provide technical guidance enhance an individual’s career.
to both undergraduates and those in the early stages of their The Technical Guidance Notes are intended to be easily
careers, with the intention of helping them to gain skills and accessible. Each note is designed to form part of the foundation of
technical competence in the workplace and hence increase their a personal technical reference library which can be continuously
conti nuously
individual value to the businesses they contribute to. Experienced referred to. In developing the strategy for the Technical Guidance
Notes, we have been conscious of the need to provide sound
foundations from which design skills can be developed, and so
LEVEL 󰀳 basic structural engineering fundamentals are presented initially;
i nitially;
Complex design the implementation plan for the series has identified second

concepts and third tier subjects which, in the medium term, will address
structural engineering principals at increasingly complex levels.
LEVEL 󰀲 It should be noted that we have decided to adopt titling using
Element design and traditional UK terms such as ‘loading’ rather than Eurocode
communication terms. Whilst the notes have
been written to adhere to the
LEVEL 󰀱 I HOPE THAT MANY Eurocodes we have taken
the view that adopting the
Core design OF YOU WILL
Eurocode titles would not
concepts BENEFIT FROM aid the accessibility for the
THE SER SERIES IES AND relatively inexperienced.
WILL MAKE USE OF I hope that many of you will
THOSE
THO SE GUI
GUIDAN
DANCE CE benefit from the series and will
NOTES THAT ARE make use of those guidance
PARTICULARLY notes that are particularly
applicable to your field. The
APPLIC
APP LICABL
ABLE E TO
TO
first two, entitled: ‘Principles of
YOUR
YOU R FIEL
F IELD
D
design’ and ‘Derivation of dead
loads’ follow. 󒀢
 󲀺

Note 1 Level 1

40 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
January 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Principles

of design
Introduction ICON 􂀢 Design principles

This Technical Guidance Note acts as an introduction to the core design

LEGEND
concepts that are found within the current codes of practice used within 􂀢 Applied practice
practice
the UK. It also explains the relationship between
between each of the other guidance
notes and how the reader is to navigate and use them. All of the subsequent
􂀢 Worked example
notes make reference, be they direct or implied to this core guide; it is
therefore imperative that anyone seeking to use these guides must be fully
conversant with what is contained within this note. 􂀢 Further reading

All of the guidance notes in this series have an icon based navigation system 􂀢 Web resources
designed to aid the reader.

exceed this defined point. wLocal to element axial or ‘Torsion Axis’ is

Design designated as ‘x-x’
principles Ultimate Limit State: The ultimate limit
state, sometimes abbreviated to ULS, is the See Figure 1 for further clarification on the
The current codes of practice used in point at which a structure will collapse when geometric axis notation protocol:
the UK are the Eurocodes. The design
d esign subjected to actions that cause it to exceed
assumptions, criteria and terminology used this limit. These actions are multiplied by
throughout these documents are explained partial factors that are defined in Eurocode 0.
in this note. These explanations serve as a
reference to all subsequent notes, as they Serviceability Limit State: The serviceability
make regular reference to the terms and limit state, sometimes abbreviated to SLS,
concepts that are defined below. is a defined point at which the structure
fails to comply with pre-defined criteria.

Definition of Terms and Concepts

The following principles are the core
These criteria are normally related to the
movement of the structure that occurs after it
components of design of structural is subjected to an action. These movements
elements. They are the basis from which can be of the structure as a whole or
all design is carried out. Many of the terms elements within it e.g. the mid-span vertical
listed below are also found in Eurocode deflection of a simply supported beam.
– Basis of Structural Design, which is
sometimes referred to as ‘Eurocode 0’. Equilibrium: Equilibrium is an analysis
state that checks for instabilities within a
Action: In the most simplistic of terms, an
Action: structure. It is designated as ‘EQU’ within
action is a load that is applied to a structure. the Eurocodes and has its own set of partial Figure 1 Local Axis notation
It can also however be an effect on the factors that are applied to loads for when
structure via an external source. Examples of equilibrium analysis is being carried out. Design Assumptions and Criteria
such sources include; change in temperature, There are a set of key design assumptions
differential settlement of foundations, Local Geometric Axes: The nomenclature and criteria described within the Eurocodes
earthquakes and moisture variation. for the local axes to structural elements has that structures are subject
subject to. They must be
been standardised within the Eurocodes. referred and adhered to when carrying out
Limit State Design: Limit state design is the This notation is defined as follows: any analysis and design of structures.
guiding principle upon which all of the current
codes of practice are based. The concept w Local to element horizontal axis or ‘Minor Competency: All design and construction
centres on the placing of an extremis upon a Axis’ is designated as ‘z-z’ of the structure is to be carried out by
structure and all actions that are placed upon w Local to element vertical axis or ‘Major people with the appropriate level of skill and
it during its design working life should not Axis’ is designated as ‘y-y’ experience.
 www.thestructuralengineer.org

41

Supervision: Adequate supervision must be Environmental protection: The primary give a curtailed instruction on aspects of
provided to all personnel who are involved methods by which elements of the structure structural engineering design practices.
with the design and construction of the are to be protected against environmental The reader is therefore urged to use these
structure. effects e.g. moisture, are specified by the guides in conjunction with the current codes
designer of the structure. An example of practice.
Maintenance and usage: The structure shall of this would be the corrosion protection With regard to navigation, the guidance
be maintained and used in a manner that is coating to steel elements.
elements. Note that this notes are published in an approximate order
in accordance with the design assumptions. does not include secondary and tertiary of increasing complexity. A higher level (1,
methods of protection, such as damp proof 2 or 3) denotes a significant increase in
Materials: The materials used to build the membranes within floor slabs. complexity from the previous level. Figure 2
structure will be in accordance with relevant explains this system as well as the reliance
codes of practice and manufacturer’s Fire resistance requirements: All elements on prior knowledge of the guides:
specifications. within a structure that require additional fire-
resistance that is over and above what it is
Design life: All structures have a design inherently able to resist, must be highlighted.
life period. The designer m must
ust take this A good example of this is a steel column that
into account when considering any element requires some form of fire-resistant material
within a structure in terms of its ability to applied to it. Note that it is not the requirement
achieve that design life period. The relevant of the designer of the structure to determine
UK National Annex lists 5 categories the form of fire protection; they must only
for design life of structures. They are highlight what needs to be protected.
reproduced in Table 1 below:
Materials: A description of the materials
Category Design Typical structures used within the structure is normally
No. working life
(years) included within the specification. This
1 10 Temporary structures e.g. access document describes the materials that Figure 2 Navigation of Technical Guidance Note
platforms
are to be used to build the structure and example
2 10-30 Replaceable structural parts e.g.
bearings
the standards they are expected to meet.
3 15-25 Agricultural buildings
Examples of such materials include concrete
4 50 Common building structures not
mix, steel grade and timber type and
listed under categories 1,2,3 & 5 strength class. Glossary and
5 12 0 Monuments, bridges and civil
further reading
engineering structures

Table 1 Design life categories from Table NA.2.1 Glossary: The list below is of terms used in
of UK National Annexe to Eurocode – Basis of
Applied this Technical Guidance Note. All notes will
Structural Design
practice have such a list to aid the reader.

Essential Information The applicable codes of practice for basis of Code of Practice – A set of rules that need
As part of the design process, an expected structural design are as follows: to be followed in order to complete a task
level of information is required to be to achieve an appropriate standard. In the
produced and shared by the designer of the BS EN 1990: Eurocode Basis of Structural UK, the British Standards Institute authors

structure within any given project. What Design and distributes the codes of practice for the
follows are descriptions of what design design of structures.
information is typically expected to be BS EN 1990: UK National Annex to
delivered. It must be noted that this is not an Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design Eurocodes – A set of European-wide codes
exhaustive list: of practice for the design of both building
and civil engineering structures.
Design loads:The
loads:The designer must describe
what loads the structure has been designed Worked example Technical Guidance Note – A brief guide on
for. This is then communicated to the rest core aspects of the design of structures and
of the design team and the end user so that the elements they are built from.
they know what loads the design of the Each subsequent guidance note will include
structure has been based on. From this they a worked example that seeks to explain Further Reading Manual for the design of
can then have a good understanding of what further the concepts defined within it. This building structures to Eurocode 1 and Basis
limits have been imposed upon room use, particular note however acts as more of an of Structural Design –Institution of Structural
e.g. where it is possible to use a room for aid to those reading all of the other guides, Engineers – April 2010
storage. and as such does not include such an
example.
Structural member sizes and location: All It is important that these notes are Web resources
load bearing elements within a structure must navigated correctly. Crucially, they must
be sized and located. This includes lintels for not be treated as a replacement for codes
openings within non-load bearing masonry of practice. They are guides that aid the For more information on this subject, please
walls, as although the element they are installed reader in the design of structures. With visit the Institution’s website:
within is non-load bearing, the lintel itself is. this in mind, they have been developed to www.istructe.org/knowledge/library
 󲀺

www.thestructuralengineer.org Note 2 Level 1

Technical TheStructuralEngineer 43
Technical Guidance Note January 2012

Derivation
Derivation of

dead loads
Introduction ICON 􂀢 Design principles

This Technical Guidance Note concerns the derivation of dead

dead loads. This is a
LEGEND
core guidance note and as such, subsequent notes will make reference to this 􂀢 Applied practice
practice
one. It is therefore important to understand
understand the contents of this note before
attempting to digest any of the others.
􂀢 Worked example

All of the guidance notes in this series, have an icon based navigation system 􂀢 Further reading
designed to aid the reader.
􂀢 Web resources

• moveable partitions Some dead loads can be expressed as an

Design • plant room installations, such as air area load. Table 2 lists such loads:
principles handling units and boilers
• cradles for maintenance access, but not Material Area Load (kN/m2)

Dead load is defined as the weight of static the secondary support beams and rails they
materials contained within a structure. This are fixed to Building services† 0.25 kN/m2
Insulatio
Insulation
n per 25mm th
thickne
ickness
ss 0.005
0.005 kN/
kN/m2
m2
includes the self weight of the structure as • sports and gym equipment such as goal

Suspended ceilings† 0.25 kN/m2

well as the materials it is supporting that are posts, basketball hoops and punch bags
Raised floors† 1.00 kN/m2
fixed to it. Within Eurocode 1 it is defined as • audio and video equipment installations,

Roof tiles 0.39 – 1.00 kN/m2

a Permanent Action. including speaker clusters, televisions and
† These are typical values and can therefore vary.
lighting rigs
Definition of Dead Load Elements Table 2 Typical area dead loads
Within a Structure
Structure Densities for Common Materials
Building elements that can be considered to
be part of the self weight of the construction
Found in Structures
Table 1 is a list of common materials found in
Partial Factors
(Permanent (γ󰁇) for Dead Loads
Actions)
form the dead load of the structure. building structures along with their attributed Partial factors are used within Limit State
Examples include: densities: design methodology. They are applied when
designing elements based on their capacity
• self weight of the structure elements i.e. Material
Density (γ) to resist stress, be it shear, bending, torsion
beams, columns and floor slabs or a combination of the three. They are also
• finishes e.g. screeds and ceilings and Soil * 17-25 kN/m3 used when checking for stability within the
Reinforced Concrete 25 kN/m3
ceiling finishes. These are alsalso
o sometimes structure. The Eurocode’s approach to these
Mass Concrete 24 kN/m3
referred to as ‘super imposed dead loads’ factors considers the nature of the load
• building services installations, such as
Steel 78.5 kN/m3
before any factors are applied to it.
Timber (Softwood) 5.5 kN/m3
ducts, cable containment, small pipes and Dead loads, or ‘Permanent Actions’ do
Plywood sheeting 5 kN/m3
lighting not have the duration and frequency factors
Brick (facing) * 13-22.5 kN/m3
• soil defined in Eurocode 1 applied to them.
• fixed partitions, i.e. those that cannot be
Brick (engineering) * 21-24 kN/m3
These factors are however expanded upon
Block (lightweight) * 8.5-11 kN/m3
demounted and placed elsewhere and non within Technical Guidance Notes 3, 4 & 5
Block (medium density) 14 kN/m3
load bearing walls (Level 1) as they cover imposed, wind
wi nd and
3

Block (dense/architectural) 19-21 kN/m snow loads respectively. All of which are
Plaster 19.2 kN/m3
There are many elements that are often
oft en subject to duration and frequency factors.
Glass 25 kN/m3
mistaken as being a part of the self weight The only variance in the partial factor
* Varies depending upon material type/manufacturer
type/manufacturer
of construction when they are imposed load for dead loads occurs when it is acting
elements (see Technical Guidance Note 3, Table 1 Typical dead load densities ‘favourably’ in a certain loading pattern or is
Level 1). These include the following: an element of a sub-structure.
 󲀺

Note 2 Level 1

44 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
January 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Stability Analysis Partial been applied to the loads placed upon it.
Factors (γ󰁇) This analysis concerns the design of the
Consider figure 1 below, where ‘G ’ refers to
󰁫
element and its supports. In this instance Worked example
the dead load and ‘Q ’ the imposed load: the worst case bending moments and shear
󰁫 forces are based on the maximum partial Determine the characteristic and ultimate
factors (γ󰁇) that the Eurocode 1 will allow, dead loads that are applied at the base
which are: of the columns at Level 1 of the structure
‘Favourable’ and ‘Unfavourable’ dead shown in Figure 4.
4.
load – 1.0 or 1.35 G
󰁫
This is on the basis of the single-source
principle that requires all dead loads have
a single partial factor applied to them.
Therefore in the case of multi-span beams,
the value of the partial factor (γ󰁇) can only
be 1.0 or 1.35 and not a mixture of the two
when analysing the beam.
Again the ‘Q ’ refers to imposed load (also
Figure 1 Equilibrium partial factors
󰁫
covered in Technical Guidance Note 3 (Level 1).

It can be seen that the load in the main Partial Factors for Sub-Structure
span is acting favourably to resist the load Element Design
being applied to the cantilever section. This Figure 3 is of the same load condition with
cantilever load is causing instability in the partial factors that apply to elements within
structure, as support ‘A’ is unable to resist sub-structures:
an upward vertical force.
The factors that are applied to loads
are dependent upon the nature of the
analysis being carried out. In the case of
the above, the stability of support point A
is being checked for uplift. This falls under
the category of checking for equilibrium in Figure 3 Sub-structure partial factors
a structure and hence the following partial
factors (γ󰁇) apply: These factors apply when considering
foundation design, specifically for the loads
‘Favourable’ dead load – 0.9 Gk being applied to the footings. Hence the
‘Unfavourable’ dead load – 1.1 Gk partial factor (γ󰁇) is:

The ‘G ’ refers to imposed load that is covered ‘Favourable’ and ‘Unfavourable’ dead load –
󰁫
in Technical Guidance Note 3 (Level 1). 1.0 G
󰁫
Partial Factors (γ󰁇) for Super-
Structure Element Design
In the design of structural elements, the Applied
worst case loading pattern is used to
practice
determine the maximum shear and bending
forces the structure is to be subjected to. The applicable codes of practice for the
Figure 2 is of the same structure for the derivation of dead loads are as follows:
stability analysis above. The appropriate
partial factors to Ultimate Limit State (ULS) BS EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1: Actions on
design of super-structure elements have Structures – Part 1-1: General actions – Figure 4 Worked example structure
densities, self weight, imposed loads for
buildings

BS EN 1991-1-1 UK National Annex to

Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures – Part
1-1– densities, self weight, imposed loads for
buildings

BS 648: 1964 Schedule of Weights of

Building Materials

Figure 2 Ultimate Limit State partial factors

 www.thestructuralengineer.org

45

Glossary and
further reading
There are a total of 6 storeys to this building above Level 1; the 400mm
square column layout is a grid measuring 8m x 12m. Levels 2,3,5,6 have Action – The consequences of an applied
raised floors and suspended ceilings with services installed within them. load.
Level 7 is the roof and has a suspended ceiling and services fixed to its
soffit and a 50mm screed and 15mm thick t hick tiles on its external surface. Characteristic load – A load that has had no
Level 4 is a plant room with no finishes to the floor or suspended ceiling at partial factors applied to it.
level 5. There are building services hung from the soffit of level 5.
Favourable load – A load that does not
increase the bending/shear stresses within
Initially the self weight of the elements that form the structure is an element or create instability, but instead
determined: acts to resist failure.

Super-imposed dead load – Load from

applied finishes and building services. It does
not include plant e.g. air handling units and
boilers.

Ultimate load – A load that h

has
as had partial
factors applied to it.

Unfavourable load – A load that does

increase the bending/shear stresses within
an element or generates instability within a
structure.

Further Reading

Manual for the design of building structures

to Eurocode 1 and Basis of Structural Design
–Institution of Structural Engineers – April
Then the super-imposed dead load from finishes 2010
and building services are calculated:

Web resources

For more information on this subject, please

visit the Institution’s website at:
www.istructe.org/knowledge/library

Finally the total characteristic and ultimate dead loads acting at

the base of the column on Level 1 are calculated:
 󲀺

Note 3 Level 1

46 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
February 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Derivation
Derivation of

imposed loads
Introduction ICON 􂀢 Design principles

This Technical Guidance Note concerns the derivation of imposed loads.

LEGEND
This is a core guidance note and as such, subsequent notes will make 􂀢 Applied practice
practice
reference to this one. It is therefore important to understand the contents
of this note before attempting to digest any of the
the others. Please be aware
􂀢 Worked example
that this note does not cover lateral loads onto barriers, balustrades and axle
loads from vehicles. These will be covered in a forthcoming note.
􂀢 Further reading
All of the guidance notes in this series have an icon based navigation system,
designed to aid the reader. 􂀢 Web resources

• building services installations, such as ducts, * This load is taken from the now withdrawn
Design cable containment and lighting BS6399 Loading for Buildings Part 1: 1996
principles mass of soil Code of practice for dead and imposed
•

• fixed partitions, e.g. those that cannot be loads, Table 1.

1. The Eurocodes currently
Imposed load is defined as the load that is demounted and placed elsewhere and non advise to determine actual plant loads from
applied to the structure that is not permanent load bearing walls building services engineers rather than apply
and can be variable. In Eurocode phraseology, Please see Technical Guidance Note 2, Level an assumed blanket load. In the event this
it is described as a quasi-perma
quasi-permanent
nent variable 1 for more details on dead loads/permanent information is not available, the area load
action. actions. suggested in Table 1 can be used.
** Concentrated loads are point loads that can
Definition of Imposed Load Typical Imposed Loads be supported anywhere on the structure to the
t he
(quasi-permanent
(quasi-perma nent variable action) Imposed loads are sub-divided into categories exclusion of the corresponding area imposed
The items listed below can be considered to A-H in Eurocode 1-1 and their values can be load. They should only be considered when
be imposed loads: found in Tables NA.2 to NA.7 (inclusive) in the checking local effects that would be induced
UK National Annex. They are based on the by such loads.
• moveable partitions structure’s use.
• furniture and occupancy † General storage refers to category E11 i.e.
• livestock Table 1 is a list of common imposed loads that for static equipment that does not include
• plant room installations, such as air handling are applied to building structures: book and paper storage or other specific
units and boilers types of items listed in Table NA.5
• cradles for maintenance access (but not the Imposed load t ype Area load Concentrated †† For car parks that are limited to vehicles
(kN/m2) load (kN)**
supporting structural elements they are fixed with a gross weight that is less than 30 kN.
Residential 1.5 2
to such as rails and secondary support beams)
Office (above ground) 2. 5 2
• sports and gym equipment such as goal The Table contains only a sample of the most
posts, basketball hoops and punch bags Car park †† 2. 5 10 common types of imposed loads. The reader is
• audio and video equipment installations - Retail 4 3.6 directed to Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures
including speaker clusters, televisions and General storage areas † 2 1.8 – Part 1-1: General actions – densities, self
lighting rigs Restaurants 2 3 weight, imposed loads for buildings and
the relevant National Annexe for a more
Plant rooms 7.5 4.5*
Elements that can often be mistaken for comprehensive list.
imposed loads when they are in fact dead load Theatre/stages 5 3.6
Staircases 4 3
elements include the following: Partial Factors (γQ) for Imposed Loads
Roof access 0.6 0.9 (Quasi-permanent variable actions)
• finishes, such as screeds and suspended Partitions 1 n/a Partial factors are used within Limit State
ceilings. These are sometimes referred to as design methodology. They are applied when
‘super imposed dead loads’ Table 1 List of typical imposed loads designing elements based on their capacity
 www.thestructuralengineer.org

47

to resist stress, be it shear, bending, torsion discussed previously. The appropriate partial αn = 0.5 for n > 10
10
or a combination of the three. They are also factors to Ultimate Limit State (ULS) design of
used when checking for stability within the super-structure elements have been applied to Where n is the number of storeys of structure
structure. The Eurocode’s approach to these the loads placed upon it. above the level that is being considered,
factors considers the nature of the load before excluding the roof. This factor is applied to
any factors are applied to it. imposed loads only, prior to any partial factors
being applied to them.
The following partial factors apply to imposed
loads that are commonly found within building Note: Reduction factors can only be applied
structures: to imposed load categories A-D, as defined in
Eurocode 1-1 and the UK National Annex.
Annex.
1.5 (γq) is the base partial factor for imposed
loads for superstructure element design when Imposed Load Reduction for
it is ‘unfavoured’ Element Design
1.3 (γq) is the base partial factor for imposed Eurocode 1-1 allows for the reduction of
loads for substructure element design when it applied imposed load to be applied when
is ‘unfavoured’ designing elements within a structure. The
Figure 2 Ultimate Limit State partial factors UK National Annex states that the area being
Stability Analysis Partial Factors supported by the element can be reduced
Consider Fig. 1 below, where ‘G ’ refers to the This analysis concerns the design of the using factor A, that is defined in Equation NA.1:
󰁫
dead load and ‘Q ’ the imposed load: element and its supports. In this instance
󰁫
the worst case bending moments and shear αa = 1.0 - A/1000 > 0.75
forces are based on the maximum partial
factors (γQ) that Eurocode 0 will allow, which Where ‘A ’ is the area of structure that is

are: being supported.

of imposed It iselement
load the not the tributary areato.
is subjected
‘Unfavourable’ Imposed Load – 1.5 Q Figure 4 below explains this further:
󰁫
Again the ‘G ’ in Figure 2 refers to dead load
󰁫
that is covered in Technical Guidance Note 2,
Level 1.

