Cambridge AS Level Physics Revision Notes

1 Electricity
1.1 9.1 Electric Current
1. Electric Current as Flow of Charge Carriers
Electric current is defined as the rate at which electric charge flows past a point in a
circuit. In metals the charge carriers are typically electrons; in electrolytes they are ions;
and in semiconductors both electrons and holes (positive charge carriers) contribute.

2. Quantised Charge
Charge is quantised, meaning it exists in discrete packets. The smallest unit of charge is
the elementary charge (1.6 × 10−19 C). All charges are integer multiples of this value.

3. Relationship: Q = It
The total charge Q passing a point is given by:

Q = It

where I is the current (in amperes, A) and t is the time (in seconds, s).
Example: If a current of 2 A flows for 5 s, then Q = 2 × 5 = 10 C.

4. Microscopic Expression for Current: I = Anvq

The current in a conductor can be related to the microscopic properties by:

I = Anvq

where A is the cross-sectional area (m2 ), n is the number density of charge carriers (per
m3 ), v is the average drift velocity (m/s), and q is the charge per carrier. This links the
macroscopic current to the motion of individual charge carriers.

1.2 9.2 Potential Difference and Power

1. Potential Difference (p.d.)
The potential difference (or voltage) is the energy transferred per unit charge when moving
a charge between two points. It is measured in volts (V), where 1 V = 1 J/C.

2. Relationship: V = W Q
The potential difference is given by:
W
V =
Q
where W is the work done or energy transferred (J) and Q is the charge (C).
12
Example: If 12 J of energy moves 3 C of charge, then V = 3 = 4 V.

3. Power Relationships
Power P is the rate of energy transfer and can be calculated by:

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• P = V I (when both voltage and current are known),

• P = I 2 R (using V = IR),
V2
• P = R (if current is unknown).

Example: For V = 6 V and I = 2 A, P = 6 × 2 = 12 W.

1.3 9.3 Resistance and Resistivity

1. Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current, defined by:
V
R=
I
It is measured in ohms (Ω).

2. Ohm’s Law
For a conductor at a constant temperature:

V = IR

Example: If I = 2 A and R = 5 Ω, then V = 2 × 5 = 10 V.

3. I-V Characteristics

• Metallic Conductor: Linear relationship (ohmic), passing through the origin.

• Semiconductor Diode: Non-linear; significant current flows only when forward-
biased.
• Filament Lamp: Curved graph; resistance increases with temperature (heating).
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https://cdn.sparkfun.com/assets/4/4/a/5/b/5175b518ce395f2d49000000.png

Figure 1: I-V Characteristics (Diode example).

4. Resistivity
The resistance of a uniform conductor is given by:
ρL
R=
A
where ρ is the resistivity (in Ω · m), L is the length (m), and A is the cross-sectional area
(m2 ).
Example: For copper with ρ = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω · m, L = 2 m, and A = 1 × 10−6 m2 :

1.68 × 10−8 × 2
R= = 0.0336 Ω.
1 × 10−6

5. Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)

The resistance of an LDR decreases as the intensity of light increases.

6. Thermistor (NTC)
For a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor, resistance decreases with in-
creasing temperature due to enhanced charge carrier mobility.
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2 D.C. Circuits
2.1 10.1 Practical Circuits
1. Circuit Symbols
Use standard symbols for circuit elements: Standard Circuit Symbols (sourced from
Electronics Tutorials/Hub and Electronics Notes)
Drawing and Interpreting Circuit Diagrams
Use the symbols above to construct and analyze circuit diagrams.
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)
E.m.f. () is the energy supplied per unit charge by a source to drive current around a circuit
(measured in volts, V).
E.m.f. vs. Potential Difference

• E.m.f.: The total energy per unit charge provided by the source.
• Potential Difference: The energy per unit charge used across a circuit element.
Internal Resistance
The terminal voltage V is reduced by the voltage drop across the source’s internal resistance r:

V =  − Ir

Example: For  = 12 V, r = 1 Ω, and I = 2 A, V = 12 − 2 × 1 = 10 V.

2.2 10.2 Kirchhoff ’s Laws

1. Kirchhoff ’s First Law (Junction Rule)
The sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum leaving it.
Example: If currents of 3 A and 2 A enter, then 5 A must exit.

2. Kirchhoff ’s Second Law (Loop Rule)

The sum of e.m.f.s around a closed loop equals the sum of the potential drops.
Example: In a loop with  = 10 V and resistors causing drops of 6 V and 4 V, 10 = 6 + 4.

3. Resistors in Series
Total resistance in series:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn

4. Resistors in Parallel
Total resistance in parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + + ··· +
Rtotal R1 R2 Rn

5. Circuit Problem Solving

Apply these laws to determine unknown currents and voltages in complex circuits.

2.3 10.3 Potential Dividers

1. Principle of Potential Divider
A potential divider splits an input voltage Vin across two series resistors R1 and R2 :
R2
Vout = Vin ×
R1 + R2
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Example: For Vin = 12 V, R1 = 2 Ω and R2 = 4 Ω,

4
Vout = 12 × = 8 V.
2+4

2. Potentiometer
A variable resistor used for adjusting and measuring potential differences.

3. Galvanometer in Null Methods

A sensitive instrument that detects zero current (balance condition) in circuits like the
Wheatstone bridge.

4. Thermistors and LDRs in Potential Dividers

These components change resistance with temperature (thermistors) or light intensity
(LDRs), thereby altering the output voltage.

Figure 2: Potential Divider Circuit Diagram.

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Summary
These Cambridge AS Level Physics notes cover key topics in Electricity and D.C. Circuits,
including electric current, potential difference, resistance, circuit analysis using Kirchhoff’s laws,
and potential dividers. Use the examples and diagrams provided to reinforce your understanding
during your revision.

Generated on March 9, 2025.