Career definition

According to Garcia, Russ (2024), the word "career" usually has two definitions or meanings.
"Career" is often used to refer to a profession, occupation, trade or vocation. A career could
define what you do for a living and range from those that require extensive training and
education to those you can perform with only a high school diploma and a willingness to
learn. A career could mean working as a doctor, lawyer, teacher, carpenter, veterinary
assistant, electrician, cashier, teacher or hairstylist.

Career has another definition as well, though. It also refers to the progress and actions you
have taken throughout the working years of your life, especially as they relate to your
occupation. It is composed of the different jobs you have held, titles you have earned and
work you have accomplished over a long period of time. When viewed in this context, a
career includes everything related to your career development, including your choice or
profession and advancement. Your single career could include a variety of different paths.

Types of career paths

There are several different kinds of career paths available. Here is an overview of the three
most common types of career paths:

 Multiple unrelated jobs: Your career could be made up of multiple jobs that are
unrelated to one another. For example, you could work as a sales associate in a retail
environment, then as a server in a restaurant and then as a receptionist in a veterinary
clinic. Because each job is vastly different from the next, there is no way to predict
what your next position will be. Because they have very little in common, you may
not see significant pay increases from one to the next or significant increases in
responsibility.

 Advancing within one occupation: This path involves advancing in the same
occupation, whether you work for the same organization or at different
establishments. For example, if you are working as a cashier, you could eventually be
moved to a customer service position where you operate a cash register but also
handle customer service issues. Eventually, you could be moved to a head cashier
position, supervising the other cashiers.

 Advancing in the same industry but not occupation: This path involves staying in
the same industry, but not necessarily the same occupation. For example, if your goal
 is to be a manager at a restaurant, you could start out as a dishwasher, then move to a
server position, then head server or assistant manager and eventually manager.

Reference:

Gracia, R. (2024). What is a Career? Definition, and Paths. Indeed Editorial

Team.Indeed.com. Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-
development/what-is-a-career

Factors of Choice

According to Jones L. and Larke G. (2012), The influence of career choice has a lasting
impact on an individual. It serves to be a predictor and determinant of their prospective level
of income, nature of work and consequently leaves a mark on the personality, demeanor and
outlook of an individual. Thus, one wrong decision can change the fate of an individual. It is
difficult for everyone to make a decision regarding their career. This individual action is
manifested on a larger scale in the economic prosperity of a nation. Individuals who are
misfits in their workplace tend to be less productive and efficient and therefore are unable to
achieve their goals. The concept has been explained by Onyejiaku who defines occupation as
a means of living, which has the power to change personalities, determine social status,
predict expected earnings, determine social groups etc. Thus, its importance cannot be
undermined. Given its complexity, it is then a point to ponder upon as to how career
decisions are made. Furthermore, these are elucidated by Ipaye (as cited in Alemu, 2013),
who elaborates the importance of dialogue with peers, sessions with college counsellors, and
discussions with parents and teachers on career selection as “career convention” or “career
conference”. According to him “career convention is an instrument of career information”,
and entails the following:

1. To create awareness regarding areas of interest and prospective career fields.

2. To help in shortlisting preferable jobs.

3. Provides opportunities in which parents, employees and career counsellors can exchange
views.

A crucial influence in decision making regarding career is the home environment (James,
2000) as it lays the foundation of a child’s personality. It’s the parent’s upbringing which is
the basis of the outcome of the personality. The values of the parents are transferred into the
child. Besides the home, another major determinant of career choice is media. It provides
exposure at the earliest stage. Media highlights social travails, global issues, trends and
fashions, portrays the glamour of a culture, and the glitter of the consumer world. Moreover,
talk shows, documentaries, movies and dramas portray careers such as law, media and
advertising as very glamorous and appealing, thus drawing students towards them.
Sometimes the choices of the peers also become a determining factor in choosing a
profession. Other factors which influence career choice are family, parents, friends, culture,
academic achievement, health factors, existing income level and financial constraints, media
influences, prospective levels of income, employment opportunities, the social acceptability
of profession, recognition, and work satisfaction among others. The purpose of this research
was to investigate the various choices which have an influence on students’ career choice. It
looked into the interplay of various decision-making influences on MS students’ chosen field.
It sought answers to queries whether MS students chose their respective fields, had to
reconcile with circumstances or had a say in the decisions. It gives an insight into the various
factors which influence students’ decision making. Factors Influencing Choice of Career
choice is one of the biggest dilemma and challenge in any student’s life. It involves an
interplay of many factors which are intricately intertwined. It is not a straightforward task and
involves a difficult process of decision making.