Partial Factors for Substructure

Element Design
Finally consider Figure 3 below and note the
Figure 1 Equilibrium partial factors same load condition with reduced partial
safety factors:
It can be seen that the load in the main
span is acting favourably to resist the load
being applied to the cantilever section. This Figure 4 Imposed load area reduction factor;
cantilever load is causing instability in the supported area vs. tributary area
structure, as support ‘A’ is unable to resist an
upward vertical force.
Figure 3 Sub-structure partial factors
Figure 1 indicates what factors are to be
Applied
applied to loads that are dependent upon These factors apply when considering
practice
the nature of the analysis being carried out. foundation design, specifically for what loads
In this instance the stability of support point are being applied to the footings. Hence the The applicable codes of practice for the
A is being checked for uplift. This falls under partial factor (γQ) is: derivation of imposed loads are as follows:
the category of checking for equilibrium in
a structure, and hence the following partial ‘Unfavourable’ Imposed Load – 1.3 Q BS EN 1990: Eurocode Basis of Structural
󰁫
factors (γQ) apply: Design
Imposed Load Reduction in
‘Favourable’ Imposed Load – 0 Q Multi-storeyStructures BS EN 1990: UK National Annex to
󰁫
‘Unfavourable’ Imposed Load – 1.5 Q Imposed loads in multi-storey structures can Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design
󰁫
The ‘G ’ in Figure 1 refers to dead load that is be reduced, based on the likelihood of all of
󰁫
covered in Technical Guidance Note 2, Level 1. the floors in the structure being fully occupied. BS EN 1991-1: Eurocode 1: Actions on
The factor that can be applied to the imposed Structures – Part 1-1: General actions –
Partial Factors (Q) for Super loads as they are considered from a lower densities, self weight, imposed loads for
Structure Element Design level in the structure, are as follows: buildings
In the design of structural elements, the worst
case loading pattern is used to determine αn = 1.1 – n/10 for 1< n< 5 BS EN 1991-1: UK National Annex to
the maximum shear and bending forces the Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures – Part
structure is to be subjected to. Figure 2 is of αn = 0.6 for 5 < n < 10 1-1– densities, self weight, imposed loads for
the same structure for the stability analysis buildings
 󲀺

Note 3 Level 1

48 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
February 2012 Technical Guidance Note

There are a total of 6 storeys to this building above Level 1; the 400mm
Worked example square column layout is a grid measuring 8m x 12m. Levels 2,3,5,6 have
raised floors and suspended ceilings with services installed within them.
Determine the characteristic and ultimate Level 7 is the roof and has a suspended ceiling and services fixed to its
imposed loads that are applied to the soffit and a 50mm screed and 15mm thick tiles on its external surface. Level
columns at Level 1 of the structure in 4 is a plant room with no finishes to the floor or lowered ceiling at Level 5.
Figure 5 below: There are building services hung from the soffit of Level 5.

The first loads to determine are the imposed loads from each level:

Then the reduction factor is applied to the column at Level 1:

Finally the characteristic and ultimate imposed loads are calculated:

Figure 5 Worked example structure

certain types of imposed loads that allows Further Reading

Glossary and for the likelihood of full occupancy of a
further reading structure. Manual for the design of building structures
to Eurocode 1 and Basis of Structural Design
Action – The consequences of an applied Ultimate load – A load that has had partial – Institution of Structural Engineers – April
load. factors applied to it. 2010

Characteristic load – A load that has had no Unfavourable load – A load that does
partial factors applied to it. increase the bending/shear stresses within
an element or generates instability within a Web resources
Favourable load – A load that does not structure.
increase the bending/shear stresses within
an element or create instability. For more information on this subject, please
visit: http://www.istructe.org/resources-
Reduced imposed load – Factor applied to centre/library
 󲀺

Note 5 Level 1

22 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
March 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Derivation
Derivation of

snow load
Introduction ICON 󒀢 Design principles
This Technical Guidance Note concerns the derivation of snow load onto
LEGEND
structures. It is based on Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part 1-3; General
Actions – Snow Loads. With this Eurocode being focused on an action that is 󒀢 Applied practice
practice

sensitive to environmental effects, the UK annex to it plays a significant role,

as it makes reference to projected snow falls that are unique to the British
󒀢 Worked example
Isles. There are a large number of variations and conditions the designer
must be aware of when determining snow loads onto structures. As such, the
reader is referred to the code text more frequently than in other Technical
󒀢 Further reading
Guidance Notes.

All of the guides in this series have an icon based navigation system, designed 󒀢 Web resources
to aid the reader.

Design
principles
A is the altitude in meters of the ground level
of the site where the structure is situated
above mean sea level. This part of the
�1
In the case of duo-pitched roofs, pitch angle
of each side of the roof is read against
. In cases where there are differing pitch
expression is ignored when considering sites angles, each section of the roof will have its
The derivation of snow load requires the near coastal regions that are below 100m own unique shape coefficient. In this condition
designer to make judgements on the above mean sea level. a series of snow load patterns must be
environment the structure is placed in as
well the form of the structure itself. The
potential for the build up of snow must be
Shape Coefficient ( 1 )
To allow for snowfall thickness variances
considered before arriving at a definitive snow
load. The patterns that need to be reviewed
are:
allowed for when determining the magnitude depending upon the shape of roof
of the resulting persistent snow load onto a
structure.

Eurocode 1-1-3 addresses these issues by

1
structures, Eurocode 1-1-3 uses coefficient
to take geometric changes into account.
It is applied to the basic snow load sk and
is based on the type of roof the structure
a) Both sides loaded using the
1
coefficient for each side of the roof drawn
from Figure 5.1 or Table 5.2
b) One side loaded using NA Figure NA.2 and
establishing a base load and then applying has; be it flat, mono-pitch, duo-pitch or a Table NA.1
factors to that load that represent snowdrift. multi-span roof. The proximity of protrusions c) Other side loaded using NA Figure NA.2
such as taller elements of the structure or and Table NA.1
Determining
Determinin g Basic Snow Load (sk) chimney stacks also has an impact when
The basic snow load (sk) is defined as the
amount of snow on the ground based on an 1
determining the value of shape coefficient
.
The worst case from the conditions listed
above is considered to be the persistent snow
altitude of 100m above mean sea level. Clause
1.6.1 of Eurocode 1-1-3 sets the probability of 1
Shape Coefficient ( ) for Flat,
load. For more information on this, see Clause
5.3.3(3) and Figure 5.3 of Eurocode 1-1-3. It’s
exceeding this value at 1 in 50 per year.

Clause NA.2.8 defines (sk) by the following

� 1
Mono- & Duo-Pitch Roofs
The relative angle ( ) of the roof pitch affects
the shape coefficient value. This is shown
important to note that load cases (ii) and (iii)
cited in Clause 5.3.3(4) have been replaced
by Clause NA 2.17 in the UK National Annex of
expression: in Figure 5.1 of Eurocode 1-1-3. For flat roofs Eurocode 1-1-3.
the value of is 0.8.
A
sk [= 0.15 + (0.1Z +0.05)] +
Where: Z is the zon
zone
 –100
525
numberr (i.e. 1,2,3 etc)
e numbe
taken from Figure NA.1 in the UK Annex to
 1 1
For mono-pitch roofs, it’s the pitch angle
that is plotted against
�
, referenced in Figure
5.1 or Table 5.2 of Eurocode 1-1-3. For roofs
Shape Coefficient (
Roofs
1 ) for Multi-Span
Snow formation is not often uniform when it
lands upon on multi-span roofs. To allow for
Eurocode 1-1-3 and not the ground snow load
figure at 100m above mean sea level. 1
with a pitch angle of 60° or more the value of
is 0.
this, two loading conditions are considered
to determine the persistent snow load case.
 www.thestructuralengineer.org

23

The first requires the separate pitches of each conjunction with Table B1 in Eurocode 1-1-3, For the derivation of snowdrift shape factors
part of the roof to have the relevant coefficient which provides definitions for the variables near parapets, the reader is directed to
applied to them, in a similar fashion to duo-
pitched roofs previously described.
shown. Again as with snowdrift in multi-span
roofs, snow loads defined by guidelines stated
within Appendix B of Eurocode 1-1-3 are
Clause B4(3) and Figure B4 in Annex B of
Eurocode 1-1-3. The snowdrift factor ( ) is 1
defined as the lowest value from the following
The second condition allows for the build up of exceptional and must not be considered in expressions:
snow within the valley of the multi-span roof. conjunction with the blanket snow load.
Annex B2 of Eurocode 1-1-3 should be used to = 2h / sk
determine the value of
the valleys. 1
for drifts forming in

Taking the lowest value from the following:

Shape Coefficient (
and Obstructions 1 ) for Projections

Small projections from the side elevation of

structures, such as canopies and obstructions
11 = 2b / ls

=8

1 = 2h / sk
within roofs, including chimneys and parapets
have an impact on snow load. They are 1
The length of drift ls is either 5h, b or a

1 3 1 
= 2b / (ls +ls )
barriers around which snow can drift and
create localised heaped areas of snow. When
maximum of 15m. All of the variables mentioned
in these expressions are defined in Figure B4.

1 =5
assessing snow loads onto a structure, shape
codes that represent these increased volumes Partial Factors for Snow Loads

Figure B1 in Annex B of Eurocode 1-1-3

provides a definition of the above variables.
of snow are applied to the base load.

For snowdrifts due to obstructions such as

k
Eurocode 1-1-3 defines snow loads as variable
fixed actions. The partial factors (Q ) for
snow loads are dependent on the likelihood
chimneys, the reader is directed to Clause of the snowfalls that are projected by the
It is very important to note that these load B4(1) and Figure B3 of Annex B of Eurocode Eurocode, actually occurring. In the case of
cases are exceptional in that they are 1-1-3 for the derivation of shape coefficient . flat, mono- and duo-pitched roofs, the loads
in exclusion
considered
load. See Clause B1(2) intoEurocode
further guidance on this.
the blanket snow
1-1-3 for For canopies over entrances, Clause B4(2)b
in Eurocode 1-1-3 needs to be followed. This 1 are considered
actions. toloads
All snow be transient/persistent
derived using Annex
B of Eurocode 1-1-3, are deemed to be an

1 3
Shape Coefficients ( ) & ( ) for
clause states that where it is not possible for
more than 1m depth of snowdrift to form, no as accidental actions (A ). d
extreme condition and are therefore classified

Roofs Adjacent to Tall Structures

When a roof is situated adjacent to or within
1.5m of a vertical element, a barrier exists
shape factor needs to be applied.

For smaller doorways that are less than 2m

Partial factor for snow load in isolation: 1.5Q ,
Partial factor for snow load in conjunction with
k
1 3
against which snow can build up. To address
this, alternative shape coefficients and
wide, the depth ‘h’ of the snowdrift is limited
to the lesser of the height of the projection (0.5 ψ k
dead and imposed loads:
) 1.5Q
need to be applied to the basic snow load as a
separate case.
or its width that is perpendicular to the wind
direction. dead, imposed and wind loads: (0.2ψ1 k
Partial factor for snow load in conjunction with
) 1.5Q

shape factor 1
For flat roofs abutting taller structures, the
is 0.8. The snowdrift that
The shape coefficient 1
for canopies is
defined by Clause B4(2)c in Eurocode 1-1-3 load and
kψ ψ1
Where Q is the partial factor for the snow
and are the combination
appears on top of the snow covered roof thus: factors to be used when snow load is
is arrived at via the application of shape considered with others. The numbers stated
coefficients.

Figure 1 explains how the extent of the 1 = 2h / sk or 5, which ever is the lesser.

1
For canopies over doors that do not project
adjacent to the factors above are their
respective values.

1 1
snowdrift is defined. It should be read in more than 5m, the value of cannot exceed When snow loads are derived using Annex B
2b / ls , with ‘b ’ being the larger value of b of Eurocode 1-1-3 no partial factor is applied to
and b . See Figure 2 for clarification of the them. This is because they are considered to
previously referenced variables. only occur in extreme cases and are therefore
classified as accidental.

Applied
practice

The applicable codes of practice for the

derivation of snow loads are as follows:

BS EN 1991-1-3 Eurocode 1: Actions on

Structures – Part 1-3: General Actions –
Snow loads
Figure 1 Snowdrift condition for roofs abutting
tall structures shown with basic snow coverage BS EN 1991-1-3 UK National Annex to
of roof. Note that these two conditions are never Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures – Part
applied simultaneously. Figure 2 Variables definition of snowdrift shape 1-3: General Actions – Snow loads
factor for entrance canopies
 󲀺

Note 5 Level 1
www.thestructuralengineer.org

24 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
March 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Initially, the basic snow load is calculated using Figure NA.1:

Worked example

An indoor sports hall is to be constructed

adjacent to an existing further education
college. It is located 1 km south of Inverness
city centre and is 90m above mean sea level.
Calculate the characteristic snow load on

sports hall is 8°.

�
the roof and entrance canopy to the new
sports hall. The roof pitch angle to the The shape factor for the overall snow load on the duo-pitch roof for the new
sports hall is then determined and the corresponding snow load is calculated.

k
Note that this load is a variable static action and therefore would have a
partial factor of 1.5Q if it were being considered in isolation to other loads.

The shape factor for the canopy entrance is determined and the projected
snow load onto it is calculated using Clause B4(2)b in Eurocode 1-1-3.

This is considered to be an accidental action as it is classified as an extreme

condition. Therefore in Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Equilibrium (EQU)
analyses, no partial factor would be applied to this load.

Finally, we consider the snowdrift load onto the main roof due to the adjacent
Figure 3 Isometric view of new sports hall existing structure, which is significantly taller than the sports hall. It is at this
point when Table B1 in Eurocode 1-1-3 is used.

Like the canopy load, this is deemed to be an accidental action and therefore
no partial factors are applied to it within ULS and EQU analyses.

Partial factor – A factor that is applied Further Reading

Glossary and to characteristic loads when carrying out Manual for the design of building structures
further reading design of structures and the elements they to Eurocode 1 and Basis of Structural Design
are constructed from. — Institution of Structural Engineers – April
Action – An applied load, both due to a 2010
direct application or as a consequence of an Variable static action – A load that is static
indirect effect such as thermal expansion of and variable in magnitude. Loading due to
the structure. snowfall is typical of this type of action.
Web resources
Accidental action – A loading condition that National Annex – A part of the Eurocode
is unlikely to occur. Partial factors are not that has been written specifically for a
applied to them within ULS analysis. particular region. For more information on this subject, please
visit: www.istructe.org/resources-centre/
Characteristic load – A base load that has library
not had any partial factors applied to it.
 󲀺

www.thestructuralengineer.org Note 6 Level 1

Technical TheStructuralEngineer 25
Technical Guidance Note March 2012

Notional
loading
Introduction ICON 󒀢 Design principles

This Technical Guidance Note concerns the concept of notional loading,

LEGEND
which the Eurocodes classifies as Equivalent Horizontal Forces.
Forces. These are 󒀢 Applied practice
practice
loads that exist due to inaccuracies and imperfections introduced into the
structure during its construction. The following text explains how notional
󒀢 Worked example
lateral loads are incorporated into the design process.

All of the guides in this series have an icon based navigation system, designed 󒀢 Further reading
to aid the reader.
󒀢 Web resources

Design
principles
Notional Loads in Steel Frames
Steel frames are very sensitive to notional
loads. This is because imperfections within
the fabricated elements and their connections
It is defined as 
m=   
0.5 1+
1
m
where m is the number of columns in a row
A notional load is based on a proportion of are inevitable as they are impactful. It is for that are connected to the bracing system
the vertical load the structure is supporting. this reason that any design of a steel frame being considered. These columns must also
Typically they are applied in conjunction with structure must take them into account. be supporting at least 50% of the average
other loads during analysis. vertical load of those columns in the row being
Eurocode 3-1-1, Clause 5.3.2(3) covers this considered (Figure
(Figure 1):
1):
Generic Notional Horizontal Load by creating coefficient (ф), which the vertical
(Fhn) load of a structure is multiplied by. This
Eurocode 1-1-6 concerns loading during the replaces (Fhn) notional load from Eurocode
construction of structures. Within Annex 1-1-6 described previously.
A, Clause A1.3 of Eurocode 1-1-6 there is a
generic definition of a notional horizontal load
(Fhn) that can be applied to all structures.
The magnitude of this force is 3% of the

Coefficient (ф) is determined thus:
ф = ф0 h m (Equation 5.5, Eurocode 3-1)

vertical loads from the worst case load Where:

combination for a given structure. This can be ф0 is the sway angle at which the structure
adopted for all structures, regardless of the rotates due to notional loads and has a base
material they have been constructed from. value of 1/200

Material Sensitivity to Notional Load

Notional loads represent forces that come
h is the factor that is related to the height of
vertical elements within the structure.
about due to imperfections in the structure.
Some materials are more sensitive to this This is defined as  h=

2
h ,
phenomena than others and it is for this
reason that notional loads are linked directly to
the material a structure is constructed from.
where ‘h’ is the height of the structure. of 
Figure 1 Extent of columns that influence the value
m

This factor can only be within the range Clause 5.3.2(4)B in Eurocode 3-1 states that
The Eurocodes for steel and concrete
structures have sections within them that
are dedicated to deriving notional horizontal

of 0.66 < h <1.0. If the calculated value
lies outside of this bracket, then the
extreme is taken.
t he closer
where the overall applied lateral load is more
than 15% of the vertical load in a member then

�d ≥ 0.15 V�d
the notional horizontal load can be ignored. This
loads within structures. The following sections
explain how each material addresses notional
loading.
m is the factor that takes into account the
number of vertical elements in a row.
is expressed as H
referenced clause.
in the above
 󲀺

Note 6 Level 1

26 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
March 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Notional Loads in Concrete Frames

The Eurocode’s approach to imperfections of

ei = Ѳl /2 in the case of concrete frames. the primary action. See the UK National
Annex to Eurocode 0, Table NA.A1.1 for the
elements within concrete structures is very Where: applicable factors.
similar to the one adopted for steel framed ei is the eccentricity
structures. The only key difference is that
there is some provision for horizontally aligned ф/Ѳ is the angle of rotation due to the Applied
elements as well as those that are vertical. application of the notional load as per steel practice
and concrete framed structures
Eurocode 2-1-1 Clause 5.2(5) defines the The applicable codes of practice for the
notional load coefficient (Ѳ)in a similar way l0 is the length of the element derivation of notional loads are as follows:
to Eurocode 3-1-1 in that it is a function of the
vertical load the structure is supporting. There When considering a wall or an isolated column BS EN 1991-1-6 Eurocode 1: Actions on
is however a slight difference to the derivation within a braced structure, ei can be estimated structures — Part 1-6: General actions —
of (Ѳ) to take into account the length of to be l0/400
/400.. Actions during execution
elements as well as their height:

Ѳ = Ѳ0  h m (Equation 5.1, Eurocode 2-1)

Once the value of ei is determined, it is
multiplied by the maximum axial load of the
member being considered.
BS EN 1991-1-6 UK National Annex to
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part
1-6: General actions — Actions during
Where: execution
Ѳ0 is defined as the sway angle of the Method (b) imposes a lateral force, Hi onto
structure, in a similar fashion to Eurocode the element at a point along the element that BS EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of
3-1-1, described above. generates the maximum bending moment reinforced concrete structures —Part 1-1:
from this load. Typically this is at the mid- General rules and rules for buildings
h is the factor that is related to the height or span position.


