Module 1: Introduction to Computer Networks

1.1 What is a Network?

A network is a system that allows multiple devices (computers, phones,

servers, etc.) to communicate and share resources. These devices are
connected using wired (cables) or wireless (radio waves) methods to
enable data exchange.

Real-World Example:

 When you send an email, it travels through a network before

reaching the recipient.

 Web browsing involves sending a request to a remote server, which

responds with a webpage.

Key Terms:

 Node: Any device connected to a network (e.g., computers, printers,

routers).

 Link: The physical or logical connection between devices.

1.2 History and Evolution of Networking

Networking has evolved over decades to become the high-speed,

global system we use today.

Key Milestones:

Year Development

ARPANET (First computer network) developed by the U.S.

1960s
Department of Defense.

1970s Ethernet invented by Xerox for wired communication.

1980s TCP/IP became the standard for global networking.

1990s The World Wide Web (WWW) revolutionized communication.

Wi-Fi & Mobile Networks (3G, 4G) enabled wireless

2000s
connectivity.
Year Development

2010s- 5G, IoT, and Cloud Computing transformed the networking

Present landscape.

1.3 Goals and Benefits of Networking

Goals of Networking:

1. Resource Sharing: Printers, storage, and files can be accessed by

multiple users.

2. Communication: Email, video conferencing, and messaging are

possible.

3. Efficiency: Tasks are automated, reducing redundancy.

4. Security & Control: Networks can restrict access to unauthorized

users.

Benefits of Networking:

✅ Cost Reduction: One printer can serve multiple users.

✅ Faster Access to Information: Data is shared instantly.
✅ Remote Access: Employees can work from anywhere.
✅ Improved Collaboration: Teams can work on projects in real-time.

1.4 Components of a Network

A computer network consists of various components, categorized as

hardware and software.

1.4.1 Network Hardware Components

Component Description Example

Devices that send and

Computers (Hosts) Laptops, Desktops, Servers
receive data.

Networking Manage traffic and

Routers, Switches, Hubs
Devices connections.

Transmission Physical medium for data Cables (Ethernet, Fiber) &

Media transfer. Wireless Signals
Component Description Example

Network Interface Enables a device to

Ethernet or Wi-Fi Adapter
Card (NIC) connect to a network.

1.4.2 Network Software Components

Component Description Example

Network Operating Manages network Windows Server,

System (NOS) functions. Linux

Rules for
Protocols TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP
communication.

1.5 Types of Networks

Networks are classified based on their size, range, and purpose.

1.5.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Covers a small area like an office, home, or school.

 Uses Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi for connectivity.

 Example: Computers in a university lab connected via a router.

1.5.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Covers a large geographical area (e.g., a country or the world).

 Uses fiber optics, satellite, or leased lines.

 Example: The Internet is the largest WAN.

1.5.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Covers a city or large campus.

 Faster than WAN but smaller in scale.

 Example: A city-wide broadband network.

1.5.4 Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Connects devices around an individual (usually within a few

meters).

 Uses Bluetooth, USB, or Wi-Fi.

  Example: A smartwatch connected to a smartphone.

Comparison Table of Network Types

Network
Coverage Area Example
Type

Small (Office,
LAN Office Wi-Fi
Home)

Large (Country,
WAN The Internet
Global)

Medium (City,
MAN City Broadband
Campus)

Very Small Bluetooth

PAN
(Personal) Devices

1.6 Wired vs. Wireless Networks

Networks can be classified based on how devices are physically

connected.

1.6.1 Wired Networks

 Uses physical cables (Ethernet, fiber optics).

 Advantages:
✅ High speed (up to 10 Gbps).
✅ More secure than wireless.
✅ Stable connection with minimal interference.

 Disadvantages:
❌ Less flexible (devices must be connected via cables).

1.6.2 Wireless Networks

 Uses radio waves for communication (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

 Advantages:
✅ No cables required (greater mobility).
✅ Easier to expand the network.
  Disadvantages:
❌ Prone to interference (walls, signals from other devices).
❌ Security risks (easier to hack than wired networks).

Comparison Table

Featur Wireles
Wired
e s

Speed Faster Slower

Securit Moderat
High
y e

Mobilit
Low High
y

High (Cables,
Cost Lower
Setup)

1.7 Real-World Applications of Networking

Computer networks are used in almost every industry.

Industry Application

Healthcar Hospitals use networks to store patient records

e securely.

Banking ATMs and online transactions use secured networks.

Education Online learning platforms and digital classrooms.

Companies use email, cloud storage, and video

Business
conferencing.

Social Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram run on global

Media networks.

Conclusion & Key Takeaways

📌 A network allows devices to communicate and share resources.

📌 Networks evolved from ARPANET to modern Wi-Fi and 5G.
📌 LAN, WAN, MAN, and PAN are the primary types of networks.
📌 Wired networks offer stability, while wireless networks provide
mobility.
📌 Networking is essential in healthcare, banking, education, and
business.

Self-Assessment Quiz

1️. What is the main difference between LAN and WAN?

2️. Why is Ethernet faster and more secure than Wi-Fi?
3️. Give two advantages and two disadvantages of wireless networks.
4️. What is an example of a Personal Area Network (PAN)?
5️. How is networking used in healthcare?
Here's the detailed and self-explanatory content for Module 2:
Network Models & Communication.