This issue is not confined to Pakistan only but is universal in nature. According to Bandura,
Barbaranelli, Caprara, and Pastorelli (2001) an individual’s environment, talents, skills, and
academic achievement exert an influence on career choice. In case of a wrong choice, it may
lead to resultant failure and disappointment. Research shows homes, schools and the social
setup influence an individual’s career choice. Financial prospects influence the career choice
of men as they have to meet household expenses, whereas women show more concern for
social values and utility (Sax, 1994). Other factors such as aptitude, life circumstances, and
academic achievement have also been proven as determinants of career choice (Ferry, 2006).
Educational

level of parents, their profession and income are also identified as very important factors
(Hearn 1984, 1988). Every student at a certain juncture in their life has to make a choice
regarding their career. It is incumbent that students make the correct choice asserts Oladele
(as cited in Nyarko-Sampson 2013). This will make them more poised, stable, and endowed
with a pleasant countenance. Consequently, it will lead to knitting a better fabric for the
society. Unfortunately, career choices are made with little awareness of the real world
(Caplow, as cited in Bright, Pryor, &Harpham 2005).

Students make crucial decisions at a stage when they may not be fully informed of their
choices, or else unavoidable circumstances prevent them from pursuing their goals. Thus,
counsellors can play a positive role in guiding them to make informed choices. Being
interested in a particular profession is very important in decision making. If a student is
forced into a career, he may exhibit low self-esteem and poor performance. Suutari (2003)
reports that several studies have indicated a positive relationship between interests and career
choice. It has also been investigated that individuals with better academic performance are
able to make better judgments about themselves (Arthur &Rousseau, 1996). Herbart (2005)
opines that a child coming from an environment where he/she receives parental support and
lives harmoniously is more likely to be dictated by them. In such a scenario, a child’s
occupational aspiration is most likely to be influenced by the parents’ profession. Research
reports career choice is greatly influenced by students’ surroundings, society and family etc.
(Gim, 1992; Leong 1995). In his analysis, Watts (1996) concluded that developing countries
direct their students into careers according to the country needs. Professions have varying
degrees of acceptability in different cultures which also influences an individual’s career
choice (Kerka, 2003). Socioeconomic factors, therefore, are also important in motivating the
students to make career decisions (Sukovieff, 1989). A comprehensive study by Ngesi (2003)
reports that students from poor socioeconomic backgrounds made wrong career decisions and
chose professions which required a short duration of training, primarily due to financial
constraints. As the old adage goes, nothing succeeds like success, similarly, a student who
fare well academically have better career prospects and choices as compared to the struggling
ones. Hoover -Dempsey &Sadler (2000) assert that a well-read person has more information
related to career choice and reads more to make the crucial decision. Thus, their decisions are
likely to be correct and wise. The role of parents in the lives of children is undeniable.
Olayinka (2005) asserts that it so happens that parents have pre-determined the careers for
their wards and only serve to steer them in that direction. In another research, it is elaborated
that the attitude of parents and the influence of the home environment influences a child's
career path. Similarly, parents’ education has been proven as a factor influencing career
choice (Grissmer, 2003; Ogunlade, 1973). Research supports the position that parents’
education is linked with the students’ career choice.
Literature reports that parents’ educational level is the most important factor in students’
career decision (Grissmer, 2003; Ogunlade, 1973). The results uphold that parents are a
child’s first teacher, and thus they have the role of a guide, advisor and counsellor in their
lives. Bladeless cited in Nyarko-Sampson (2013) explains that parents exert emotional
pressure on their wards regarding the choice of careers. They make independent consultations
regarding the career they think is most suitable for their children. The child’s preferences are
never a matter of concern for them. A study by Mickelson and Velasco (1998) shows that
mothers have a stronger influence on their children as compared to their fathers. Another fact
proven by research is that children prefer to discuss their plans and choices with their mother
more as compared to the fathers (Muthukrishna & Sokoya, 2008). According to Edwen
(2000), different values are attached to different career options. These values according to
him stem from life experiences, educational background, and the environment. Values are
also attached to the stability which is attached to a particular career. An important factor in
determining students’ career choice is the school to which they belong. Different curriculum
options, hidden curriculum, and school culture are all determinant of a student’s career
choice. Schools’ role is to provide accurate guidance and also encourage students to continue
with education and not drop out (Oladele, as cited in Nyarko-Sampson 2013). He further
elaborates that some parents are receptive to suggestions. However, these types of parents
usually set high standards from the very outset and then pave the way for their children to
follow that path. Studies report that children who are initially dependent on parents regarding
career decisions tend to become more independent as they enter high school and adolescence
(Kinnier Brigman & Nobel, 1990). Different studies show that students the world over,
irrespective of their genders face the same problem as career decision (Bandura, Barbaranelli,
Caprara, &Pastorelli. 2001).