This is defined as 
length of vertical elements2within the structure.
h=  l
For members that are not within a braced
frame, the force Hi is defined as фN or ѲN,
where N is the total axial force and ф/Ѳ
BS EN 1992-1-1
Eurocode UK National
2: Design Annex
of reinforced to
concrete
structures —Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings
where ‘l’ is the length or height of members. is defined above. For elements within the
braced frame the value of Hi is 2фN or 2ѲN, BS EN 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel


This factor can only be within the range of
0.66 < h <1.0. If the calculated value lies
outside of this range, then the closer extreme
depending on the structure’s material.

Partial Factors for Notional Loads

structures —Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings

is taken. Notional loads are considered in combination BS EN 1993-1-1 UK National Annex to

 m=   
0.5 1+
1
m
with applied lateral loads, such as wind. The
partial factors applied to them reflect that
they exist within the structure prior to any
load being applied to it. They are treated in the
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
—Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings

as per steelwork structures - with the value same way as a wind load and are classified as
of m varying in accordance with the extent a variable static action within the Eurocodes.
to which the structure is being analysed. For Glossary and
isolated members, the value of m is 1, while When notional loads are combined with only further reading
for braced frames m is the number of vertical
elements contributing to a braced frame. If a adopt the ψ
the dead and imposed loads, they typically
combination factor, which is Action – An applied load, both due to a
floor slab is being assessed, the value of m is
the number of vertical members contributing
to the horizontal force that is exerted onto the
load, the combination factor
(typically 0.2).
ψ
0.5. When used in combination with the wind
is applied
direct application or as a consequence of an
indirect effect such as thermal expansion of
the structure.
floor slab.
Here is an example of how notional Accidental Action – A loading condition
Notional Loads in Isolated Elements horizontal loads would be combined into that is unlikely to occur. As such partial
within Concrete
Concrete and Steel FFrames
rames
It is possible to assess the impact that
notional loading has on isolated elements
k
a single load case when the imposed
i mposed load
(Q , ) is the leading variable action for a
commercial office building:
factors are not applied to it during ULS
analysis.

(0.2ψk k 3k  ψ k 
within structures. Clause 5.2(7) in Eurocode Characteristic load – A base load that
2-1-1 describes two different methods of 1.35G + 1.5Q , + (0.7 )1.5Q , +
)1.5Q has not had any partial factors applied to it.
assessing the impact of imperfections on )1.5Q , National Annex – A part of the Eurocode
individual elements within a structure. Either that has been written specifically for a
can be employed, but once a method has Where G is the dead load, Q , is the imposed particular region.
been selected, it should be used exclusively
throughout the project.

Method (a) considers the eccentricity of

k k ψ ψ k  k 3
load, Q , is the wind load, and Q , is the
notional load. The combination factor for the
wind load is and the combination factor for
the notional load is . Combination factors
Notional load – A load that exists within
the structure due to imperfections that
cause a lack-of-fit.


elements as they are constructed. This is
defined as: ei = фl /2 for steel frames or
can vary depending upon the type of use of
the building when the wind load is taken as
 www.thestructuralengineer.org

27

Initially the need to include notional loading within the analysis of the
Worked example structure is checked. This is done by comparing the applied wind load on a
vertical element against 15% of the axial load, thus:
A 5 storey commercial property is to be
constructed from a steel frame structure.
It has a 10m by 8m grid layout and the wind
load upon it is 1 kN/m󰀲. The internal columns
have an axial load of 2.5 MN and all edge
columns have 1.25MN. Corner columns
have an axial load of 0.75MN. The structure
is braced via a pair of concrete lift shaft
and stair cores. Figure 2 shows the overall
dimensions of the structure.

Determine whether or not notional loads Now that the need for the inclusion of notional loading has been proven to be
should be applied to this structure and if positive, factor (ф) needs to be calculated.
so, what their magnitude is. This should be
carried out for all orthogonal directions in
accordance with good practice.

With the value of (ф) calculated, the magnitude of the notional horizontal load
can be calculated:

Figure 2 Isometric view of proposed commercial

building

Partial factor – A factor that is applied

to characteristic loads when carrying out Web resources
design of structures and the elements they
are constructed from.
For more information on this subject, please
Variable static action – A load that is visit: www.istructe.org/resources-centre/
static, yet variable. Notional loads are typical library
of this type of action.

Further Reading
Manual for the design of steelwork building
structures to Eurocode 3 – Institution of
Structural Engineers – October 2010
 󲀺

Note 7 Level 1
www.thestructuralengineer.org

Technical TheStructuralEngineer 33
Technical Gui dance Note April 2012

Barrier and
vehicle
vehicle loading
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Design principles
This Technical Guidance Note concerns lateral loads that are applied to
LEGEND
barriers and wheel axle loads from vehicles. Barrier loading is dealt with
slightly differently to other forms of imposed loading. The nature of the 󰁗 Applied practice
practice

loading can vary from people leaning against barriers to vehicles colliding
with them at speed. Axle loading from vehicles has to be treated
treated somewhat
󰁗 Worked example
differently to other forms of imposed loading. While it is possible to assume
a blanket area load to represent them, it is the point load from each wheel
that needs closer attention.
󰁗 Further reading

All of the guides in this series have an icon based navigation system,
designed to aid the reader. 󰁗 Web resources

showing the more commonly found loads is

Design given in Table 1:
1:
principles
These loads must not be considered in
Barrier loads are defined in the UK National conjunction with one another as they are
Annex to Eurocode 1-1-1, Table NA.8. It lists unique load cases. They do however form
the various types of building use and with it a part of the overall loading of a structure and
corresponding horizontal linear load. There are should be grouped together with imposed,
however important omissions from this table dead and other loads where appropriate. The
that need to be considered when determining line load is applied 1.1m above the finished floor
a load onto a barrier. These being: a point load level (FFL), which is directly adjacent to the
and an area load that is applied to the infill barrier, as per clause 6.3.1 of BS 6180. This is
element of a barrier. These loads are defined regardless of the actual height of the barrier
in Table 2 of BS 6180: 2011 - Barriers in and itself and is referred to as the ‘Design Height’.
about buildings – Code of Practice and Table 2 See Figure 1 for further clarification on this.
in PD 6688-1-1:2011. An extract of these tables
Figure 1 Definition of ‘Design Height’ to barriers
Type of building Line load (kN/m) Area load applied to infill Point load applied to infill
(kN/m²) (kN) A notable omission from Table 1 is
Domestic 0.36 0.5 0.25 grandstands and stadia. Guidance on lateral
Offices (Access stairs) 0.22 - - loading to barriers within those structures can
be found in the literature¹
literature¹.
Offices (Light traffic) 0.36 0.5 0.25

Offices (Institutional buildings) 0.74 1.0 0.5

For barriers and other structures that could
Areas with fixed seating 1.5 1.5 1.5 be subject to impact loads from vehicles that
Stairs, balconies and ramps 0.74 1.0 0.5 are travelling at more than 16 km/h (10 mph),
Theatres, cinemas, shopping malls and 3.0 1.5 1.5 please consult Eurocode 1-1-7 Clause 4.3 and
assembly areas Clause NA.2.11 of the UK National Annex to
Retail 1.5 1.5 1.5 Eurocode 1-1-7 for further guidance.
Pedestrian areas that contain vehicles 1.5 1.5 1.5
such as car parks In addition to the horizontal load defined in
Table 1,
1, Clause 3 of PD 6688-1-1:2011 states
Table 1 Typical barrier loads that an additional vertical load of 1 kN or 0.6
 󲀺

Note 7 Level 1

34 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
April 2012 Technical Guidance
G uidance Note

kN/m should be applied to the barrier during 0.5m(v sinѲ) 2

0.5m of the load is 610mm above finished floor level
F' =
the design process. The worst load case and acts across a 1.5m length of the barrier if it
c sin Ѳ + b (cos Ѳ – 1) + ( + )
condition should be based on the horizontal is located within a car park.
and vertical load, which is then applied when
designing the barrier. Where: Axle loads from vehicles
Ѳ is angle in º at which the vehicle hits the Eurocode 1-1-1 Clause 6.3.3 covers loading
Vehicular impact loads barrier. from vehicles onto buildings, such as car parks
When designing barriers that could to be or areas within
wi thin a building
build ing that are traffi
tr afficked by
crashed into by a vehicle, an estimation of c is the dimension in mm from the centre of vehicles.
the likely speed the vehicle is travelling at gravity of the vehicle to the front of it.
prior to the crash is required. The mass of the Two categories of vehicles are defined in
vehicle must also be taken into account when b is the dimension in mm from the centre of Table NA.6 in the UK National Annex to
attempting to derive an impact load. gravity of the vehicle to the side that strikes Eurocode 1-1-1, which is replicated in Table 2:
2:
the barrier.
Annex A in BS 6180 and Clause B(2) of Type of vehicle Area load Point load (kN)
Annex B to Eurocode 1-1-1 provides a method m, v,  and  is as per loading due to (kN/m²)
by which the impact load F can be derived vehicular impacts normal to barriers described Cars and vans with a 2.5 10
based on speed and mass assumptions of the in Clause A.1 of BS6180: 2011 and Clause B(3) gross laden weight of
vehicle. This load occurs over a 1.5m length of Annex B to Eurocode 1-1-1. less than 3 tonnes or
30kN (Eurocode 1-1-1
of the barrier at a height of 375mm above Category F)
finish floor level if it is located within a car These variables are clarified in Figure 2:
2:
Larger vehicles such 5 Calculated
park. Referring to Clause A.1 in BS6180: 2011
as delivery trucks and based on
and Annex B in Eurocode 1-1-1 the following fire engines that have the number
equation is used to calculate F in kN: a gross laden weight of axles the
of between 3 to 16 vehicle has and
tonnes/30 kN to 160 other unique
kN (Eurocode 1-1-1 attributes
mv 2
0.5mv
0.5
F= Category G)
 + 
Table 2 Imposed loading generated by axle loads
Where:
m is the mass of the vehicle in kilograms. The The application of the point load in Table 2
maximum allowable mass of the vehicle is set is defined in Figure 6.2 in Clause 6.3.3.2 of
at 2,500 kg when using this expression. Eurocode 1-1-1, which is replicated in Figure 3.
3.

v is the velocity of the vehicle as it hits the The area of contact from the wheel shown
barrier in metres per second. in Fig. 3 is defined as 100x100mm for lighter
vehicles and 200x200mm for heavier vehicles.
 is the deformation in mm of the vehicle as These are classified as Categories F & G loads
it hits the barrier, which can be no less than respectively in Eurocode 1-1-1.
100mm. Figure 2 Definition of variables for vehicles
striking a barrier at an angle

 is the displacement in mm of the barrier as



the vehicle hits it. Figure A.2 in Clause A.1 of BS6180: 2011 is
a chart that plots deformation of the barrier
It is possible to use Figure A.1 in BS 6180 to against the ratio of F'/m. It is for an impact
determine the value of F. It provides values from a car and a heavy goods vehicle that
of F based on an impact from a car and a hits the barrier at an angle of 20º travelling at
heavy goods vehicle. Each type of vehicle has 16 km/h (10 mph). There are curves provided
its own curve and assumes a perpendicular for each type of vehicle on the figure. F' is
angle of impact and that the vehicle is calculated by multiplying the ratio (F'/m) by
travelling at 16 km/h (10 mph). Figure A.1 plots the mass of the vehicle in kilograms.
the deformation of the barrier against the
ratio of F/m. The value of F is calculated by Clause B(6) in Annex B of Eurocode 1-1-1
multiplying the ratio F/m by the mass of the explains that barriers next to ramps in
vehicle in kilograms. buildings need to be designed to withstand a Figure 3 Extent of point load from wheel axle
force that is equivalent to 0.5
0.5FF or 0.5
0.5F'
F'. The
Clause A.2 in BS 6180 describes what affect location of the load is 610mm above finished Partial factors for barrier and axle
an angled strike has on a barrier from a floor level and acts across a 1.5m length of the loads
vehicle. This is the most common type of barrier if it is located within a car park. Barrier and axle loads are treated in a similar
impact as barriers are typically placed parallel manner to imposed loads. They are therefore
to the direction
direct ion of traffic. The force generated
generat ed Clause B(7) in Annex B of Eurocode 1-1-1 classified as a quasi-static variable action
from an angled impact against a barrier is states that the magnitude of F and F' is within the Eurocodes.
referred to as F' and can be calculated using doubled if the barrier is placed at the end of a
the following expression: slope that is more than 20m long. The location These therefore have the same partial factors
 www.thestructuralengineer.org

35

Structures – Part 1-7: General Actions –

Accidental Actions

Worked example BS EN 1991-1-7 UK National Annex to

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-7:
A 950mm high balustrade is to be installed along a walkway link-bridge across an atrium General Actions – Accidental Actions
within an offi ce building. Determine the ultimate lateral load and bending moment at the
base of the balustrade. BS EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1: Actions on
structures — Part 1-1: General actions —
Outsid e the office building there
Outside the re is a car park that has a barrier around its perimeter.
peri meter. Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for
Determine the ultimate impact load from a car travelling at 16 km/h (10 mph) at an angle of buildings
20º. The maximum deflection of the barrier is 100mm, similar to the deformation of the car
as it hits the barrier. The assumed car dimensions are 1.8m wide x 4.8m long with a mass of BS EN 1991-1-1 UK National Annex to
1.5 tonnes. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part
1-1: General actions — Densities, self-weight,
Barrier load calculation: imposed loads for buildings

PD 6688-1-1:2011: Recommendations for the

design of structures to BS EN 1991-1-1

Glossary and
further reading

Action
Act ion – An applied load, both due to a direct
application or as a consequence of an indirect
effect such as thermal expansion of the
structure.
This horizontal load will have to be considered with the vertical point load of 1 kN or 0.6
kN/m vertical line load when carrying out the design of the balustrade. Characteristic
Characteristic load – A base load that has
not had any partial factors applied to it.
Calculation of vehicle impact load onto car park barrier:
Design Height – Height at which the lateral
load onto a barrier is applied.

Infill – Section of the barrier that does not

provide direct arrest, but can be subject to
lateral loads.

National Annex – The part of the

Eurocodes that has been written specifically
for a particular region.

Partial factor – A factor that is applied to

characteristic loads when carrying out design
of structures and the elements they are
constructed from.

Further Reading
The Institution of Structural Engineers (2010)
Manual for the design of building structures
applied to them as would any other imposed to Eurocode 1 and Basis of Structural Design
load (Q) , e.g.:
Applied London: The Institution of Structural Engineers
practice
1.5Q when considered in isolation or in
conjunction with dead load. The applicable codes of practice for the
derivation of loads onto barriers and from
The same rules apply with regard to the use of wheel axles are as follows: References
combination factors ψ, ψ and ψ when the
󰁅 1 Department for Culture, Media and
barrier or axle load is considered with other BS 6180: 2011: Barriers in and about buildings Sport (2008) Guide to Safety at
loads, such as wind. More on this can be found – Code of Practice Sports Grounds London:TSO (The
in Table N.A.A 1.1 in the UK National Annex to Stationary
Stationa ry Offi ce)
Eurocode 0. BS EN 1991-1-7 Eurocode 1: Actions on
 󲀺

Note 8 Level 1
www.thestructuralengineer.org

Technical TheStructuralEngineer 25
Technical Guidance Note May 2012

Derivation of loading
to retaining structures
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Design principles

This Technical Guidance Note concerns the assessment

LEGEND
of loads that are applied to retaining structures, typically 󰁗 Applied practice
generated from soil. These forces primarily come into play
during the design of retaining wall structures, but they can
󰁗 Worked example
also be found in water retaining structures and storage
vessels.
󰁗 Further reading
All of the guides
guides in this
this series have
have an icon based
based navigation
navigation
system, designed to aid the reader.

section through a retaining wall that identifies from sources of pressure due to retained
Design the various pressures such structures can be material. Clause N.A.3.2 in the UK National
principles subjected to. Annex for Eurocode 7-1 states that it is not
Pressure from retained materials can be recommended that these charts are used if
broken down into three types: active pressure, Application of Eurocode
Eurocode 7-1
7-1 to derive the retaining structure has an inclined inner
passive pressure and surcharge. Active pressure from retained materials face, due to the fact that it would provide
pressure is a force that has an adverse effect Clause 9.5 in Eurocode 7-1 explains how inappropriate results. Instead they state that
on the structure it is being supported by. lateral pressures due to retained materials are equations C6 and C9 in Eurocode 7-1 are to
Passive pressure is a force that counters applied to retaining structures. This clause be used for retaining structures with inclined
the negative effects generated by the active cites Annex C as a means to determine inner faces. For the sake of brevity, this note
pressure, and the surcharge is an applied load these loads. Annex C.1 has a series of does not cover inclined retaining walls, but
over and above the material that is exerting a charts that Eurocode 7-1 suggests can be directs the reader to Annex C of Eurocode 7-1
lateral pressure to the retaining structure. used to determine the magnitude of loading for an explanation on equations C6 and C9.

This note is an introduction to the concept of

lateral loads on retaining structures. It only
considers relatively simple retaining structures
for purposes of illustrating how loads
originating from retained materials are derived.
For more complex retaining structures, the
reader is directed to additional texts, which are
listed under the Further Reading section.

Eurocode 7-1 – Geotechnical Design is the

current code of practice for the design of

foundations and sub-structure elements. It

provides guidance on the assessment of loads
from retained soil when it is applied to sub-
structure elements. This includes the effects
of elevation of retained soil and allows for the
deflection of the retaining structure as the load
from the soil is applied to it. Figure 1 is a cross Figure 1 Types of pressure that can be applied to retaining structures
 󲀺

Note 8 Level 1

26 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
May 2012 Technical Guidance Note

The overall pressure that is exerted onto significant importance for soil retaining walls
a retaining structure is determined via the Ka = c 1-sin n if the water table is within the depth of the
following integration, as per Clause NA.3.2 in 1+sin n retained soil.
the UK National Annex of Eurocode 7: This only applies when the retained material
is drained. Otherwise the value of Ka is 1; see Adhesion (a) and Cohesion (c)
For stress due to active pressure, Clause C.1(2) in Eurocode 7-1. Clause N.A.3.2 The adhesion a of the retained material is a
in the UK Annex to Eurocode 7-1 states that value that represents the interface between