Module 2: Network Models & Communication

2.1 Introduction to Network Models

A network model is a conceptual framework that defines how data is

transmitted, received, and processed in a network.

Why Are Network Models Important?

 They standardize communication between different devices.

 They ensure interoperability (devices from different manufacturers

can communicate).

 They help in troubleshooting network issues systematically.

There are two major network models:

1. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)

2. TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

2.2 The OSI Model

The OSI Model is a theoretical framework that describes how data

flows through a network in 7 layers.

7 Layers of the OSI Model

Layer Layer
Function Example
No. Name

Applicatio Provides user interfaces

7 Gmail, Chrome, Skype
n (emails, browsers)

Presentati
6 Formats and encrypts data JPEG, MP4, SSL, TLS
on

Manages sessions and Login sessions, Remote

5 Session
connections Desktop

Ensures error-free data

4 Transport TCP, UDP
transfer

Handles IP addressing and

3 Network IP, Routers
routing

Manages MAC addresses,

2 Data Link Ethernet, MAC Address
error detection

Transmits raw bits over Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi

1 Physical
cables signals

How OSI Layers Work Together

When you send an email, data passes through each OSI layer:
1️⃣ Application Layer: You type and send an email.
2️⃣ Presentation Layer: The email is formatted (e.g., in HTML).
3️⃣ Session Layer: The email session is established.
4️⃣ Transport Layer: The email is divided into packets and sent via TCP.
5️⃣ Network Layer: Each packet gets an IP address and is routed.
6️⃣ Data Link Layer: The packet is given a MAC address.
7️⃣ Physical Layer: The packet is transmitted as electrical signals through
cables or Wi-Fi.

2.3 The TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP Model is a practical model used on the Internet. It has 4

layers instead of 7.

4 Layers of TCP/IP
Layer Equivalent in OSI Example
Layer Name
No. Model Protocols

4 Application OSI Layers 7, 6, 5 HTTP, SMTP, FTP

3 Transport OSI Layer 4 TCP, UDP

2 Internet OSI Layer 3 IP, ICMP

Network
1 OSI Layers 2 & 1 Ethernet, Wi-Fi
Access

Comparison: OSI vs. TCP/IP

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Number of
7 4
Layers

Practical (Used in real-world

Usage Theoretical
networks)

No fixed
Main Protocol TCP/IP
protocol

Flexibility Rigid Flexible

📌 Key Takeaway: The TCP/IP model is more widely used because it is

practical and forms the backbone of the Internet.

2.4 Data Encapsulation & Decapsulation

What is Encapsulation?

 Encapsulation is the process of adding headers (control information)

to data as it moves down the OSI or TCP/IP layers.

 Each layer adds its own header containing specific information.

Encapsulation Example (Sending an Email)

1️⃣ Application Layer: Adds the email content.

2️⃣ Transport Layer: Adds TCP headers (sequence numbers).
3️⃣ Network Layer: Adds IP addresses.
4️⃣ Data Link Layer: Adds MAC addresses.
5️⃣ Physical Layer: Transmits the email as bits over a cable.
What is Decapsulation?

 When the email reaches the recipient, decapsulation occurs:

o Each layer removes its header as the data moves up the OSI
model.

o Finally, the Application Layer presents the email to the user.

📝 Analogy: Think of encapsulation like wrapping a gift in a box. Each layer

adds a different wrapping layer. Decapsulation is like unwrapping it to get
the gift inside! 🎁

2.5 Types of Network Communication

Data is transmitted in three main ways:

1️⃣ Unicast Communication (One-to-One)

 Data is sent from one device to another specific device.

 Example: Sending an email to a friend.

2️⃣ Broadcast Communication (One-to-All)

 Data is sent from one device to all devices in the network.

 Example: A router sending an ARP request to find a MAC address.

3️⃣ Multicast Communication (One-to-Many)

 Data is sent to multiple devices but not everyone.

 Example: A live-streamed church service to a select group.

Comparison Table

Communication
Destination Example
Type

Unicast One device Private email

Broadcast All devices ARP request

Selected Video
Multicast
devices conferencing
2.6 Protocols Used in Networking

A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is transmitted and

received.

Common Network Protocols

Protocol Function Example Use

HTTP/
Web browsing Visiting a website
HTTPS

Uploading files to a
FTP File transfer
server

SMTP/
Email sending/receiving Gmail, Outlook
POP3

TCP Reliable data delivery Downloading files

Fast but unreliable data

UDP Online gaming
transfer

Internet
IP Routing packets
communication

📌 Key Takeaway: TCP ensures reliability (data arrives correctly), while

UDP prioritizes speed (data may be lost but is fast).

2.7 Summary & Key Takeaways

✅ Network models help standardize communication.

✅ The OSI model has 7 layers; TCP/IP has 4 layers.
✅ Encapsulation adds headers; decapsulation removes them.
✅ Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast define data transmission
methods.
✅ Common protocols like HTTP, FTP, and TCP govern data transfer.

Self-Assessment Quiz

1️⃣ What is the difference between the OSI and TCP/IP models?
2️⃣ Why is encapsulation important in networking?
3️⃣ Give an example of Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast communication.
4️⃣ What are the main functions of the Transport Layer?
5️⃣ Why is TCP more reliable than UDP?