Decisions which involve the choice of elective subjects, courses of specializations and
subsequent careers are equally stressful and trying for girls and boys completing schooling
and proceeding to college (Issa and Nwalo 2008). They have to weigh their options according
to the environment in which they live, their interest and their educational performance. Both
the genders lay emphasis on social type and investigate the type of occupations, with more
girls favoring the former, and boys the latter (Watson et.al., 2010 as cited in Bani-Khaled,
2014).
Reference:

Kazi, A., and Akhlaq, A. (2017). Factors Affecting Students' Career

Choice.ResearchGate.com. retrieved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325987918_Factors_Affecting_Students'_Career_C
hoice

Expectation of Society

According to the study of Bell, J. (2020), university education has long been seen by society
as the highest level of educational accomplishment in a person’s life. Society therefore
celebrates and respects individuals who get the chance to study and graduate from university
[1]. This act has created an impression that university degree holders are better economically
and have more employment opportunities in life than those without a university education
[1,2]. Therefore, the societal expectation on the educational accomplishment of a person
tends to affect one’s sense of purpose, resilience and ability to perform within a particular
social context including the workplace [3]. University lecturers also find themselves among
the group of individuals that society holds in high esteem because of their higher academic
accomplishments. Traditionally, universities are known as places of learning and research
and society expect universities to contribute to the knowledge economy, maintenance of
advanced knowledge, teaching and research, and community service [4]. University lecturers
engage in various kinds of work which conventionally can be grouped into three areas;
research, teaching and community services [5]. The diversity in tasks from the three-domain
areas clearly defines the complexity of work expected of university lecturers. Expectations
from society may transcend beyond the core academic functions to other cultural and
economic issues in some countries.

Societal expectations are perceived to put a lot of pressure on those who have attained the
highest qualifications in academia; lecturers are expected to know everything that happens
around them and have answers to all the questions asked by members of society because they
are perceived as being knowledgeable. Because society perceives academic employees to
have a well-paid job and good financial status in society, they place a lot of financial and
social demands on them [6]. When these demands are not fulfilled, it tends to create enmity
and confusion between them, their families and friends. The pressures from societal
expectations on university lecturers no doubt raise several well-being questions: How can
pressures from societal expectations affect the well-being of university lecturers? What are
the shifts needed to address these pressures and tensions? This study investigated these
questions aimed at academics from three public university lecturers in Ghana using a
qualitative approach. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the lived experience
of wellbeing amongst university lecturers in the Ghanaian context. Previous studies in this
area have been driven mainly by quantitative approaches [7,8] and lack an examination of the
issues from the perspectives of those whose lives are affected by them.

How Can Societal Expectations Influence a Person’s Self-esteem?

The societal expectation of a person’s self-esteem has generated a lot of concern in academic
circles - evolving from Gergen’s theory of ‘saturated self’ [9,10]. Gergen’s theory shows that
a person’s “self-esteem” is reliant on the expectations of society. Gergen is of the view that
realities of life from societal expectations influence one’s self-esteem, one’s identity, and
one's reaction within a particular context [11]. One’s reaction in a particular context is similar
to action, belief and consequence (the ABCs of safety steps) and one of the key elements of
‘cognitive behavior therapies [12]. These basic steps are used to determine why people act
the way they do. In effect, they help to analyze how actions are interpreted by the observer
based on their belief, which then influences their behaviors and determines the consequences
of actions.

According to Gergen, societal expectations can serve as probable barriers to an individual’s