Va(Z) = Kaa cdz + q - uk + u - cK ac for undrained soils, the value of Ka is 1. the retaining structure and the material and
is limited to 0.5c, with ‘c’ being the cohesion
For stress due to passive pressure, Press ure Coeffi cient (Kp)
Passive Pressure of the soil. It is normally ignored when the
z Passive Pressure acts counter to the Active retained material is drained/dry.
Vp(Z) = Kaa# cdz + q - uk + u + cKac Pressure and is therefore considered to be
⁰ beneficial. It normally comes about due to Partial Factors (γg & γq) for Loads from
The integration is taken from the material the retaining structure being partially buried Retained Materials
ground surface to depth ‘z’. and thus creates a barrier that prevents the Partial factors (γg & γq) for loads originating
structure from sliding and/or overturning. from pressures due to retained materials
a) j
Kac = 2 √ Ka '(1 + ― vary depending on the type of analysis being
c
To determine the Passive Pressure, the carried out. They are defined in Clause A.2
which is limited to no more than coeffi cie nt Kp is applied to the base density of
cient of the National Annex to Eurocode 7-1 and
the soil. This is defined thus: Table NA.A1.2(A) of the UK National Annex
2.56 √ Ka to Eurocode 0. In the case of checking for
Kp = c 1-sin n equilibrium (EQU), the following partial factors
a) j,
Kpc = 2 √ Kp '(1 + ― 1+sin n apply to dead (Gk) and imposed (Qk) loads:
c
which is limited to no more than This only applies when the retained material g - Material/Soil – 1.1 Gk when load is
γcontributing
is drained. Otherwise the value of Kp is 1; see to destabilising condition
2.56 √ Kp Clause C.1(2) in Eurocode 7-1. Clause N.A.3.2 γg - Material/Soil – 0.9 Gk when load is acting
in the UK Annex to Eurocode 7-1 states that counter to a destabilising condition
Where: for undrained soils, the value of Kp is 1.
z is the distance between the surface of γq - Surcharge – 1.5 Qk when load is
retained material and a depth within it Surcharge (q) contributing to destabilising condition
Ka is the coefficient of active
activ e pressure Surcharge is an imposed load that is placed γq - Surcharge – 1.5 ψ0 Qk when load is
Kp is the coefficient of passive
pas sive pressure
pressur e on top of the retained material. It is expressed contributing to destabilising condition and
c is the density of the material being retained as an area load, typically kN/m² or kPa accompanied by another load, such as wind.
q is the surcharge load and is transferred directly onto the retained γq - Surcharge – 0 Qk when load is acting
u is the pore water pressure at depth ‘ z’ structure, with
wit h no coeffi cients being applied.
appl ied. counter to a destabilising condition
a is the adhesion between the retained It is for this reason that it is rectilinear as
material and the retaining structure opposed to triangular in its form. When designing the retaining structure (STR/
c is the cohesion within the retained material GEO), Eurocode 0 offers three approaches
Surcharge due to point loads from vehicle with respect to the application of partial
The following text will explain the meaning and affi c (q)
traffi
tr factors. The UK National Annex referred to
derivation of these variables. Where there are vehicles travelling on the above states that Approach 1 is adopted. In
retained material, it is possible to assess a this approach, two load combinations, known
Press ure Coeffi cient (Ka)
Active Pressure point load rather than a universally distributed as ‘Sets’ are considered:
In order to determine the lateral force a load. This is a more accurate representation of
material will exert onto a retaining structure, how such loads will be applied and clause 7.6 Load Set 1:
an appreciation of the friction between the in PD 6694-1 explains how this is achieved. γg - Material/Soil – 1.35 Gk when load is
particles the material is made up of is needed. contributing to destabilising condition
In terms of soils, this is defined by the soil’s Figure 2 in PD 6694-1 explains how loads from γg - Material/Soil – 1.0 Gk when load is acting
cohesion (c), internal angle of friction (φ) and vehicles are applied to a retaining structure, counter to a destabilising condition
the interface between the retaining structure when read alongside Table 7. This table charts
and the soil. the type of loading against the design case of γq - Surcharge – 1.5 Qk when load is
the retaining structure. Typically this is ‘Case contributing to destabilising condition
These parameters are taken from soil B’, where the wall is being designed based on γq - Surcharge – 1.5 ψ󰀰 Qk when load is
investigations that are carried out in a per metre length. accompanied by another load, such as wind
accordance with Eurocode 7-2: Ground γq - Surcharge – 0 Qk when load is acting
investigation and testing. Any values quoted Density (γ) counter to a destabilising condition

in this note are used for illustrative purposes The density γ of the retained material is
only and should therefore not be cited for any normally expressed in kN/m³ and the retained Load Set 2:
analysis. structure is considered per metre length. γg - Material/Soil – 1.0Gk when load is
contributing to destabilising condition
To determine the Active Pressure, the Pore Water Pressure (u) γq - Surcharge – 1.3Qk when load is
coeffi cie nt Ka is applied to the base density of
cient Pore Water Pressure u is based on the base contributing to destabilising condition
the soil. This is defined thus: density of water, which is 10 kN/m³. It is of γq - Surcharge – 1.3 ψ0 Qk when load is
 www.thestructuralengineer.org

27

accompanied by another load, such as wind

γq - Surcharge – 0 Qk when load is acting
counter to a destabilising condition
Worked example

A 3m tall masonry retaining wall with a 10 kPa surcharge is applied to the upper level Applied
behind the wall. The soil is a silt/sand material with a density of 20 kN/m³ and an angle of practice
friction of 30º. The water table is 5m below the top of the retained surface. Calculate the
characteristic loads and their location generated by the retained soil behind the wall. Then
calculate the ultimate loads for designing the wall. The applicable codes of practice for the
derivation of loads onto retaining structures
are as follows:

BS EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical

Design

BS EN 1997-1 UK National Annex to

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design

PD 6694-1:2001: Recommedations for design

of structures subject to traffic loading to BS
EN 1997-1:2004

Glossary and
further reading

Action
Actio n – An applied load, both due to a direct
application or as a consequence of an indirect
effect such as thermal expansion of the
structure.

Active
Activ e pressure (Ka) – A lateral force that
pressure
generates an adverse effect onto a retaining
structure.

Angle of
Angle of shear
shear res
resist
istanc
ancee - (φ’) A soil
parameter that is used to define both Ka and
Kp.

Characteristic load – A base load that has

not had any partial factors applied to it.

Passive pressure (Kp)– Force within

retaining structure that resists adverse effects
generated by active pressure.

National Annex – The part of the Eurocodes

that has been written specifically for a
particular region.

Partial factor – A factor that is applied to

characteristic loads when carrying out design
of structures and the elements they are
constructed from.

Surcharge – Imposed load applied to top

surface of material being retained.

Further Reading
Bond, A. and Harris, A. (2008) Decoding
Eurocode 7. 1st ed. Oxford: Taylor & Francis
 󲀺

Note 9 Level 1

28 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
May 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Visualisation
of structures
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Drawing methods

This Technical Guidance Note focuses on the visualisation of structures.

LEGEND
It is essential for structural engineers to be able to express their ideas 󰁗 Practical
clearly through their designs. Visualising structures in the appropriate way application

enhances the design process - not least because drawing the complex
󰁗 Worked example
elements of a structure while carrying out calculations, can help to
identify possible construction issues/problems at an earlier stage than
may otherwise be possible. This guide explains two techniques that are 󰁗 Further reading
commonly used to draw in three dimensions and thus aid the structural
engineer in visualising the structures they design.
󰁗 Web resources

All of the guides

guides in this
this series have
have an icon based
based navigation
navigation system,
system,
designed to aid the reader.

Drawing
methods

There are many methods for drawing in three

dimensions and this guide will be focussing on
two that are commonly used within the field of

structural engineering.
Isometric
Isometric is the most frequently used method
of drawing in three dimensions. It is based on
a 30º base angle view. This results in images
that have all horizontal elements of an object
drawn at 30º, while the vertical elements
remain so. See Figure 1.1.

While the isometric drawing method does

produce an image that is to scale, it is actually Figure 1 Isometric view
not how the human eye perceives objects. So
while it is useful for drawing scale images, it
doesn’t offer much guidance with respect to object and then projecting that view onto two human eye perceives objects, it is not to any
the object’s aesthetics. vanishing points. This is done by drawing a recognisable scale.
plan of the object and rotating it to the point
Two Point Perspective where the angle of vision is between 30º and Practical
The two point perspective method of three 60º. This is then projected onto three base
dimensional drawing is a means by which an lines; picture, ground and eye. Figure 2 is an
application
object can be represented on a flat plane in a example of a two point perspective image.
similar way to how the human eye perceives it. One of the most common uses of visualisation
While this does produce an image that is to ascertain how a connection within a
It is based on placing an arbitrary view of the is reasonably representative of how the structure is to be formed. When designing

www.thestructuralengineer.org

29

structures it is important to understand how

the structure is assembled, and drawing three
dimensional images of complex connections
is an essential part of the design process.
This aids visualisation of the structure and
can indicate potential clashes with supported
elements.

Figure 3 is an elevation of a section of a steel

truss drawn in a diagrammatic form. While it
provides key information such as member size
and location of elements relative to each other,
it doesn’t show how the diagonal members
converge onto the bottom chord. Only a three
dimensional image of the connection will
provide this information. By way of example,
Figure 4 is the same section of truss drawn
in isometric form to show how the internal
diagonal members frame into the bottom
chord of the truss drawn in Fig. 3.
3.
Figure 2 Two Point Perspective
The construction lines in Figure 4 are the first
lines drawn of the isometric view. They consist
of two lines drawn at 30º angles from the
horizontal and one vertical line where the two
diagonals cross. In the case of Fig. 4,
4, the
th e soffi t
of the bottom chord flange has been chosen
as the datum point from which the rest of the
elements are drawn. Note how the diagonal
members slightly clip the vertical member as it
frames into the bottom chord.

Glossary and
further reading

Construction lines – The base lines from

which three dimensional images are created.

Figure 3 Elevation on section of a truss

Isometric – A method of drawing in three
dimensions with a base angle set at 30º.

Two point perspective – A method of

drawing in three dimensions that replicates
how the human eye perceives objects.

Vanishing points – The arbitrary points

that are placed at the same level to either
side of an object in two point perspective
images.

Web
resources

For more information on this subject, visit:

www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library
 Figure 4 Isometric view on
section of truss shown in Fig. 3

Note 9 Level 1

30 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
May 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Worked example

A diagrammatic plan of a steel column

is shown in Figure 5.
5. It has a series of
beams framing into it, one of which is
supporting a trimming beam. Draw the
plan out in an isometric view, ignoring
the connections and member size
labelling for the sake of clarity. Note that
the 168.3x10 CHS is a tie beam and its
centroid matches that of the primary
beams.

(a) In the first instance, the base

construction lines are drawn. These
consist of two diagonals drawn at 30º
from the horizontal and one vertical line.

(b) From these base construction lines,

the column is initially drawn, followed by
the primary beams, which are in this case Figure 5 Plan on 457x25 CHS column
the 533x210x101 UBs. The centroid of the
primary beams and the column is where
the construction lines are located. Once
these elements have been outlined, the
secondary beams are drawn, again in
outline form. All of this is drawn to scale,
with the only differentiator being that
the horizontal elements are drawn at a
30º angle. Also note how the column is
circular yet has been drawn as an ellipse
when viewed in isometric.

(c) Once the outlines of the elements

have been drawn, their thicknesses are
added to the cut off ends. This aids the

visualisation process, as it is a more (a) (b)

accurate representation of the column
and the beams that are framing into it.

(d) Finally the construction lines are

removed and we are left with an isometric
view of the column and all of the beams
that are framing into it. None of the
connections are shown nor are the
dimensions or member sizes for the sake
of clarity. The base construction lines
do remain however, to illustrate how the
image was constructed.

(c) (d)
 󲀺

Note 10 Level 1

28 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
July 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Principles of
lateral stability
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Design principles
This Technical Guidance Note concerns the concepts of lateral stability LEGEND
within structures.
structures. A key component
component to the design
design of structures
structures is a sound
sound
understanding of stability. As building and bridge construction has become 󰁗 Applied practice

increasingly ambitious,
ambitious, so the principles of stability are continual
continually
ly tested.

This guide explains the various methods that can be adopted to ensure that 󰁗 Worked example

lateral stability to structures is achieved. This note also highlights the need
for robustness in structures as it is regarded as an aspect of structural 󰁗 Further reading
design that can have an impact on strategies adopted for lateral stability.

All of the guides

guides in this series
series have an icon
icon based navigation
navigation system,
system,
󰁗 Web resources
designed to aid the reader.

Design
principles

The chosen method of achieving lateral is tied to one cluster of vertical restraint
stability of a structure is normally driven elements.
by both geometry and the materials the
structure is constructed from. For example, Vertical bracing elements that have
a concrete floor slab is supported by significantly different magnitudes of stiffness
steel beams, or a timber roof frame sits from each other can cause torsional effects
on a masonry wall. All of these elements within the structure when it is subjected to
are required to work together in order to lateral loads. A good example of this is a
transfer horizontal loads to the ground in diagonally braced bay that is paired with a
a safe manner. This note aims to guide the portal frame. This must be recognised and
reader in developing and identifying defined addressed during the design process.
load paths within structures that maintain
their lateral stability. Finally, it is imperative that all of the forces
from any vertical element that provides the
It is considered to be good practice to have lateral restraint to the structure are fully
a single designated engineer within a design resolved and taken into the foundations of
team who is responsible for overseeing a the structure.
structure's lateral ability during its design.
By having such an individual, all design Components contributing
development of the structure is referred to to lateral stability
one designated engineer, and thus the lateral
stability aspect of the design is maintained. There are four forms of components that
can be found in a structure that contribute
As a general rule, any vertical element that to lateral stability: Bracing; Shear cores and
is a key contributor to a structure's lateral walls; Portalisation and Diaphragms. In most
stability should be well spaced out from cases they are used in combination with
 other similar elements. This is to ensure that one another in order to achieve a stable
no significant proportion of the structure structure.

www.thestructuralengineer.org

29

Vertical elements Horizontal elements

Bracing Diaphragm
This is one of the most well-known methods A diaphragm is an area of the structure
of providing lateral stability. Bracing (Figure that provides bracing in its plane (Figure
1) consists of diagonal elements and acts in 4).. Typically these are floor slabs and roof
4)
a similar way to a cantilevering vertical truss, cladding, but can also be in vertical cladding
from the ground up. It is for this reason that elements. If cladding is used as a diaphragm
bracing should be present at every level of then careful consideration must be given
the structure down to the founding level to the temporary condition of the structure
in order for it to be effective. If bracing is during erection. This is also true for the
discontinuous,
discontinuo us, significant lateral forces maintenance of the structure if the cladding
are generated and need to be transferred has a shorter design life than the structure.
from one bracing system to another, which Diaphragms are tied back to vertical elements
can exert high localised lateral loads onto of the structure that provide lateral stability.
elements of structure. Additionally, the They prevent structures from ‘racking’ or
transfer system that is adopted for this rotating about an axis. There are instances
purpose needs to have adequate stiffness. It where diaphragms do not have enough
is not uncommon to see bracing working in strength to resist the lateral loads that can
conjunction
conjunctio n with other vertical elements to build up within them. In such cases, either
achieve overall lateral stability of a structure. the diaphragm is strengthened or horizontal
bracing is installed to either supplement or
replace the diaphragm completely.

Figure 2 Shear cores

Portalisation/Sway Frame
Portalisation, also known as sway frame
Portalisation,
is based on the concept of portal frames
whose connections are designed to
withstand forces generated from lateral
and vertical loads (e.g. Figure 3).
3). This
negates the need for any vertical bracing
elements and therefore large clear span
spaces are created. This does however add
significant complexity to the construction
of the frame as well as its weight. This is
due to members tending to be larger than Figure 4 Floor and roof diaphragms. All other
their simple constructio
constructionn counter-parts and lateral stability elements omitted for clarity
connections becoming more onerous in
their design and installation. This leads to a Location of lateral restraints
limit to the number of storeys sway frames
can be constructed due to these practical As has already been explained in the sec-
considerations. tion on shear cores, the location of lateral
restraints within the structure impacts the
Figure 1 Bracing Additionally, the adoption of portal frames way it behaves when subjected to a lateral
as a bracing solution may require careful load. Simply placing them within the struc-
Shear Cores/Walls consideration
consideratio n of second order effects within ture does not necessarily lead to a stable
Shear cores and walls are vertical elements the structure. This adds to the complexity of structure, as excessive torsion due to twist-
within a structure that provide lateral its analysis and design significantly. ing can occur if significant eccentricities are
stability (Figure 2).
2). The rest of the structure introduced.
is framed around them and they typically
work in conjunction with floor plates and Bracing location
roofs that act as diaphragms
diaphragms.. They can Vertical bracing typically works in
also be paired with braced based systems. conjunction
conjunctio n with other elements that provide
Shear cores typically act as vertical access lateral stability, be it a shear core, a wall or
throughout the structure via lifts and stairs a sway frame. They usually have an impact
and are usually located in line with the on the architecture of a structure, so their
centroid of the structure in an attempt placement is normally driven by both the
to minimise torsional effects. There will structural needs as well as the geometric
however always be a difference between the restrictions of a building. When placing
centre of stiffness of the structure and the bracing elements, it’s important to take note
centroid of the applied wind load. As a result, of their stiffness relative to the other vertical
some torsion does develop within the shear elements in the structure that are also
cores due to eccentric loading. Figure 3 Portal frame with braced bay providing lateral stability.

Note 10 Level 1

30 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
July 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Shear core and wall location Structure ‘D’ is slightly better than ‘C’, but
The relative location of shear cores and is still susceptible to off-centre wind forces
walls against the resultant force generated and would also generate significant torsion
from applied horizontal loads should within the structure.
preferably be as close as possible to the
centroid of the applied forces. This is done Robustness
in order to limit the effect of combined
bending and torsion. The robustness of a structure is linked to
its stiffness, as generally the stiffer the
There is also the effect of expansion and structure, the more robust it is. Typically in
contraction of the structure due to thermal terms of load path, the shorter its length,
effects to consider when placing shear the less stress the members within the
cores and walls. In the case of larger structure are subjected via any applied
structures it is important to take these horizontal forces. This is why it is important
into account when placing vertical bracing that in order
orde r to make an effi cient structure,
struct ure,
elements, such as shear cores. Their the applied loads must be transmitted to the
placement must encourage the structure foundations
foundation s via the shortest load path. This
to move in sympathy to thermal effects, is dependent on the form of the structure
otherwise there is a risk of large forces and as such, efficiency often gives
gi ves way to
being locked into the structure. function and, in some cases, aesthetics.
In such instances a good engineer will do
Lateral Stability Strategies their utmost to maintain the philosophy of
robustness, regardless of the form of the

Before attempting to adopt a particular building they are designing the structure for.
strategy for lateral stability, some
appreciation
appreciatio n of alternative solutions
(and their consequences) is required. Eurocode 0.
Consider Figure 5:5:
Applied
practice

The applicable codes of practice for lateral

stability are as follows:

BS EN 1990: Eurocode Basis of Structural

Design

BS EN 1990: UK National Annex to Eurocode:

Basis of Structural Design

Figure 5 Plan of various lateral stability solutions

Glossary and
further reading
Structure ‘A’ does boast a solution that
braces the structure orthogonally in both Sway frame – Similar to ‘Portalisation’
directions. There is the risk however that
if one of the vertical bracing elements is Further Reading
subjected to accidental damage, then the The Institution of Structural Engineers (2010)
entire structure will become unsafe. Practical Guide to Structural Robustness and
Disproportionate Collapse in Buildings London:
Structure ‘B’ is the most efficient solution,
sol ution, The Institution of Structural Engineers
but is not normally architecturally
architecturally sound. It
does however have redundancy in that if The Institution of Structural Engineers (2010)
one of the vertical bracing elements were Manual for the design of steelwork building
to fail, it would not leave the building in an structures to Eurocode 3 London: The
unsafe state. Institution of Structural Engineers

Structure ‘C’ is a poor solution as off-centre The Institution of Structural Engineers (1988)
wind forces would generate significant Stability of Buildings London: The Institution of Eurocode 0.
torsion within the structure. If the structure Structural Engineers
Web
were also primarily made from concrete,
resources
then shrinkage within it would also create Owens, G.W. and Davison, B. (Eds) (2012)
significant stresses that could not be Steel Designers Manual. 7th ed. Chichester: For more information on this subject, visit:
relieved. Wiley-Blackwell www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

www.thestructuralengineer.org

31

Worked example
example

Figures 6 and 7 are two structural forms. Suggest appropriate Fig. 7 (below) replicates Fig. 6 but with the addition of a single storey
methods of lateral stability for each structure. structure:

Figure 6 Multi-storey building with stair core attached to an extreme face

In this instance the stair core can be used as a component to achieve

lateral stability. It cannot do this alone however as it is eccentric
to the centre of the structure in one direction and thus any lateral
load would likely generate torsion within the shear core. One viable
solution would be to install bracing in the opposing face of the
building from the stair core, thus:

Figure 7 Multi-storey building with single storey section attached

One viable lateral solution would be to install a shear wall on the

opposing side to the stair core and to portalise the single story
structure. The latter will have an isolation joint between the taller

portion of the building and be braced in the direction that is

perpendicular to the portal frames. The roof of the single storey
structure can act as a diaphragm:
 󲀺