progress, and this can result in the loss of lasting emotional strength and positive outcome.
Powell [3] attests that societal context can strongly contribute to career and academic
successes of individuals. Yet, most often, societal expectations are based on perceptions and
vice versa leading to observer-actor bias. According to Démuth [6], these constitute both
cognitive and emotional facets - sourced from either within or outside the subject. Démuth
[6] argues that such perceptions are probably caused by individuals’ ideas. The basis for
those ideas remains a question that is believed to form the content and diversity of society.
So, what defines these perceptions and expectations in society? Many scholars have argued
that these perceptions and expectations are possibly determined from a combination of what
people say and do; the stories and impressions made about someone; and what people say
about themselves [6,13]. Within the workplace, individuals require certain skills to adapt to
these expectations from society and the adaptive capacity to respond to the process of change
in emotions depends on the demands on an individual’s profession, work environment or on
their status in society [14,15]. From a professional perspective, Heinze [14] describes this as
an “unpleasant feeling” as society expects people from certain professions to act in certain
ways in social situations. Demands from certain professions demonstrate how difficult it has
become for them to conform to societal pressure and designated norms [16]. On the part of
the work environment, Powell [3] believes that the external environment can affect one’s
motivation and desire to succeed. For example, the demands, expectations and support of
families and friends have the possibility of increasing work pressures and family conflicts on
employees in Hong Kong universities [17].

Reference:

Bell, J., et. al. (2020). Societal Expectations and Well-being of Academics.
ResearchGate.com. Retrieved from: https://researchspace.bathspa.ac.uk/15227/1/15227.pdf

Career and Employment

According to the study of Burchell V., et al. (2013), the past two decades an increasing
amount of public policy and academic
attention has focused on different aspects of the quality of employment. Analysts
have recognized that for many people, just having a job may not be enough to ensure
even a basic standard of living. As the dual processes of globalization and liberalization
have generated continuous calls for labor market flexibilization, employment conditions such

as wages, job stability and career prospects have changed. Thus, the latter have become at
least as important a subject of study as traditional indicators, such as
employment or unemployment rates.
However, the literature on the subject is very diverse and spread between academic
and institutional publications. Theoretical conceptualizations of the quality of employment
have been diffuse, thus limiting their political effect. Only the International
Labor Organization (ILO) has attempted a systematic definition of the quality
of work through its concept ‘Decent Work’, which was officially launched in 1999.
Amongst those institutions influenced by the ILO’s approach, the EU and some
European governments stand out (see review in Reinecke and White, 2004; Alli, 2009;
Muñoz de Bustillo et al., 2011; ILO, 2012). However, the overall impact that the concepts
‘quality of employment’ or ‘Decent Work’ have had on both research and public policy is
extremely limited compared to the influence achieved, for example, by
the human development concept and, more specifically, by the Human Development
Index (HDI) over a similar period.

Employment definition is termed as a paid mutual work arrangement between a recruiter and
an employee. This term applies to an individual who is hired for a salary or compensation to
initiate work or tasks for an organization. Although the employees can negotiate certain items
in an employment agreement, the terms and conditions that are included and are mostly
determined by the employer. This agreement could also be ended by the recruiter or the
employee. Career has another definition as well, though. It also refers to the progress and
actions you have taken throughout the working years of your life, especially as they relate to
your occupation. It is composed of the different jobs you have held; titles you have earned
and work you have accomplished over a long period of time. When viewed in this context, a
career includes everything related to your career development, including your choice or
profession and advancement.

Reference:

Bell, J., et. al. (2020). Career and Employment Development from Different Work Definition,
Methodologies and Ongoing Debates. ResearchGate.com. Retrieved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262335410_The_quality_of_employment_and_dec
ent_work_Definitions_Methodologies_and_ongoing_debates

Employment Rate

According to Remish, A., et. al. (2021), employment rate is the extent to which available
labor resources (people available to work) are being used. Employed people are those aged
15 or over who report that they have worked in gainful employment for at least one hour in
the previous week or who had a job but were absent from work during the reference week.
The working age population refers to people aged 15 to 64. The rate is calculated both as a
calendar and seasonally adjusted ratio of the employed to the working age population. This
indicator is measured as a percentage of working age population and in thousands of
employed persons aged 15 to 64.

The employment rate is a statistical measure of the proportion of the working age population
that is employed. The employament rate reflects the ability of an economy to generate
employment opportunities for its citizens. The employment rate is calculated by dividing the
number of people employed by the total working age population.

There are types of employment rates such as the overall, male and female employment rates
which estimate proportions for gender categories. Another important distinction is between
the seasonally adjusted and unadjusted rates, with the former eliminating seasonal hiring
fluctuations to get a clearer picture of underlying trends. Employment rates can also be
determined for age groups, educational levels, industries and regions to assess employment
patterns across various demographics.

The employment rate provides important insights into the labor market conditions of an
economy. A higher rate indicates robust job creation resulting in less unemployment. It is a
key macroeconomic indicator monitored by policymakers and central banks. Changes in the
employment rate are used to evaluate the impact of fiscal and monetary policies on jobs. For
individuals, being employed boosts incomes, economic security and overall well-being.
Businesses also rely on adequate employment levels to meet production needs and economic
growth targets. Thus, maintaining full employment is a priority for most governments.