Note 11 Level 1

32 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
July 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Floor
Introduction
This Technical Guidance Note is an
introduction to the assessment of
floor vibrations. Since the advent
of lighter structures that have
longer spanning elements within
them, the built in dampening effect

vibration
vibration
buildings have had historica
historically
lly
has become less pronounced.
Despite this, floor vibration can
be an overlooked criterion during
the design process. This can lead
to expensive remedial works Floor vibration due to excitation
excitation
ICON 󲀢 Design principles
being carried out on structures LEGEND
after they have been built, as This guide only concerns vibration of floors
occupants complain of discomfort 󲀢 Applied practice due to excitation that is internally sourced,
due to excessive movements and which can originate from human
activity and/or machinery. It does not cover
vibrations. 󲀢 Worked example
the vibration of structures due to external
elements such as rail tracks and roads or
It should also be noted that floor lateral vibrations of structures due to wind.
󲀢 Further reading
vibrations can in some cases
have a detrimental effect on the Floor structures are designed to a minimum
integrity of the structure. This 󲀢 Web resources limit of natural frequency. This is assessed
usually occurs when there is a against the stiffness of the structure vs. the
whole of the self-weight and super-imposed
continuous long term vibration
dead load elements, as well as 10% of the
inducing load, such as a piece Design predicted imposed load. This percentage
of machinery that is causing a principles allows for semi-permanent and inactive
dynamic response within the installations such as furniture. For office
structure. This can then lead In the first instance there are no fixed buildings it is recommended that this limit is
to a fatigue based failure of criteria stated in EN 1990:2002 (Eurocode set at 4 Hz as minimum and for stages and
the supporting structure. This 0) with regard to floor vibration. Instead it dance floors this minimum is raised to 8.4 Hz
recommends each project is reviewed on a due to the vigorous activity the floor would
scenario however is rare as
case by case basis and that any criteria are be subjected to. Floor structures that have a
vibrations from such machinery
machinery agreed with the client. This open approach fundamental natural frequency of between
would have to match the harmonic
harmonic stems from the varied methods that can 3 and 10 Hz are classified as low frequency
of the supporting structure, which be adopted to assess vibration. Each has floors, while those above that range are high

is unlikely.occupants
Also, it is usually the their own strengths and weaknesses and it frequency. It is advised that low frequency
building’s that generate is for this reason that floor vibration criteria floors are designed for dynamic loads due
vibrations and as their sense
sense of is established early in the life of a project. to the increase in imposed loading from the
These criteria will often have a significant relatively lively floor structure.
comfort deteriorates, the cyclical
impact in the design of the structure and
movements within the structure as such, thier imporance cannot be over This limit on natural frequency only
drop to the point where fatigue emphasised. The UK National Annex to addresses the likelihood of the base
induced failure cannot occur. Eurocode does offer some limits which movement or harmonic of the structure
designers can discuss with clients. matching that of a footfall of an adult, which
The assessment of floor vibration lies between 1.5 to 2.5 Hz. For staircases
concerns how the mass of its It should be noted that this is a very complex however, the base harmonic is much higher.
issue that cannot be readily explored It ranges between 3-4 Hz due to the way
supporting structure moves when
comprehensively
comprehensive ly in a Level 1 technical in which people climb stairs. They exert
subjected to an imposed load. guidance note. As such, this note serves only a greater force at a higher frequency as
This is determined by ascertaining as an introduction to floor vibration and the people traverse them, hence the increase in
the natural frequency of the reader is encouraged to seek out the texts the harmonic.
supporting structure to the floor, referred to in the Further Reading section
which is stated
stated in Hz (cycles per for more detailed and comprehensi
comprehensive ve If the lowest natural frequency of the structure
second). Once that is calculated guidance on the subject. Of special note is more than twice the footfall frequency, then
is the Design of Floors for Vibration: New the structure should not exhibit significant
it is then possible to assess how
Approach by the Steel Constructio
Construction n Institute, vibrations when exposed to imposed loading
the structure will move when
 from which this guide has drawn much of due to human occupancy. There is still the
subjected to various types of the theory behind the assessment of floor risk however that despite meeting this natural
imposed loading. vibrations. frequency criteria, significant floor vibrations

www.thestructuralengineer.org

33

will occur. This is because the level of oor Where: typically this is at its mid-span
response could still be unacceptable. It is for δ is the maximum deection due to the • All loads modelled can only be permanent in
this reason that excitation based response applied load and self-weight in mm nature. This includes 10% of imposed loads
criteria must be met in order for a oor that are based on xtures
structure do be deemed satisfactory. g is acceleration due the gravity, which • Analysis of at least 10 mode shapes is
equals 9.81 m/s2 advisable in order to achieve accurate results
Damping • The material properties of any concrete in
From this it is possible to derive the natural the structure should allow for long term eects
Damping is a term to describe a facet of the frequency (f1) of a simply supported beam
structure that aects the energy within it that from this basic equation: Vibration Dose
Dose Value
Value (VDV)
leads to a reduction in vibrations. All structures
18
have inherent damping properties via their f1 = BS 6472 Part 1 is the guide to evaluation
stiness, the friction within connections, d of human exposure to vibration in buildings
furniture, and other xtures. Where: and addresses the excitation issue raised
Partitions can also be considered as δ is the maximum deection due to the ap - previously. It does this by dening acceptable
components of damping as can high plied load and self-weight in mm limits of what it terms the vibration dose value
concentrations of human occupation. or VDV. This is based on how a human adult
Mode Shapes perceives vibrations in a oor structure and is
Natural Frequency Assessment of dened in Clause 3.5 as:
simple structures The natural frequency of a structure has a
mode shape attributed to it. All structures VDVb/d,day/night = a# 0
T
a
4
(t) dt
0.25
k
The favoured method of determining the have almost countless mode shapes, but it is
natural frequency of structures is via nite the rst few that are of interest as they dene Where:
element analysis models, as they produce the lowest natural frequency of the structure. VDV is the vibration dose value in
more accurate results. Nevertheless it is Figure 1 shows the rst three mode shapes of m•s -1.75b/d,day/night

possible to calculate the natural frequency a simply supported beam:

of simple structures such as a simply α(t) is the frequency weighted acceleration
supported beam or a grillage of primary and in m•s-2
secondary beams that support a oor.
T is the total period of the day or night (in
The base equation to determine a natural seconds) during which any vibration can occur
frequency for a beam is thus:
Table 1 of BS 6472 denes the acceptable
ln EI
fn = limits of VDV for residential buildings. From
2r mL
4

this table it can be extrapolated that in a 16

Where: hour day the VDV can range between 0.2 and
fn is the dynamic natural frequency of the Figure 1 Mode shapes for a simply supported beam 0.4 m•s-1.75 and during an 8 hour night can
beam range from 0.1 to 0.2 m•s-1.75. If these criteria
The rst mode shape is often cited as being are met, then there is a low probability of any
EI is the exural rigidity of the member in aligned to the fundamental frequency of the adverse comment being generated by the
2

Nm structure.
dimensionedMode shapesthat
diagrams areare
expressed in the
based on non- occupants of a building
A note to Table due tostates
1 of BS 6472 oor vibrations.
that for
m is the unfactored eective mass of the maximum deection of the structure within a oces these ranges are multiplied by 2 and
structure and elements
elements it is supporting in dened shape. 4 respectively. More information on how the
kg/m value of VDV is determined for structures, can
Modelling of structures to be found in BS 6472 Part 1.
L is the span of the member in m determine natural frequency
Response Factor (R)
κn is a constant that represents the support For more complex structures computer
conditions of the beam for the nth node of analysis tools are used to determine the As stated previously, EN 1990:2002
vibration natural frequencies of a structure. The (Eurocode 0) does not oer any advice
methodology used to create FE models with regard to the acceptable limits on oor
It is possible to simplify this equation if it is for natural frequency analysis is somewhat vibration. It places that responsibilit
responsibility
y onto
assumed that only a uniformly distributed dierent to those for stress and serviceability both the client and the structural engineer.
load is applied to the beam, that it is simply and can be summarised as follows:
supported and the value of κn is taken to be π2. In some instances clients stipulate design
Following these assumptions, the resulting • All elements within the structure are broken criteria with regard to oor vibrations
equation is the same as that used to de - up into many elements. The more elements in terms of a response factor (R). Its
termine the mid span deection of a simply there are, the more accurate the result of the derivation is based on the acceleration of
supported beam, thus: analysis the structure as it moves during vibrations.
• All connections between elements are It is recommended that the values given in
5mgL4 modelled as continuous/xed Table 1 are not exceeded by the response
d
384EI • Vertical elements should be split at the point factor in order for the oor structure to be
of contraexture with a pinned connection; acceptable.

Note 11 Level 1

34 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
July 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Room Type Time Limiting response Remedial works to address floor vibration Eurocode 0.
of day factor value (R) Applied
When a building suffers a change of use to the
practice
point where a rhythmic activity is very likely, an
Workshop Day 8
assessment of the structure is required. This The applicable codes of practice for floor
Night 4
typically consists of a combination of testing and vibration are as follows:
Office Day 4 modelling of the structure to determine what
Night 4 alterations are needed in order for the structure to BS EN 1990: Eurocode Basis of Structural
Residential Day 2-4
perform adequately. Design
Night 1.4
These alterations focus on making the structure BS EN 1990: UK National Annex to Eurocode:
Hospital Day 1 stiffer without significantly adding to its mass. They Basis of Structural Design
operating Night 1
theatres
can include reducing the span of primary beams
by adding additional supports to the structure, ISO 10137: Bases for the design of structures
Table 1 Limiting values of response stiffening beams by altering its section profile and – Serviceability of buildings and walkways
factor (R) vs. room type stiffening the support connections. against vibration

BS 6472 Part 1: Guide to evaluation of human

exposure to vibration in buildings - Vibration
sources other than blasting
Worked example
example

A simply supported steel beam spanning 8m is supporting a 3m high, 140mm thick blockwork Glossary and
wall and a timber floor that
th at is to have office furnishings placed
pl aced upon it. The imposed load has further reading
been set at 4 kN/m². The beam is to have a natural frequency that is greater than 4 Hz. Check
to see if a 457x152x67 UB can meet this criteria, ignoring design stress considerations. Damping – Dissipation of energy in a
vibrating system.

Mode Shape – Deflected shape at a

particular natural frequency of a system
undergoing free vibration.

Natural Frequency – Frequency at which

a mode of vibration will oscillate under free
vibrations.

Vibration Dose ValueValue (VDV) – a number

attributed to structures against which the level
of comfort can be approximately measured.

Further Reading

SCI (2009) P354 Design of Floors for

Vibration: New Approach Ascot, Berkshire:
Steel Construction Institute

Breeze, G. (2011) Dynamic Comfort Criteria for

Structures Watford: BRE Press

Web
resources

For more information on this subject, visit:

Steel Construction Institute:

www.steel-sci.org/

Building Research Establishment:

www.bre.co.uk/
 The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

Note 12 Level 1
www.thestructuralengineer.org

Technical TheStructuralEngineer 29
Technical Guidance Note August 2012

Reading reinf
reinforced
orced
concrete drawings
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Drawing principles
This Technical Guidance Note explains the way in which reinforced LEGEND
concrete drawings should be read. In many cases reinforced concrete
drawings are more diagrammatic than their general arrangement
counterparts and carry with them their own unique set of rules and 󰁗 Applied practice
nomenclature. Note that the guidance provided here is based on European
codes of practice; for all other regions the reader is directed to local
guidelines on reinforced concrete detailing methods.
󰁗 Further reading

This technical guidance note does not cover the rules governing the
detailing reinforced concrete. That is a far more complex subject which is
dealt with in The Institution of Structural Engineers’ publication Standard
󰁗 Web resources
Method of Detailing Structural Concrete (3rd edition).

in the drawing alongside other information

Drawing Steel designation/ concerning the size, steel grade, frequency
principles notation and bar size
and elevation within the concrete element.
An example barmark call-up is given
The purpose of reinforced concrete in Figure 1.
1.
drawings is to communicate to the installer
Number Bar Centres
the layout of bars within concrete elements The steel designation/notation defines the
of bars mark of bars
of a structure. The only dimensions grade of the reinforcement within a bar
provided in them are those that relate to call-up and is typically designated with an
reinforcement whose placement cannot ‘H’. There are other grades: A, B & C that are
󰁎 Figure 1
be fixed to a clear reference point. In some Typical bar call-up steel reinforcing bars with varying degrees of
instances reinforced concrete drawings ductility, with ‘C’ having the highest ductility
are not drawn to scale. However, with the and are denoted with a corresponding letter.
dominance of drawings that are developed the bar, its length, size and shape. In order Grade A reinforcement bars are cold formed
using CAD, this is rarely the case. A to correlate the schedule against the bars and are drawn from coils. They are commonly
tabulated approach is also sometimes located in the drawing, each bar is given a used for shear-links as they are easy to bend
adopted for repeatable elements that have a mark that can be cross referenced against into shapes that feature tight bends. They
modicum of variety to them in terms of one the schedule. This ‘bar mark’ is placed cannot exceed 12mm in diameter however and
or two dimensions. within a label that is attributed to each bar this limitation does not apply to B & C grades.

All reinforced concrete drawings should

be read in conjunction with general
arrangement drawings, as these provide
the setting out dimensions for the concrete
elements themselves, in exclusion to the
reinforcement within them.

Reinforcementt drawing terminology

Reinforcemen
All bars within reinforcement drawings have
their dimensional information given on a
separate document known as a ‘bar bending
󰁎 Figure 2
schedule’. This schedule lists the quantity of Bar bending schedule

Note 12 Level 1

30 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
August 2012 Technical Guidance Note

󰁎 Figure 3 󰁅 Figure 4
Example reinforced Example
concrete beam drawing reinforced
concrete
column
drawing

When determining the length of a bar, it must bars and how they lap with one another. This
be carried out in accordance with the shape is done by showing marker arrows with a bar
code as defined in Table 3 of BS 8666. In mark number showing how far one bar laps
the example in Fig. 2 there is a U-Bar that is with another. Some bars need to be set out
shape code 21. The length of such a bar is from a common point, typically the centreline
defined as: of a support in order to locate them along
Figure 2 is an extract from the bar bending the length of a beam. This is because such
schedule the bar mark is logged against. It A+B+C−r−2d (1) bars are installed to resist bending moments
is appended to the reinforcement drawing in the top section of a beam and therefore
it is referring to. It is important to note that Where: must be placed in such a way to cover the
a reinforcement drawing without a bar A and B are lengths of sections of the U-Bar extent of the tension in the upper section of
bending schedule is regarded as incomplete C is the remaining length but is not stated in the beam. Figure 3 is an annotated drawing
as one cannot be read r ead without the other. the schedule as it is written in brackets of a continuous reinforced concrete beam.
r is the radius of bending as defined in Table
Taking each column in turn: 2 of BS 8666 Column reinforcement drawing
•theThe member describes which element of
structure the bar is attributed to
d is the diameter of the bar Column reinforcement can be more
diagrammatic than other reinforcement
• Bar mark is the unique identifier of each When calculating the lengths of bars it is drawings. They show the primary
bar per drawing important to take into account tolerances reinforcement together with dashed lines
• Type and size is the designation/notation and to allow for concrete cover. Clause 10.8.1 to indicate the extent of starter bars, which
and bar diameter in the National Specification of Concrete is the reinforcement that projects from the
• No. of members is the number of elements Structures provides guidance on this. In kicker (a section of concrete that is cast
this bar is located within summary: a tolerance of -10mm is allowed above the structural slab level) and extent
• Total number is the number of bars for when assessing distances between faces of containment links. A section is also taken
denoted with this bar mark occurs within the of concrete that are up to 150mm thick and through the column to indicate how the bars
structure -15mm for elements that are more than within it are laid out. Figure 4 is an example
• Length of each bar is the total length of 400mm thick. In addition, it is necessary to of a reinforced concrete column.
the bar given in mm to the nearest 25mm assume a 10mm reduction in the specified
• Shape code is a code given to certain concrete cover, which is the thickness of Floor slab reinforcement drawing
bent shapes of bars as defined in Table 3 concrete to the surface of reinforcement. Reinforced concrete floor slab drawings
of BS 8666: 2005 Scheduling, dimensioning, tend to be the most complex of elements to
bending and cutting of steel reinforcement Beam reinforcement drawing draw. This is especially true of flat slabs due
for concrete - Specification Beam reinforcement drawings are amongst to the need to create concentrated sections
• A to E are dimensions stated to the the simplest of the elements to create of reinforcement that act as beams within
nearest 5mm that need to be specified for drawings for. They provide much of the the slab. With a minimum of four layers of
shape codes in accordance with Table 3 of required information diagrammatically and reinforcement to plot and the curtailment of
BS 8666 require little in the way of unique terminology
terminology the bars needing to be carefully plotted out, it
• Revision letter is the revision of the bar within the bar mark call-ups. What does is common to find drawings for slabs becoming
bending schedule. need to be shown clearly is the extent of the too cluttered to read. In some cases therefore

www.thestructuralengineer.org

31

Eurocode 0.
Applied
practice

The applicable codes of practice for

reinforced concrete detailing are as follows:

󰁎 Figure 5 BS EN 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2: Design of

Bar level labelling
within floor slabs Concrete Structures. Part 1-1 General Rules
and Rules for Buildings
󰁅 Figure 6
Example reinforced
concrete floor slab drawing BS EN 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2: UK National
Annex to Design of Concrete Structures.
Part 1-1 General Rules and Rules for
󰁓 Figure 7
Bar level labelling Buildings
within walls

BS 8666:2005: Scheduling, dimensioning

dimensioning,,
bending and cutting of steel reinforcement
for concrete - Specification

Glossary and
further reading

Bar mark – Unique number attributed to

each reinforcing bar per drawing.

Cover – Thickness of concrete between

it is preferable to create two separate plans for Wall
Wall reinforcement
reinforcement drawing the reinforcing bar and face of concrete.
the upper and lower layers of reinforcement. There are similarities between floor slab and
Floor slab drawings also carry with them wall drawings in that they use a unique marker Curtailment – Length and location of bar.
their own form of nomenclature for the level to indicate where the reinforcing bars are
at which the bars are located within the slab. located within the concrete element. Figure 7 Kicker – Section of projecting concrete
Figure 5 defines what these labels mean. defines these markers. from structural slab level within a vertical
element.
‘Extent indicators’ are key to showing bars In some instances the use of N1, N2 and F1,
on a floor slab drawing. These indicators F2 nomenclature is used in a similar fashion to Lap – Where bars are placed alongside
show the area that a bar occupies as well as floor slab reinforcement. one another to ensure continuity of
the centres they are placed at. In instances reinforcement within a concrete element.
where a bar shape is the same but has varying Walls, like columns, have kickers within them
lengths, rather than having a bar mark for each and as such all reinforcing bars are set out Starter bar – A bar projecting from a
bar, a variant marked with a letter is used. with respect to the existence of the kicker. previously cast section of concrete, that
This prevents a mesh of bars being drawn on Other than the presence of the kicker, there maintains continuity from the cast concrete
the slab. Figure 6 is a section of a reinforced is very little difference between a drawing for to a new installation.
concrete floor slab showing how bars are a reinforced concrete wall and a floor slab, as
shown in such elements. Figure 8 demonstrates. Further Reading
The Institution of Structural Engineers
(2006) Standard Method of Detailing
Structural Concrete. 3rd ed. London: The
Institution of Structural Engineers

Mineral Products Association (2010)

National Structural Concrete Specification.
4th ed. Camberley, Surrey: The Concrete
Centre

Eurocode 0.
Web
resources

The Institution of Structural Engineers library:

 www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library
󰁎 Figure 8
Example reinforced concrete wall drawing The Concrete Society: www.concrete.org.uk

Note 13 Level 1

32 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
August 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Reading structural
steelwork drawings
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Drawing principles
This Technical Guidance Note describes how drawings for structural LEGEND
steelwork are developed and read. They have their own unique set of rules and
nomenclature and it is important for engineers to understand all of these rules
in order to communicate and interpret the design of steelwork structures. 󰁗 Applied practice

This guide is split into two sections; the first contains the information a
designer of the steel elements provides, whilst the second contains the
󰁗

information a fabricator creates in order to manufacture and construct the Further reading
steel structure. While one feeds into the other, the level of detail each set of
information provides is very different, due primarily to the end result. One is
informing the manufacture of the steelwork, while the other focusses on its 󰁗 Web resources
installation.

Drawing Column size shown

as depth, width
principles and weight/m Beam size shown as depth,
width and weight/m
When preparing general arrangements for
steel framed structures a diagrammatic style
Column size
should be applied. All beams and trusses shown as depth,
are drawn as a single thick black line and width and
bracing is shown as a dashed line when weight/m
drawn in plan. All general arrangement Ultimate end reactions Ultimate end reactions
drawings are to scale and any detail sections
󰁎 Figure 1
through the structure have all elements Plan on steel beam with reactions - as shown in a design drawing
drawn as they would appear in reality. Also
beams are generally viewed and labelled
South to North/Down to Up and East to are developed by the design engineer do to the fabricator so that they can develop
West/Right to Left. not include any details on the sizing of the design of the connections.
components such as bolts, fin plates and
Design intent general arrangement welds that make up the connections. They In some instances the design of the
drawing protocol do however show the ultimate reaction elements themselves become the
forces that occur at each connection within responsibility of the steel fabricator
For building projects, the responsibility of the the steel frame; such as shear, bending and in such cases the design engineer
design and detailing of connectio
connectionsns within moment, axial and torsion forces. It is also provides limits on sizes and form of the
a steel frame falls to the steel fabricator required of the design engineer to pass steel elements. In other cases the design
in most instances. This is not the case for on the details of the tie forces that occur responsibility for all elements of the steel

civil
as allengineering based
of the design projects however,
responsibility falls to the at all connections.
robustness This is to
requirements (asensure the
stipulated structure falls following
the fabricator to the design
theirengineer,
specifiedwith
design engineer. The engineer/designer in part A3 of the Building Regulations of member sizes and connection details
of the building structure must ensure that England) are fulfilled. exactly. More detail on apportioning design
the fabrication drawings and connection responsibility
responsibility for steel frame structures can
calculations meet the design requirements Details of the form the connection should be found in the BCSA & SCI publication:
that they have defined. It is for this reason take are also described within the design National Structural Steelwork Specification
that design general arrangements that documentation. This information is provided (5th Ed.) - Tables 1.2A, 1.2B & 1.2C.

www.thestructuralengineer.org

33

Figure 1 shows a plan of a beam with

its reactions.