What exactly is the employment rate?

The employment rate is an economic metric that shows the proportion of the working age
population that is currently employed. Employment rate demonstrates what percentage of
people who are able and looking for work are currently in jobs. The working age population
refers to people of a certain age range, usually 15-64 years old or 16-74 years old depending
on the country or region.

The employment rate provides important insights into the labor market conditions and
economic health of a location. A high and rising employment rate shows strength in the jobs
market as more opportunities are available. It signifies businesses are hiring and there is
demand for labor. On the other hand, a low or declining employment rate is a warning sign of
potential economic problems as less people are finding work. It suggests a weak jobs market
with less vacancies.

The types of jobs included in the employment rate calculation also provides useful context. A
high rate sustained by many low-paying or insecure temporary positions will not be as
positive as an equivalent rate supported by well-paid full-time careers. International
comparisons of employment rates must also account for differences in welfare systems,
definitions of “employment”, and cultural attitudes towards work between locations.

Factors like the stage of the business cycle and underlying economic conditions have a large
influence on the employment rate. Generally, it rises during an economic expansion as
demand increases and companies grow, needing to take on more staff. However, it falls
during a recession as layoffs rise and fewer vacancies are available. Demographics are
another major determinant, as higher birth rates and immigration expands the working age
population and potentially lower the rate if jobs do not grow fast enough.

Government policies around topics such as minimum wages, hiring regulations,

unemployment benefits, job training programs, and fiscal and monetary stimulus measures
also affect employment rates. These influence the tradeoff companies face between
employing more people and other costs. An improving skills profile and higher educational
attainment levels within a population over time lifts the employment rate by enhancing
productivity and desirability to employers.

How is the employment rate calculated?

Employment rate is calculated using the equation Employment rate = ( Number of employed
individuals / Total labor force) * 100.

The first step to calculating the employment rate is to determine the potential labor pool that
will comprise the total labor force in the calculation. This data is found from official
government sources like national statistical agencies which regularly conduct large-sample
population surveys. Sources provide labor force statistics by geographic area, industry, age
group and other demographics from the most recently available census or survey data.

For example, the total statewide labor force figure would be obtained from the U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics’ monthly figures derived from the Current Population Survey, if calculating
the state of Colorado’s employment rate. International sources like Eurostat and the ILO
similarly report national and regional totals. Ensuring the currency and relevance of this
baseline number is critical.

Once the total labor force is established, the next item required is the number of employed
individuals within that group. “Employed” refers to those aged 16 years and over who, during
the reference period, performed any work for pay, profit or family gain. Data on employment
levels matching the same population parameters as the labor force total will again be
available from the same statistical sources. Having collected these foundational figures, the
calculation formula involves dividing the number of employed persons by the total eligible
labor force to obtain an initial employment rate as a decimal value between 0 and 1.

For example, suppose an area has a labor force population of 100,000 individuals aged 16+,
and official stats report that 80,000 of these are presently employed, the formula would
appear as given below.

Employment Rate = Employed Persons / Total Labor Force

= 80,000 / 100,000

= 0.80

This provides the unadjusted rate as a proportion of the labor pool that is employed.

Continuing the example which is, 0.80 x 100 = 80%

Therefore, the calculated employment rate for this example area would be 80%.

The employment rate is an important statistic because it provides valuable insight into a
country or region’s economic health and future prospects. As a measure of the proportion of
the working age population that is currently utilized in the labor force, it is a comprehensive
indicator of the job market and closely linked to numerous other economic factors.

A high and rising employment rate demonstrates strong demand for labor as businesses grow
and hire more staff to meet customer needs. This shows economic expansion is occurring as
new jobs are being generated at a faster pace than the eligible workforce is increasing. More
employment opportunities encourage consumer spending which fuels further business growth
in a positive cycle. A declining or stagnant employment rate is a warning sign that the jobs
situation is weakening.

Economic problems ahead are signaled as incomes start declining on average, serving as an
economic indicator. If the working-age population is increasing while new jobs fail to keep
pace, it acts as another economic indicator. Falling aggregate demand would likely ensue
without wages to support consumer purchasing.

Reference:
Remish, A., et. al. (2021). Employment Rate: Definition, Calculation, Types & Importance.
StrikeBlogs.com. Retrieved from:
https://www.strike.money/fundamental-analysis/employment-rate