The labelling system used for steel elements

is dependent upon the type of steel section.
For traditional open sections such as I

beams and H columns the protocol is as

follows:

Depth in mm x Width in mm x Weight per

metre length in kg/m

Note that the dimensions given for these

sections are not the actual dimensions of
the element but the serial size. The actual
dimensions vary depending on the serial
weight per metre stated in the label. For
example a 203x203x86 UC is a 222mm
deep universal column section where as a
203x203x52 UC is a 206mm deep universal
column section, yet they are the same serial
size in terms of labelling.

For angle and hollow sections the label does

accurately state the actual dimensions of
the section along with the thickness of the
󰁎 Figure 2
plate it is made from, thus: Example general arrangement plan of a steel structure

Depth in mm x Width in mm x Thickness

in mm As well as connection forces and their
design intent, it is required that the design
Therefore a 120x120x12mm RSA is a rolled engineer specifies the steel grades and
steel angle that is 120mm deep and 120mm sub-grades from which the structural
wide and has a thickness of 12mm. With steelwork is to be formed. For building
regard to hollow sections, a 150x100x5 RHS structures these are typically S275J0 or
is a rectangula
r ectangularr hollow section with a depth S355J0 for example. Drawings should also
of 150mm, a width of 100mm and a plate highlight any assumptions regarding the
thickness of 5mm. sequence of erection, temporary stability
and other unique aspects that would
Figure 2 is a general arrangement drawing affect construction. Furthermore, there
that has examples of all of the elements should also be an indication of any shear
described previously. Note how the beams studs required for composite beams that
are drawn with gaps at the end as they are designed to work in conjunction with
connect to the columns. This indicates that the floor slab. Finally, drawings should
they are separate elements from the one show foundations indicatively (and note
they are connecting to. them as such) so that the fabricator
󰁎 Figure 3
understands the interface between the Design intent detail of beam to column connection
An alternative method of labelling elements steel superstructure and the sub-structure
within a steel structure is the use of a table that supports it. This will allow them to
of member sizes that correspond to a code. complete the design of the base plate to
This code is used as a label instead of the columns along with their corresponding "Note that the
actual beam size on the drawings. This holding down bolts.
is done in order to reduce clutter on the dimensions for
these sections
drawings, making them easier to read. There are some terms used on steelwork
general arrangements that designate the
It is important to note that the connection relevant level of the elements shown on
are not the actual
detail shown in Figure 3 does not have any them. The term TOS stands for Top of Steel
information regarding the bolt, cleat, and
weld sizing. All of these elements typically
and is the level at which the top surface of
the steel is elevated. SSL is Structural Slab dimensions of the
fall under the design responsibility of the Level i.e. the level at which the floor slab is
element but the
fabricator and any detail developed by located. FFL is the Finish Floor Level and
the design engineer must not be specific
on these components that make up
is the upper most level of the overall floor
structure. It is only indicated on steelwork
serial size"
connections. general arrangements as a navigational aid.

Note 13 Level 1

34 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
August 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Eurocode 0.
Applied
practice

The applicable codes of practice for

structural steelwork drawings are as follows:
󰁎 󰁓
Figure
Plan 4 beam as shown in a fabrication general arrangement
on steel Figure
Beam from5 Fig. 1 drawn as a steel fabrication element
BS EN 1993-1-1: Eurocode 2: Design of
Steel Structures. Part 1-1 General Rules and
Rules for Buildings

BS EN 1993-1-1: Eurocode 2: UK National

Annex to Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-1
General Rules and Rules for Buildings

BS 4 Part 1:2005: Structural steel sections —

Part 1: Specification for hot-rolled Sections

BS EN 22553:1995: Welded, brazed and

soldered joints — Symbolic representation
on drawings

Glossary and
further reading

Design general arrangement – Fully

dimensioned drawing of the steel framed
structure and other structural elements.
Steel fabrication general draw the whole length of them. Figure 5 is a
arrangement drawing protocol drawing of the steel beam first seen in Fig. 1 Design intent – Design informatio
information
n
drawn as a steel fabrication element. provided by the design engineer to the
General arrangements developed by fabricator to indicate the preferred form of
steel fabricators are based on the design Welding has a unique set of symbols that the structural element.
general arrangements
arrangements and only show the are defined in BS EN 22553:1995 Welded,
steelwork elements of the structure. The brazed and soldered joints - Symbolic Fabrication general arrangement –
beams are drawn to scale in plan and representation
representatio drawings. This system is
n on drawings. Fully dimensioned drawing of the steel elements
rather than label the size of elements in used throughout shop drawings to indicate of a structure, developed by the fabricator.
the frame the fabricators instead give the type of weld, its thickness, length and
them a unique marker. These markers are location. Figure 6 is an annotated example Further Reading
used to designate the components of the of one of these weld labels. BCSA & SCI (2007) 203/07 National
National
structure, which the fabricator refers to Structural Steelwork Specification for
when constructing the frame. Figure 4 is an The introduction of CAD packages has had Building Construction (5th ed) London:BCSA
example of the same beam shown in Fig. a significant impact on how steel members
1 as it would appear in a steel fabrication are presented. In many cases viewers are Simmons, C.H., Maguire, D.E. and Phelps, N.:
general arrangement
arrangement.. used to inspect 3D computer models, which (2012) Manual of Engineering Drawing: Technical
enable the design engineer to pan and zoom Product Specification and Documentation to
Steel fabrication shop drawings around the model and view the properties British and International Standards 4th ed.
of each member, including length, section Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann
Every element in a steel frame has a size, steel grade and connection details.
fabrication drawing produced for it. These The basic concepts of labelling elements Eurocode 0.
show what needs to be done to the steel however remain the same, no matter how
Web
element in order for it to be installed within they are presented.
resources
the frame. This includes bolt holes, fin plates,
welds and stiffeners that are developed Throat Type of Tata Steel Interactive ‘Blue
‘ Blue Book’:
based on the connection design that is thickness weld www.tatasteelconstruction.com/
www.tatastee lconstruction.com/en/design_
en/design_
typically carried out by the fabricator. In guidance/the_blue_book/
some instances these drawings show the
connection data drawn to scale, but the The British Constructional Steelwork
length of the element is not. Instead the Association:
element’s length is defined but highlighted as Thickness Length www.steelconstruction.org/
being not to scale. This is a form of shorthand dimension of weld
so that the elements can be drawn to a larger The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
󰁎 Figure 6
and easier to read scale without having to Example of a fillet weld label www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

Note 14 Level 1

30 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
September 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Structural analysis
methodology
Structural
Introduction ICON 󰁗 analysis
When analysing structures it is important to adopt a methodical approach LEGEND principles

wherever possible.
possible. By breaking
breaking down the structure
structure into manage
manageable
able portions,
portions,
the complexity of the analysis is reduced and thus becomes easier to control
and review. By adopting such an approach, a seemingly insurmountable task
becomes a much more approachable one. 󰁗 Further reading

This Technical Guidance Note is a good practice guide for analysing and
designing structures. It explains how structures are given form, modelled,
analysed and designed. Mention is made of the need to rationalise the analysis 󰁗 Web resources
process, but not at the expense of an economic design.

They are; geometry, loading and ground however, especially for transfer structures,
Structural analysis conditions. Geometry and loading are as an error in the location of a vertical
principles elements that have a very small margin of support element along the length of a
error. So much so that significant deviations transfer beam can have a significant impact
The analysis and design of structures can result in the outcome from analysis on the stresses within the structure.
starts with the form they are to take. This becoming suspect.
is based on the parameters that a building Loading is very sensitive to error and can
has to adhere to and is typically defined Geometry is less sensitive to errors than cause a cascade effect if it appears early
by an architect and/or client. The shape of loading. For example, a beam that is in the analysis process. Take for example
the building is defined, from which a set of modelled 200mm longer than it will span an area load; an assumption is made that
design criteria is generated. The structural when constructed, will have little impact on the ceiling structure will be no heavier than
engineer must do their utmost to work within its design, other than it will likely be slightly 25 kg/m2 (0.25 kN/m2). During the design
these restrictions and where they cannot, over capacity. This is not always the case process this load is incorrectly grouped with
they must advise the architect and client
of this and develop an alternative solution.
This is a crucial element of the design
process and more often than not continues
throughout the lifespan of the project.

Examples of the design criteria that

structures must incorporate, and the impact
that these have on the final analysis and
design is given in Table 1.1. Once these
criteria are established and understood
by the structural engineer, a concept of
the structure is developed. This includes
an initial layout of vertical elements and
a method of lateral stability that is to be
adopted.
Geometry, loading and ground
Geometry,
conditions
There are three fundamental components 󰁅 Figure 1
to the analysis and design of building Plan of beams to be
analysed showing
structures that must be accurately modelled. rationalisation

www.thestructuralengineer.org

31

the building services containment Table 1: Project criteria and impact on structural analysis and design
load, which amounts to 50 kg/m2
(0.50 kN/m2). This error negates the
Criteria Impact
additional load allowance for the ceiling.
Some would argue that 0.25 kN/m2 is not
a significant increase from 0.50 kN/m2, but Overall height of building and external appearance
Planning restrictions
when you consider its impact on the overall leading to changes in structural solutions
load to a beam structure that is a reasonable
assumption, as can be demonstrated thus: Magnitude of imposed loads and building
Building use services requiring plant rooms and voids within
A 10m long beam supports an 8m span floor the structure for containment
structure. The total load on the beam from
services (including the ceiling structure Floor movement and vibration Depth of beams and floor structure
described previously) is 4 kN/m. The correct
load, with the ceiling structure kept separate
from the building services, equates to Vertical access Stair and escalator locations creating large voids
6 kN/m. This error filters down the whole
structure to the point where the columns
and foundations are designed for a smaller Occupancy ma
management/egress Location of
of do
doorways an
and co
columns
load than they should be.
Aesthetics Form of structural elements and their connections
Although less sensitive to error, ground
conditions are no less influential in the
design of structures, as they dictate the Colu
Column
mn an
and
d wal
walll loc
locat
atio
ion
n Span
Span of be
beam
ams
s and
and sl
slab
abs
s as
as wel
welll as
as siz
size
e of
of col
colum
umns
ns
form and extent of foundations that are
to be installed. The greater the accuracy
of data concerning ground conditions, the Part
Partit
itio
ion
n for
form
m and
and lo
loca
cati
tion
on Load
Loadin
ing
g ont
onto
o floo
floorr str
struc
uctu
ture
re an
and
d defl
deflec
ecti
tion
on li
limi
mits
ts
more appropriate the foundation solution
becomes. This data should include soil
Form of floor structure Depth of floor and primary beams
composition, level of water table, condition
of bearing strata, presence of underground
services and significant excavations such as Floor to ceiling height Height and effective length of columns
mines.

Rationalisingstructures Wind, snow load and extreme loading conditions

Location
When developing a strategy for carrying from seismic events and blasts
out the analysis and design of a structure,
the primary drivers behind it should be Ground conditions Foundation type and size
to develop a safe, robust and economic

design.
must beThe elements
sized in the structure
economically, yet be safe Effective length of columns and size of openings in
Service zone
and easy to construct. This leads to the floors and walls
analysis becoming rationalised to avoid
overly complex structures with a myriad Return period for wind and snow load as well as
Service life
of differently sized elements. While such probability of seismic events
structures may be optimised, there is a
risk that the structure will become overly The larger the footprint of the structure, the
complex and as a result can add to the more likely it is to need the inclusion of movement
Size
overall cost of the structure due to the joints due to thermal effects
effects that
that cause expansion
expansion
diffi culty in buildi
bu ilding
ng it. and contraction

To overcome this, elements within structures

are rationalised into types. Within these advisable to create a compartmentalised depend on the stiffness of the elements
types there are bands of elements. This version of them. This creates an isolated that frame into them and thus the sway
reduces the workload of the structural model that will have all the lateral loads that frame needs to be analysed to include these
engineer as they now only have to design a the rest of the structure places upon it, as elements. A good example of this is the sub-
percentage of the elements and not each well as all the vertical loads from any beams frame, which is commonly used in concrete
one individually. Figure 1 is a plan of a steel and floor slabs that frame into it. frame analysis and design and for rigid and
frame with beam types labelled for analysis. semi-rigid steel frame analysis.
 Sway frames, which are structures that
Compartmentalisingstructures have moment resisting connections, also Sub-frames are a form of models that
When considering sections of the structure need to be compartmentalised in this way represent the full structure. They consist of
that are designed to resist lateral forces, in order for them to be accurately analysed. two lifts of columns and a series of beams. A
such as shear core walls and bracing, it is The bending moments at the connections maximum of five approximately equal beam

Note 14 Level 1

32 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
September 2012 Technical Guidance Note

"Accurately
inputting the
loading into the
model is crucial"

Glossary and
further reading

Compartmentalisation – Discreet
sections of the structure that are modelled
in sections while being mindful of the effects
󰁎 Figure 2 the overall structure will have on the section
Sub-frame of a concrete structure
being considered.

spans would normally be included within or other structures not included in the Design criteria – The parameters within
them in order to reduce the complexity analysis. which a structure must be designed to
of the analysis; a frame any larger than adhere to.
this would require a proportionally higher Releases – Where connections are pinned
amount of analysis to be carried out on it. i.e. not capable of transmitting a bending Rationalisation – The grouping of
With concrete frames, columns are modelled moment, releases are installed within the elements within a structure during the
to have fully fixed supports, unless it can model. These releases create a connection analysis process into pre-defined types.
be demonstrated that the supports to the that has no stiffness in relation to bending
columns can be treated as pins or partially moments in some or even all directions. This Sub-frame – A section of a structure that
fixed. Figure 2 is an example of a sub-frame includes torsional moments. has fully fixed rigid connections within it and
for a concrete structure. consists of two heights of columns and a
Material properties – The properties of maximum of five approximately similar spans
When analysing multi-storey frames, it is the material the structure is made from are of beams.
necessary for some allowance to be made defined and applied to each appropriate
for the transfer of bending moments and element, e.g. concrete, steel, composite, Further Reading
shear forces between vertical and horizontal masonry, timber, and glass. Brohn, D.M.: (2005) Understanding Structural
elements of the structure. This is especially Analysis 3rd Ed. New Paradigm Solutions

true for concrete framed structures as Section properties – The size of the
the joints between vertical and horizontal elements are established along with their The Institution of Structural Engineers
elements are continuous and therefore orientation and elevation in relation to the (2006) Manual for the Design of Concrete
moment resisting. To address this, the structure’s gridlines, which were defined at Building Structures to Eurocode 2 London:
structure can be split into manageable the geometry phase. The Institution of Structural Engineers
sub-frames that can be quickly analysed
and designed. Loading – Accurately inputting the loading The Institution of Structural Engineers
into the model is crucial. All of the loads are (2002) Guidelines for the Use of Computers
Modelling of structures installed individually, located onto the model for Engineering Calculations London: The
When creating models of structures in a and then grouped. These groups typically Institution of Structural Engineers
computer analysis and design application, fall into dead, imposed and wind headings
it is important to note the logical flow of and are factored for the design cases. Load
information that is required to feed into it. combinations are then created and applied Eurocode 0.
Typically they abide by the following logic: to generate the worst cases.
Web
resources
Geometry – The geometry of the structure Design parameters – Where computer
must be defined first. This sets out the models are being used for design, the The Institution of Structural Engineers’
location of elements in relation to each other design parameters define the boundaries Structural Analysis and Design Education
in the structure. Their form can be a notional within which the design can be carried out. Study Group:
centreline, a plate or a solid element. These boundaries include the restraint of www.istructe.org/about-us/
members to resist lateral torsional organisation-structure/study-groups/
Supports – The support conditions are buckling, stress value limits, and deflection structural-analysis-and-design-education
established with pinned, fully fixed, partially limits. The capacity limits that the
fixed and springs, placed where the elements are to be assessed against, The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
structure is either supported off foundations are also defined. www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

Note 15 Level 1

34 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
September 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Moment distribution
Introduction ICON 󲀢 Analysis
Analysis principl
principles
es
While the advancement of computer based analysis continues to grow LEGEND
exponentially
exponentia lly within the field of structural engineering, the tools that are
used to analyse structures by hand are no less relevant. Many would argue
that such tools are even more vital today than they have ever been if we are 󲀢 Worked example
to fully understand the output of analysis applications. With this in mind, this
Technical Guidance Note describes one of the most powerful analysis tools
available: moment distribution.
󲀢 Further reading
Moment distribution is a method by which statically indeterminate structures
are analysed elastically. It’s based on the relative stiffness of elements that
make up a structure and shifts bending moments from one section of the
structure to another until they become balanced. Once this balance has been 󲀢 Web resources
achieved, the forces and bending moments within the structure are modelled.

Analysis principles Table 1: Fixed end moment solutions

Load condition Fixed end moment

The origins of moment distribution analysis
method date back to 1932 when a paper
published by Professor Hardy Cross
described a means by which indeterminate PL
structures could be analysed by hand. This 8
was driven by the increase in popularity of
reinforced concrete structures as opposed
to steel framed buildings. The former are
made up of statically indeterminate sub- 2
frames and thus a quick and easy method of Pa b
2
analysing them was needed. The principle L
of moment distribution is based on creating
fixed end moments at joints in a structure
and then releasing them sequentially in order
to derive the bending moments within it. This 2
wL
is done via an iterative process that relies
on achieving equilibrium as the joints in the
12
structure are released.

Consider Figure 1,
1, which illustrates a 2 span
beam that has fully fixed supports at each 3PL
16

Pab (2L - a)
󲀢 Figure 1
2 span beam with fixed end moment connections
2L2
This is an indeterminate structure, which
can quite easily be analysed using the 2
wL
moment distribution method. This is done by
placing fixed end moment connection at the
8
point where the structure can rotate. The

www.thestructuralengineer.org

35

additional bending moment generated at the analysis. This is achieved by defining structure, to those it shares a joint with, is
fixed end is distributed between both of the the amount of vertical displacement of used to determine the distribution factor
spans. These additional moments are then the support when loads are applied to it to the fixed end moments as they are
distributed again until they are dissipated to and then determining the resulting fixed distributed.
the point where equilibrium is achieved. See end moments. Table 2 shows two typical
Figure 2 for further explanation of this: support conditions which have dropped by A member with continuous supports at both
a distance ‘’ and the resulting fixed end ends has a stiffness defined as:
bending moments as shown.
EI
L
Relative stiffness
The proportions of the fixed end moments Where one end of the element has no
 Figure 2
that are distributed are dependent upon continuity at the point of support, the value
Fixed end moments applied to a 2 span beam the stiffness of the elements within the of its stiffness is defined as:
structure. The stiffness is defined as the
3 EI
Sign conventions and fixed end mo- ratio between the span of the element
4 L
ment solutions between supports and its inherent stiffness,
Moment distribution does employ expressed in the form of Young’s Modulus This equates to the relative stiffness of a
conventions and short-hand in order to (E) and second moment of area (I). member with a non-continuous support
simplify the method of analysis. The most being ¾ that of a member with continuous
important convention is the direction of the The relative stiffness of one element in a supports.
bending moments at each joint. Figure 3
explains what this convention is:

Worked example

 Figure 3
Moment distribution sign convention Figure 4 is of a multi-span beam with an E of 205 kN/mm2 and an I of 87318x104 mm4.
Determine the bending moments in the structure using moment distribution.
Table 1 is a list of some of the most common
fixed end moment solutions for typical
load conditions. These are used when
determining the moments at locked joints
prior to them being released and distributed
during the moment distribution analysis.

Spring supports
There are many instances where the
assumption that a support is infinitely stiff
is not a conservative one. In such instances  Figure 4
it is prudent to model the supports of
3 span beam with a spring support
the structure as a spring, rather than an
immovable prop. Such conditions can be
allowed for within moment distribution The first step is to determine the relative stiffness of the beam. With EI being constant
along its entire length, the stiffness is based on end support conditions and length of
span between supports.
Table 2: Fixed end moments for
displaced supports

Fixed end
Support condition
moment

6EID
end: 2
L
 3EID
2
L

Note 15 Level 1

36 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
September 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Application
With the distribution factors for the mid span supports calculated, the fixed end moments Thus far reference has only been made to
(FEMs) are derived. the use of moment distribution as a means
to analyse continuous beams. It should be
noted that this method of analysis can be
applied to more complex frames, with the
only major difference being the distribution
of FEMs being spread through more than
two elements. It is quite possible therefore
to adopt moment distribution when
analysing sway frames and sub-frames.
For more information on this, the reader
is directed to Understanding Structural
Analysis by David Brohn.

Notice that for the spring, the FEM is calculated by adding the moment due to the applied load
to the one generated by the movement of the spring support. This is a form of super-position
“Such tools
to ensure all of the bending moment generated within the structure is taken into account. Also
notice that the magnitude of the bending moment is far greater for spring supports that it is
are even more
for those that are infinitely stiff. vital today
The final part of the analysis is the act of carrying out the moment distribution. The process
for this is as follows:
than they have
1) Calculate the sum of the FEM at each internal support
ever been”
2) Distribute this sum of bending moments in proportion to the relative stiffness of elements
that connect to the support
3) Reverse the sign of the distributed moments to counter the effects of the out of balance
bending moment and carry half of their magnitude to the adjacent continuous and fixed supports
4) Repeat Step 2 until the remaining distributed bending moments are close to 1% of the
Glossary and
initially distributed bending moment
further reading
5) Sum the total bending moments for all internal supports; they should balance at each support
6) Draw bending moment and shear force diagram Carry over – The carry over of fixed end
moments as they are distributed along the
structure.

Distribution – The act of distributing

bending moments as supports are freed, in
order to achieve equilibrium.

Fixed end moments

moments (FEMs) – these are
the bending moments calculated at each
joint in a structure.
structure.

Relative stiffness – The relative stiffness

between connected elements within a
structure.

Further Reading
Cross. H.: (1932) Analysis of continuous
frames by distributing fixed-end moments
Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Vol. 96 (1) pp.1-10

Brohn, D.M.: (2005) Understanding Structural

Analysis 3rd Ed. New Paradigm Solutions
 Eurocode 0.
Web resources

The Institution of Structural Engineers library:

www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

Note 16 Level 1

28 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
October 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Lateral
Lateral torsional buckling
Introduction ICON 󰁗 Design principles
Elements within a steel frame structure are at risk of buckling under load. LEGEND
If measures are not taken when designing steel elements that recognise
󰁗 Applied practice
practice
this risk, then the likelihood of its failure is significantly increased. This
Technical Guidance Note explains how steel elements are restrained
against buckling and what the structural engineer should consider when 󰁗 Worked example

analysing steel structures with respect to buckling resistance.

󰁗 Further reading

󰁗 Web resources

Design principles Methods of restraint Note that the examples in Fig. 3 can be
As a general rule, a restraint to a top flange analysed on the basis that they provide
of a beam must be capable of resisting a stabilising load, even if the top flange is
Steel beams have a tendency to buckle a force that is equivalent to 2.5% of the unrestrained. More detailed advice on
along their length. In the case of simply ultimate compression load in the top flange how to carry out such analysis and other
supported beams, this is prevented by of the beam element it is restraining. methods of continuous restraint can be
restraining its compression flange, which found in The Steel Construction Institute
prevents it from rotating along its axis. This The methods of restraining steel beams are publication Stability of Steel Beams
phenomenon, known as lateral torsional dependent upon meeting this load resistant and Columns.
buckling, must be fully understood and requirement – and for most structures (such
allowed for by the structural engineer when as concrete) – can be easily met. Care must Intermediate restraint
designing structures that consist primarily of be taken however when determining the It is not uncommon for steel beams to have
steel elements. capacity of the floor structure to act as a restraints at discrete locations along their
restraint, with regards to how it is supported length. This typically occurs where openings
Eurocode 3 (BS EN 1993-1-1), Clause 6.3.2 by the steel beam. If the top flange of the within the floor structure require additional
explains that in order for a steel beam beam is not directly supporting the floor support, which tend not to have the floor
element to be classed as ‘restrained’, its structure, then it is not restrained. Examples structure sitting on them. Figure 4 is an
compression flange
flan ge must have
hav e sufficient of this are shown in Figures 2 and 3. 3. example of this type of beam.
restraint so as not to be susceptible to
lateral torsional buckling. Beams with certain
types of cross sections e.g. closed hollow
sections with a height/depth ratio of less
than or equal to 2, are not susceptible to
lateral torsional buckling (Figure 1).
1).

󰁎 Figure 2
Steel beams restrained by the floor structure they support
󰁎 Figure 1 󰁎 Figure 3
Lateral torsional buckling of an open section steel beam Steel beams unrestrained by the floor structure they support

www.thestructuralengineer.org

29

When assessing the amount of restraint

Primary
beam
"It is important to provided, the engineer must consider how
the beam is supported and the level of
note that restraints torsional restraint that is offered at its end.

cannot be simply Figure 6 shows an example of cantilever

beams with varying degrees of restraint at

fixed back to an their supports, while Figure 7 illustrates a

variety of methods of restraining the tip of

adjacent beam" the cantilever.

These varying conditions have an impact

on the design of the cantilever beam and
must be considered in order to arrive at an
accurate result.

Secondary
beams

󰁎 Figure 4
Steel beam with intermediate
restraints via secondary beams

The integrity of the restraint must be that it is

fixed to a point of support that can withstand
the axial load applied to it. Examples of such
supports include walls and braced elements.
It is important to note that restraints
cannot be simply fixed back to an adjacent
beam, as the support is not stiff enough to
withstand the applied load. The presence of
intermediate restraints reduces the effective
length of the steel beam, which results in a
smaller section size of the element than if
󰁎 Figure 6
there were no restraints at all. Cantilever beam restraint at support (shown in elevation)

Restraints to cantilevers
Another type of beam element whose design
is impacted on the level of lateral torsional
restraint present, is the cantilever beam. The
buckling mechanism is somewhat different
to simply supported beams in that the
bottom flange needs to be restrained more
than the top flange, as shown in Figure 5.5.
󰁎 Figure 5 󰁎 Figure 7
Cantilever beam buckling Cantilever beam restraint at tip (shown in section)

Note 16 Level 1

30 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
October 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Purlins

Restraint

Bottom
chord

Restraint to trusses 󰁎 Figure 8

Examples of restraint to bottom chord of truss
Like beams, trusses also require restraint,
but they are more often than not placed
within the roof structure of a building. This Eurocode 0. Glossary and
can lead to them being subjected to uplift Applied practice
loads due to negative air pressure from
further reading
prevailing
preva iling wind. This is known as ‘wind
reversal’ and has an impact on the design The applicable codes of practice for lateral Lateral torsional buckling – The
of the bottom chord of the truss, which torsional buckling of steel members are buckling of the compression flange, which in
is normally subjected to tension loads. as follows: the case of simply supported beams is the
Reversal causes the bottom chord of the top flange when placed under load.
truss to withstand compression loads, BS EN 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel
which can result in a buckling failure. To Structures — Part 1-1: General rules and Restraint – Method by which lateral
overcome this, lateral restraints are rules for buildings torsional bucking is prevented.
installed (Figure 8).
8).
BS EN 1993-1-1 UK National Annex to Top flange – The section of the steel
The restraints provided are designed for Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures — element that needs to be restrained in order
the restraint force as a strut and tie only. Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings to prevent lateral torsional buckling.

Wind reversal – The effect of the

direction of applied load being reversed,
which results in elements of the supporting
Worked example structure being subjected to inverted
compression and tension forces.
A 10m long, 686x254x140 UB is supporting a UDL of 10 kN/m ultimate load and
lateral restraints at 3rd points along its length. Calculate the axial force that needs Further Reading
to be resisted by the restraints. The Institution of Structural Engineers
(2010) Manual for the design of steelwork
building structures to Eurocode 3 London:
The Institution of Structural Engineers

The Steel Construction Institute (2011)

Stability of Steel Beams and Columns Ascot,
UK: SCI

Eurocode 0.
 Web resources

The Institution of Structural Engineers library:

www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

The Steel Construction Institute:

http://www.steel-sci.com/

Note 17 Level 1

32 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
October 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Element size estimation

Introduction ICON 󰁗 Estimation principles
Once the concept and scheme for a structure has been settled upon, LEGEND
the initial sizing of the elements that it is made up of commences. This
󰁗 Worked example
Technical Guidance Note provides a set of hints as to how to initially size
elements, prior to carrying out the detailed design. This process allows
the engineer to gain an appreciation of the form of the structure and the 󰁗 Further reading

changes that may be required if element sizes prove to be too onerous

following this size estimation process. 󰁗 Web resources

Estimation principles Estimating sizes of concrete elements Concrete slabs

Much of this text has been based on the The depth of a concrete slab is dependent
guidance included within The Concrete on the manner in which it spans, i.e. one-way
The primary variable that is considered, Centre’s Economic Concrete Frame or two-way, the magnitude of load being
when attempting to estimate the size of an Elements to Eurocode 2. The reader is placed upon it and the form of the frame
element prior to carrying out the detailed strongly encouraged to read this reference it sits on. If the structure is a flat slab for
design, is its span. The other factors that text alongside this Technical Guidance Note. example, then there are no beam elements
have an impact are the imposed load (or to consider, other than the beam and column
Variable Action as they are described in As well as the variables that impact strips that exist within the depth of the slab.
the Eurocodes), the super imposed dead on element size estimation described
loads (or Permanent Actions), the support previously, concrete structures have one As an initial step, it is possible to estimate
conditions and the material the element is additional variable that must be established the depth of a slab based purely on its span/
to be made from. at the very start of the size estimation depth ratio. Table 1 provides guidance on
process. That being the form the structure what these ratios are, based on the type of
Note that the following are simple 'rules is going to adopt. This can vary from one slab being considered.
of thumb' that can be used to develop way spanning slabs with down-stand beams
an appreciation of how to estimate a to pre-stressed flat slabs. Figure 1 is a
member size in a structure. By gaining a selection of the most common concrete
Table 1:
good understanding of this, the structural structural forms that are currently favoured.
engineer will become attuned to spotting Span/depth ratios for insitu
slabs (from Reynolds’s concrete
Reinforced
elements that are undersized in structures The form of the structure is determined at the
Concrete Designer’s Handbook)
before carrying out detailed design, as well concept design stage of a project. This is the
as avoid making uneconomic decisions by stage where the geometry of the structure
5 kN/m2 10 kN/m2
over sizing elements. These rules however is largely established as well as other key
Slab type Imposed Imposed
are only guidelines and should therefore not aspects of the design criteria such as soil load load
be treated as sacrosanct. conditions and the structure’s anticipated use.
Simply supported
27 24
one-way

Simply supported
30 27
two-way

Continuous
34 30
one-way
 Continuous 44 40
two-way

Cantilever 11 10

Flat slab 30 27
󰁎 Figure 1
Typical forms of concrete structure

www.thestructuralengineer.org

33

Table 2: Estimated depths of insitu concrete slabs spanning one way between down-stand beams

Span 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m

Single span thickness 150mm 175mm 225mm 250mm 300mm 350mm 450mm

Multi span thickness 125mm 150mm 175mm 200mm 250mm 300mm 325mm

Table 3: Estimated depths of insitu concrete slabs spanning one way between band-beams

Span 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m

Multi span thickness 125mm 125mm 125mm 175mm 200mm 200mm 225mm

End span thickness 125mm 125mm 150mm 175mm 200mm 250mm 275mm

Table 4: Estimated depths of insitu concrete flat slabs with no column heads

Span 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m

Multi span thickness 200mm 200mm 225mm 250mm 250mm 300mm 350mm

Table 5: Span/depth ratios for insitu concrete beams (from Reynolds’s Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook)

Beam sp
span condition Ultimate liline load 25
25 kN/m Ultimate liline lo
load 50 kN/m Ultimate liline lo
load 100 kN
kN/m

Simply supported 18 14 10

Continuous 22 17 12

Cantilever 9 7 5

Table 6: Estimated depths of insitu concrete single span T-beams (600mm wide)

Span 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m

50 kN/m UDL 250mm 300mm 350mm 400mm 500mm 575mm 675mm

100 kN/m UDL 275mm 325mm 400mm 450mm 575mm 675mm 800mm

200 kN/m UDL 325mm 375mm 450mm 525mm 650mm 775mm 925mm
 Table 7: Estimated depths of insitu concrete single span band beams (2400mm wide)

Span 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m 11m 12m

50 kN/m UDL 250mm 300mm 350mm 400mm 475mm 550mm 650mm

100 kN/m UDL 300mm 350mm 425mm 500mm 575mm 650mm 750mm

200 kN/m UDL 350mm 400mm 475mm 575mm 675mm 775mm 875mm

Note 17 Level 1

34 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
October 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Tables 2-4 are slightly more accurate column is less influenced by applied
estimated depths of one-way spanning slabs "To estimate bending moments than those located at the
for a down-stand beam structure, a band-
beam structure and a flat slab respectively. the size of the perimeter of the structure.

They assume a blanket imposed load of 2.5 To estimate the size of the column requires
2
kN/m2 and a super-imposed dead load of 1.5
kN/m for single and multi-spanning slabs. column requires
an understanding
an understanding of the interaction
between the floor structure and the
columns. This is due to the transfer of
Concrete beams
There are two varieties of concrete beams:
of the interaction bending moments from one element of the
structure to another. In the first instance
down-stand and band-beam. Down-stand
beams that form part of a solid reinforced
between the floor the axial load the column is expected to
support must be determined. In addition,
concrete frame are regarded as more
traditional. They are more diffi cult to form,
structure and the bending moments that are likely to be
applied from the floor structure are
but do create a very robust frame. Band
beams are much shallower and are therefore
columns" calculated via analysis. This will likely
include the use of moment distribution
easier to construct. and sub-frame analysis methods. This is
then cross checked against the concrete
As with concrete slabs, it is possible strength and amount of reinforcement in
to estimate the depth of a beam when the column.
considering its span/depth ratio. Table 5
provides guidance on what these ratios are, Unlike the slab and beam elements, columns
based on the type of beam structure. cannot be summarised into a series of
tables. As such the reader is directed to
The figures given in Tables 6 and 7 Economic Concrete Frame Elements to
provide more accurate estimated sizes for Eurocode 2 for further guidance.
down-stand 'T'-beams and band beams
respectively. In order to use Tables 5-7,
5-7, the Concrete stairs
reader must have calculated an ultimate The thickness or 'waist' of the stair and
line load/m length. All depths include its landings are the only elements that are
the thickness of the slab the beams designed as far as the structural engineer
are supporting. is concerned. The treads are considered
to be a super-imposed dead load i.e. a
Concrete columns finish and are not therefore reinforced. The
The elements that impact on the design criteria that have an impact on the design of
of concrete columns are the magnitude of stairs are the imposed load, their span and
axial loads and bending moments being whether or not they have multiple spans.
applied to them and their length. Bending Table 8 is for an insitu concrete staircase
moments are dependent on pattern with an imposed load of 2 kN/m 2, which
loading within the structure. The strength is typical for residential use. Table 9 is for
of concrete can also alter their size with staircases that support an imposed load
higher axial loads benefiting from increased of 4 kN/m2. These are more commonly
concrete strength. The location within the found in commercial buildings such as
structure is also important, as an internal offices and
a nd hotels.
hot els.

Table 8: Estimated depths of waists to insitu concrete staircases with an imposed load of 2 kN/m 2

Span 2m 3m 4m 5m 6m

Single span waist thickness 100mm 125mm 175mm 200mm 250mm

Multi span waist thickness 100mm 100mm 150mm 175mm 200mm

 Table 9: Estimated depths of waists to insitu concrete staircases with an imposed load of 4 kN/m 2

Span 2m 3m 4m 5m 6m

Single span waist thickness 100mm 150mm 175mm 225mm 250mm

Multi span waist thickness 100mm 125mm 150mm 175mm 200mm

www.thestructuralengineer.org

35

Table 10: Span/depth ratio tables for steel beams located in the floor and roof (from Tata Steel Europe website)

Type of beam Maximum floor span Depth of floor beam Maximum roof span Depth of roof beam

Primary beams 15m Span/20 15m Span/25

Secondary beams 12m Span/25 15m Span/25

Estimating sizes of steel elements

Steel structures are less complex than
Table 11: "Steel structures
Column size estimate based on storey
their concrete brethren when estimating
their size. They are typically simply
of structure (from section 5.3 of The are less complex
supported structures and hence do not
have the bending moment transfer issues
Institution of Structural Engineers’
Manual for the design of Steel than their
that are prevalent in concrete design. The
exceptions to these are portal and sway
Structures to Eurocode 3)
concrete brethren
frames, which do transmit moments through
their connections. It is thanks to this that
Number
of
Column when estimating
size
the rules-of-thumb for steel beams can be storeys their size"
summarised into Table 10. 10.
3 203x203 UC
With regard to columns, their size is
5 254x254 UC
dependent on the number of storeys they
have to support, from which an initial size can Glossary and
8 305X305 UC further reading
be established. Table 11 is a rough guide to
column sizes based on the height of structure
8-12 356X356 UC
they are supporting for braced structures. Span/Depth ratio – The ratio between
the span of an element and its overall depth

Waist – The thickness of a staircase

Worked example Further Reading

The Concrete Centre (2009) Economic
Concrete Frame Elements to Eurocode
A concrete structure with a column layout of 8m x 6m is to support an imposed load
2 Camberley, Surrey: Mineral Products
of 2.5 kN/m2. Estimate the depth of floor slab if a down-stand beam and a flat slab
Association
structural solution were adopted. In addition, for the down-stand beam structure,
determine the estimated beam depth for a 600mm wide beam.
Reynolds, C.E. et.al (2007) Reynolds’s
Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook
11th ed. CRC Press

The Institution of Structural Engineers

(2010) Manual for the design of steelwork
structures to Eurocode 3 London: Institution
of Structural Engineers

Eurocode 0.
Web
resources

The Institution of Structural Engineers library:

www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library
 Tata Steel Europe:
www.tatasteelconstruction.com/
en/reference/teaching_resources/
architectural_studio_reference/elements/
design_of_beams_structural_steel/
estimating_sizes/

The Concrete Centre:

www.concretecentre.com/

Note 18 Level 1

36 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
November 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Design of timber floor joists

Introduction ICON 󲀢 Design principles
One of the most common structural elements is the timber floor joist. This LEGEND
is normally found in residential properties, but can also be seen in medium
sized commercial developments. This Technical Guidance Note will w ill explain 󲀢 Applied practice
practice
the principles behind the design of timber floor joists and provide a worked
example. All of the advice given will be in accordance with BS EN 1995-1-1
Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures – Part 1-1: General – Common 󲀢 Worked example
rules and rules for buildings.

󲀢 Further reading

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) joists as Member sizes

Design principles they are beyond the scope of this note. Timber joists are cut to pre-defined sizes
and are limited in their length from a range of
Timber floor joist strength 1.8m to 5.4m. It is possible to have lengths
Timber is a natural material and is variable grades and classes of up to 7.2m however, but they do come
both in strength and stiffness. The strength Softwood timber can be visually graded at a premium due to their paucity. These
and stiffness of a piece of timber depends to General Structural (GS) and Special lengths are subdivided into increments
on its species, where it was grown, the Structural (SS) grades. These grades are of 0.3m. In regards to cross-section size,
rate of growth, the number of ‘defects’ then allocated to a particular Strength Table 2 provides a list of the most commonly
(e.g. knots) and the angle of the grain. In Class. With respect to timber floor joists, available sections, with both machined and
order to make effective structural use of in the UK they are typically sawn from GS sawn timber sizes shown. It is possible to
timber it needs to be graded and allocated and SS softwoods and are graded in two specify timber sizes of up to 300mm deep,
directly or indirectly to a strength class. The strength classes respectively: C16 and C24. but these are difficult and expensive to
strength of a piece of timber also depends C16 is the more common grade but weaker acquire. Figure 1 provides guidance on the
on its moisture content and structural class and is therefore easier and cheaper nomenclature used for timber elements,
timber should be installed when its moisture to procure. C24 is a little stronger, but more which are referred to throughout this note.
content is similar to that experienced during expensive and is generally used where
growth. Allowances have to be made for restrictions such as geometry and depth of
this moisture content when the structure is floor construction play a significant part in
designed. the design of the structure. An example of
such an instance would be joists that have
It should be noted that this Technical long spans or a trimming beam around a
Guidance Note is solely concerned with large void.
the design of solid timber floor joists and
not other forms of compound timber floor The material properties of C16 and C24
joists available. This includes Glulam and timber are given in Table 1.
1.

Table 1: Material properties of softwood timber grades C16 and C24

Properties C16 C24

 Characteristic bending strength (N/mm2) – fm,k 16 24

Characteristic shear strength (N/mm2) – fv,k 3.2 4.0

Parallel mean modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) – E0,mean 8000 11000

Mean density (kg/m3) 370 420

Characteristic density (kg/m3) 310 350

󲀢Nomenclature
Figure 1
for timber elements

www.thestructuralengineer.org

37

Deformation
Table 2: Common sizes of timber floor joists
The elastic properties of a timber structure
depend on the moisture content of the
Sawn depth Sawn width Machined depth Machined width timber and consequently the deflection
(h) mm (b) mm (h) mm (b) mm will be dependent on the service class.
To take this into account the factor kdef is
15 0 25 14 5 22 applied to the elastic modulus properties
of the timber. Table 4 defines these values.
175 38 170 35

200 47 1 95 44 Table 4: Values of kdef for solid timber joists

225 63 220 60
Service
1 2 3
class
250 75 245 72

kdef 0.6 0.8 2.00

Exposure conditions • Short term – less than 1 week e.g.
Timber is a hygroscopic material that snow loads, maintenance access and
absorbs/releases moisture from/to its accidental loads Enhancement due to shallow
surrounding environment depending on the • Instantaneous – fractions of a second e.g. member size
amount of moisture in that environment. As wind, impact and explosive loads The way that the grading rules for structural
the strength and stiffness properties are timber work, means that for joists less than
dependent on the moisture content, it is The figures given in Table 3 provide the 150mm in depth, some enhancement of the
necessary to account for the environment values for the factor kmod , which is the factor strength is allowed.
around the timber. Three service classes that is applied to the strength properties of
have been defined. Examples of typical timber and is based on the imposed load To reflect this, a modification factor kh is
environments and the respective service (variable action) duration. Note that in the applied to bending strength of the timber. If a
class are: case of load combinations the load condition member is less than or equal to 150mm deep
• Service class 1 – intermediate floors, warm with the shortest time period defines the and has a material density of less than 700
roofs, internal and party timber frame walls value of kmod . When designing timber kg/m3, then kh factor is defined thus:
• Service class 2 – ground floors, cold roofs, elements it is important to check for all
timber frame walls that are against the outer
skin of cladding and all other instances
conditions and to design the element based
on the most critical. These conditions along
kh = a 150
h
k 0.2
(1)

where the timber is protected from direct with their respective kmod values are: or 1.3 whichever is the lesser.
exposure to water • Permanent loads with kmod = 0.6

• Service class 3 – external, fully exposed • Permanent loads + long term loads For all members that are greater than
with kmod = 0.7 150mm deep, the value of kh is taken to
Load duration • Permanent loads + long term loads + be 1.0.
The strength of a piece of timber is medium term loads with k = 0.8
mod
dependent of the duration of the load. The • Permanent loads + long term loads + Load sharing
longer the duration of the load the higher the medium term loads + short term loads Timber floor joists are generally placed at
strength of timber that must be provided in with kmod = 0.9 fairly close centres with decking/boarding
order to resist that load. To this end there • Permanent loads + long term loads + across them which will distribute load
are a number of factors that are applied to medium term loads + short term loads + between the joists. To account for this,
the characteristic properties of the timber instantaneous loads with kmod = 1 the modification factor ksys is applied to
as defined in Table 1. 1. The UK National Annex characteristic strength properties of the
to Eurocode BS EN 1995-1-
1995-1-11 classifies load For timber floor joists within a building the timber joist which enhances its resistance to
durations as follows: typical critical condition is the imposed bending and shear stress. Provided the floor
• Permanent – more than 10 years, e.g. self- floor load with the self-weight of the joists boards/boarding has staggered connections
weight including finishes and super-imposed dead load. This load and are continuous over at least two spans,
• Long term – 6 months to 10 years e.g. condition results in a value of kmod of 0.8 the value of ksys is taken to be 1.1. In all other
storage loading as it is subject to an imposed load, which instances the value of ksys is taken to be 1.0.
• Medium term – 1 week to 6 months e.g. is defined as medium term, as well as
imposed floor loads self-weight. Lateral torsional buckling of
 timber joists
In most instances the risk of lateral torsional
buckling affecting a floor joist is not present.
Table 3: Values of kmod for solid timber joists
This is due to the existence of a floor
finish that the joists are supporting acting
S er
ervic
vice class Permanen
entt Long term Medium term Shor
ortt term Instantaneous
as a restraint. In the rare condition where
the compression face of floor joists is not
1&2 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.10
restrained against bending induced torsional
3 0.5 0.55 0.65 0.7 0.9 rotation, then the factor kcrit is applied to
the bending capacity of the joist. For more

Note 18 Level 1

38 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
November 2012 Technical Guidance Note

information on this, the reader is directed Design bending strength is defined as: Serviceability
to clause 6.3.3 of BS EN 1995-1-1, which k h $ k crit $ k mod $ k sys $ fm, k The deflections of timber joists should be
describes the derivation of kcrit. fm,y,d = (5) limited so that any brittle finishes they’re
cM
supporting are not damaged. Table 5
Applied bending stress Design shear strength is defined as: provides guidance on the vertical deflection
The applied bending stress to floor joists k mod $ k sys $ fv, k (6)
limits for joists that are based on the
is associated to its major axis, which is fv,d = characteristic imposed loads (variable
cM
described as ‘y-y’ in Figure 1.
1. To determine actions) and dead loads (permanent
the design bending stress, the design The value of fv,d is then multiplied against the actions) that are being applied to the
bending moment is calculated based on effective depth and width of the timber floor floor joists.
the applied loads and support conditions joist at the point of support. This is compared
of the joist as well as its geometry. The against the applied design shear the timber Creep must also be considered for timber
equation for determining the design joist has to support. In order to take
take into elements as it is a significant factor when
bending stress (σm,y,d) to a timber joist account cracking within the timber, the width assessing serviceability limits. To allow for
is as follows: of the joist is reduced via factor kcr which for this, the instantaneous deflection due to the
M y,d solid timber members is taken as 0.67.
0.67. permanent loads is increased by a factor
v m,y,d = (2)
Wy
Where:
My,d is the design bending moment Worked example
Wy is the elastic modulus of the joist, defined as:
2

Wy = bh
6
(3) A timber floor is to span 4.8m and is supporting a characteristic imposed floor load of
2.5kN/m2. The joists are placed at 400mm spacing and have timber boards fixed on top
that have a self-weight of 0.15kN/m2. The presence of these boards provides full lateral
Applied shear stress
stress restraint to the timber floor joists as well as allowing for load sharing between floor joists.
For a simply supported joist the design The finish to the floor is brittle. Check to see if a 250mm x 75mm C16 timber joist can
maximum shear force is equal to the design support this load.
reaction. In the case of timber the maximum
design shear stress (not average shear
stress) needs to be checked against the
design shear resistance. The maximum
design shear stress of a rectangular section
is calculated using:
3V d
xd = (4)
2bh
Where:
V is the design applied shear force
h dis the depth of section under consideration
at the point of support
b is the width of the section under
consideration

If the beam is notched on the same side as

the support, the design shear resistance
can be considerably reduced and is a detail
which should be avoided if possible.

Partial factor due to material variances

Like all materials used as structural
elements, timber has a partial factor, which
is applied to its strength properties due to
variances within it. In the case of solid timber
elements, the partial factor has a value of 1.3.

Bending strength and shear strength

Once the applied forces and subsequent
stresses are determined, the design bending
and shear strengths of the timber joist
need to be calculated. These are compared
against the applied design stresses in order
to determine the acceptability of the chosen
joist size and strength grade.

www.thestructuralengineer.org

39

(1+kdef ). The instantaneous deflection Timber joist span tables

Table 5: Deflection limits for for imposed (variable) load is increased by It is possible to refer to timber joist span
solid timber joists a factor (1+ψ2,1kdef ), assuming only one tables for sizing of joists, such as those
variable load. The sum of these deflections, included in Table
Table 7 of BS 8103:3 2009. These
Use Deflection limit less any precamber, provides the overall tables however are limited to imposed loads

Brittle finishes deflection due to bending. of 1.5 kN/m2.

e.g. plasterboard, Span/250
There is also the issue of deflection due to Alternatively it is possible to use the
ceilings, walls
shear. This is rarely a critical condition, but it Eurocode 5 Span Tables, that have been
is prudent to add 10% to the overall deflection developed by TRADA. These have a similar
No brittle finishes
Span/150 to arrive at a final value to allow for it. set of tables, but again are limited to imposed
e.g. roofs
loads of no greater than 1.5 kN/m 2.
Additionally floor joists should be checked
Accidental to ensure that their vibration performance is Eurocode 0.
Span/20
e.g. during a fire acceptable, this can be of concern with joists Applied practice
practice
which span is in excess of 4.0m.

BS EN 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5: Design of

Timber Structures – Part 1-1: General –
Common rules and rules for buildings

BS EN 1995-1-1 UK National Annex to

Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures –
Part 1-1: General – Common rules and rules
for buildings

BS EN 336 2009: Structural Timber –

Sizes, permitted deviations

BS EN 338 2009: Structural Timber –

Strength classes

BS 8103:3 2009: Structural Design of Low-

rise Buildings Part 3: Code of practice for
timber floors and roofs for housing

Glossary and
further reading

Hygroscopic – Moisture absorbing.

Modification factors – Factors that

are applied to the characteristic material
properties of timber elements.

Precamber – A forced deformation of a

member that reduces the effect of deflection
following the application of loads.

Further Reading
The Institution of Structural Engineers/
TRADA (2010) Manual for the design of
timber building structures to Eurocode
 5 London: The Institution of Structural

Engineers/TRADA
TRADA (2009) Eurocode 5 span tables
for solid timber members (3rd ed.) High
Wycombe: TRADA

Porteous, J. and Kermani, A. (2007)

Structural Timber Design to Eurocode 5
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons

Note 19 Level 1

40 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
November 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Soil bearing capacity

Introduction ICON 󲀢 Design principles
When designing foundations for a structure there is a need to determine LEGEND
the bearing capacity of the soil. This applies to all forms of foundation,
󲀢 Applied practice
practice
from a simple pad footing to a pile cap. The bearing stress capacity of
the soil is the key variable that has a direct impact on the form and size of
foundations. This Technical Guidance Note explains the principles of how 󲀢 Worked example

bearing capacity of soils are determined and how it impacts on the design
of foundations. 󲀢 Further reading

󲀢 Web resources

Table 1: Common types of soil and their bearing c

capacity
apacity characteristics
Design principles
Soil type Description Typical foundation
The bearing capacity of a soil is dependent
Most commonly has a high bearing Reinforced pad foundation that
upon its structure, moisture content and
capacity; its weakness lies with any serves more to fix the sub-
Rock the type of foundation that is placed upon
fissures that exist within its make-up and structure to the rock strata rather
its weathering state than spread its load it. It is important therefore to be familiar
with the various types of soil that can be
These are non-cohesive course soils encountered. From simply knowing the soil
that tend to be mixed with sand. They type, it is possible to develop reasonable
Pad foundations due to the high
have a high bearing capacity and low design solutions for any given sub-structure.
bearing capacity. Piling is
Gravel compressibility. The presence of ground There are essentially five different types
rare in these types of soils as it
water can reduce its bearing capacity by of soil and/or strata (some of which have
is often not needed
half and the soil’s relative density also has
further sub-divisions) that have an impact
an impact on its bearing capacity
on the design of foundations. Table 1
summarises these soils.
Similar to gravel
soils also have ainhigh
many respects,
bearing sandy
capacity
and low compressibility. Where it is loosely Foundation types
compacted however, there is a risk of There are five core types of foundations
Sand Similar to gravel
significant settlement as load is applied. that are used within sub-structures. Most
Like gravel, the presence of ground water are built using concrete, both mass and
has a detrimental effect on both the soil’s reinforced, but it is possible to use steel
bearing capacity and relative density
sections as piles. Figure 1 shows these types
Clays are soils that are made up of very of foundations.
small particles and are described as
‘cohesive’. They typically have a lower Methods of assessing soil properties
Pad foundations to light 1-2
bearing capacity than non-cohesive soils Geotechnical engineering has a reputation
storey structures and then piled
and compress when placed under load, for being imprecise due to the variable
foundations for all other forms
which can occur over a long period
peri od of nature of soil and its interaction with
Clay of structure. In cases where
time, causing settlement. This is countered substructures placed upon it. To counter this
settlement is undesirable e.g.
when they are over-consolidated at which BS EN 1997-1 – Eurocode 7: Geotechnical
extensions to existing structures,
 point their properties are very similar Design – Part 1 General Rules describes the
piling may be necessary
to that of sand. Water has a significant
impact on clay soils with its properties four differing methods that can be applied to
the properties of soil. All of them are equally
sensitive to the level of moisture content
valid, with the major difference being that
Silt have a relatively high bearing capacity It is rare for structures to be some produce more efficient solutions than
when confined, but their underlying directly founded upon silt due to others due to greater degrees of accuracy
structure breaks down its unpredictable nature. When of modelling the soil conditions.
Silt
when exposed to water. Silts can retain encountered, a piling solution is
volumes of water that can
ca n freeze, adopted that passes through the Geotechnical design by calculation
causing the soil to heave silt into a more solid strata This method is reliant on the quality of data

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41

responses to the data being delivered, cu;d is the design un-drained shear strength
󲀢Figure 1
Typical types of foundation
in order to prevent delays during the bc is the base inclination factor, if it is
substructure works. This method is unlikely placed on sloping ground
retrieved from geotechnical investigations to provide a practical approach to the sc is the shape factor of the foundation
carried out on the prospective site. majority of foundation designs and is not ic is the load inclination factor
Assumptions are made based on this data recommended for designing substructures q is the overburden pressure at the base of
and in some instances simplifications will for buildings. For a more comprehensive the foundation
need to be applied to the calculation model description see Clause 2.7 of BS EN 1997-1.
that can lead to conservative results. For The effective area is based on how the load
more details on this method see Clause 2.4 Regardless of the method of soil analysis is applied to the foundation. If the load is
of BS EN 1997-1. adopted, all results must be interpreted by eccentric to the centre of the foundation,
a suitably qualified geotechnical engineer, then the area over which the load is applied
Geotechnical design by prescriptive which can then be passed onto the designer to the soil from the foundation, is reduced.
measures of the substructure. For the purposes of this note however, the
In instances where the soil conditions of assumption of all loads acting normal to the
the site are well known, it is possible to Determining un-drained soil design base with no eccentricity, will be made.
prepare a set of parameters against which bearing capacity
any sub-structure can be designed. Due to BS EN 1997-1
1997-1 states that the ultimate bearing The design un-drained shear strength is
the generalised nature of this method, it’s resistance of the soil must be greater than defined as:
common for it to produce conservatively the applied bearing pressure from the
c u:k
designed solutions. For more information substructure. In numerical terms this is c u;d = c cu
(3)
see Clause 2.5 of BS EN 1997-1.
1997-1. expressed thus:
(1)
Where:
Geotechnical design based on load tests Vd # R d cu;k is the undrained shear strength of the
and experimental models soil, which is a measured property
In addition to geotechnical investigations Where: γ is the partial factor for the undrained
uc
that focus on the soil type and location Vd is the design vertical load, that is acting shear strength
of the water table, it is possible to carry normal to the foundation’s base.
out tests to determine the soil’s bearing Rd is the design bearing resistance of the soil. The overburden pressure is the vertical
capacity. These tests provide unique results effective weight of the soil that is located
for that particular site and thus are more There are two equations for calculating base above the strata level where the foundation
accurate than making assumptions based on bearing capacity of a given soil. They are is to be installed.
data collected from a standard investigation. dependent on the condition of the soil, which
This approach typically results in economical is referred to as ‘drained’ or ‘un-drained’.
‘ un-drained’. This note does not cover bases on inclined
design solutions due to the accuracy of the For cohesive soils such as clay, un-drained slopes for the sake of simplicity. Hence the
data. Load tests however need to be at the design approach applies when placed under base inclination and load inclination factors
correct scale to ensure the test mirrors the a short term load, as the force would be are not discussed.
proposed foundation, which can prove to be resisted by pore pressure rather than the
expensive. See Clause 2.6 of BS EN 1997-1.
1997-1. grains that form the soil. Determining drained soil design
Determining
bearing capacity
Geotechnical design based on observation For un-drained soil Rd is defined thus: In the case of drained soils, reliance can be
In instances where it is not possible to placed on the friction between the particles
Rd
predict how the soil will interact with a
proposed substructure, it is possible to A' = (r + 2) c u;d $ b c $ s c $ i c + q (2) within the soil. As such the equation for
determining bearing capacity includes the
apply an observational based method Where: factors that are influenced by the angle of
of design. This requires the design of A’ is the effective base area of the foundation friction (φ)
the substructure to be altered as new
data is revealed about the soil during the For drained soil, Rd is defined thus:
construction of the foundations. Careful
Rd
A' = c' d $ Nc $ b c $ s c $ i c + q' $ N q $ b q $ s q $ i q + 2 $ c' $ B' $ N $ b $ s $ i
1 (4)
monitoring is needed throughout the c c c c

construction process, as well as quick

Note 19 Level 1

42 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
November 2012 Technical Guidance Note

Where: ic , iq and iγ are load inclination factors Combination 1: Permanent load x 1.35 +
c’d is the design effective cohesion Variable load x 1.5 matched with set ‘M1’
q’ is the overburden pressure at the base of For the sake of simplicity the inclination of properties. This is described as Set B in BS
the foundation base and load are not considered here. EN 1990.
γ’ is the effective weight density of the
t he soil
at the strata level of the foundation Partial factors to soil properties Combination 2: Permanent load x 1.00 +
bc , bq and bγ are base inclination factors BS EN 1997-1 requires all material properties Variable load x 1.3 matched with set ‘M2’
sc , sq and sγ are shape factors – see Table 2 of soils to have a partial factor applied to properties. This is described as Set C in BS
for derivation them. This is due to the adoption of limit EN 1990.
Nc , Nq and Nγ are the bearing capacity factors state theory to the design of substructures.
(Table 3).
3). They are the soil cohesion, There are two sets of factors that need The load set providing the worst condition is
vertical effective stress and buoyant to be applied to the material based on deemed to be the design case.
density factors respectively the applied load combination that is being
considered. In the UK the following load Table 4 lists the values of the partial factors
combinations are used: for material properties mentioned in this note.
Table 2: Shape factors for drained soil
bearing capacity

Foundation Shape Equation in

factor degrees
Worked example
shape

sq 1 + (B’ / L’ ) sin φ’d A pad foundation measuring 0.75m x 0.75m with a thickness of 500mm is to be placed on
a site with a sand/gravel soil. The water table is 3m below ground level and footings are
Rectangle sγ 1 – 0.3 (B’/L’ )
founded 1.5m below ground level. The load combinations onto the pad footing are
750 kN/m2 for Combination 1 and 385 kN/m2 for Combination 2. Determine whether the
sc (sq Nq – 1)/(Nq – 1)
1)
soil can accommodate this applied bearing pressure.
sq 1 + sin φ’d
Soil Properties: φ’ = 30º, γ’ = 17 kN/m3, c’=0
Square or
sγ 0.7
circle
sc (sq Nq – 1)/(Nq – 1)
1)

*Note: B’ and L’ are effective width and length of the foundation

and φ’d is the design value for the angle of friction of the soil.

Table 3: Bearing
Bea ring capacity factors

φ’d (in degrees) Nq Nc Nγ

0 1 5.14 0

16 4 11 1

18 5 13 2

20 6 14 3

22 7 16 5

24 9 19 7

26 11 2
22
2 1
10
0

28 14 2
25
5 1
14
4

30 18 3
30
0 2
20
0
 32 23 3
35
5 2
27
7

34 29 4
42
2 3
38
8

36 37 5
50
0 5
53
3

38 48 6
61
1 7
74
4

40 64 75 106

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43

As a general rule, if the ratio of design

Table 4: Partial factors for soil properties
bearing capacity against the applied
Glossary and
characteristic load is equal to or greater
further reading
Soi
Soil prop
oper
erty
ty M1 fac
acto
tors
rs M2 fa
fact
ctor
ors
s
than 3, then no assessment of settlement is
*γ 1 1.25
required. Note that this rule only applies to Bearing pressure – The pressure on the
φ’ clay soils. ground resulting from applied loads.
γc’ 1 1.25
If however the loading parameters do not Bearingresistance – The capacity of soil
γcu 1 1.4 meet this criteria then a settlement analysis to resist bearing pressure.
of the foundations are required. This is a
γqu 1 1.4 complex task and as such is beyond the Overburden pressure – The pressure at
scope of this note. which the level of the proposed foundation is
*This partial factor is applied to {' k using to be founded at within the soil.
the following equation:
Eurocode 0. Soil properties – Measured properties of
{' d = Tan -1 c Tan ' m
{
c {'
k
(5)
practice
Applied practice
soil based on geotechnical investigations.

All other partial factors are applied as a The applicable codes of practice for Further Reading
denominator for the relevant soil properties. determining bearing capacity of soil are: Tomlinson, M. J. (2001) Foundation Design
and Construction 7th ed. New Jersey:
Displacement and settlement of BS EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of Design Prentice Hall
foundations
In addition to determining the design BS EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Eurocode 0.
bearing capacity of soil, it is also Design – Part 1 General Rules Web resources
necesary to determine the settlement of
the foundations. This is done by using BS EN 1997-1 UK National Annex to
serviceability limit state principles that rely Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design – Part 1 The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
on the application of characteristic loads. General Rules www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

Errata
Technical Guidance Note 15,
Level 1 – Moment distribution:
The application of the spring
support in the worked example
was incorrectly modelled.
The corrected analysis is shown
in the following calculations and
figures: