Memory Technologies

Memories that consists of circuits capable of retaining their state as long as power is applied are
known as static memories. These are Random Access Memory (RAM) and hence combinely
called static RAM memories.

Memory Technologies

AU May-07, 08, 09, 12, 13, 15, Dec.-07, 08, 09, 10

RAM (Random Access Memories)

• Memories that consists of circuits capable of retaining their state as long as power is applied are
known as static memories.

• These are Random Access Memory (RAM) and hence combinely called static RAM memories.

Static RAM Cell

• The Fig. 8.3.1 shows the implementation of static RAM cell. It consists of two cross-coupled
inverters as a latch and two transistors T1 and T2 which act as a switches.

• The latch is connected to two bit lines by transistors T1 and T2. The word line controls the
opening and closing of transistors T1 and T2. When word line is at logic 0 level (Ground level),
the transistors are off and the latch retains its state.

Read operation

• For read operation, word line is made logic 1 (high) so that both transistors are ON. Now if the
cell is in state 1, the signal on bit line b is high and the signal on bit line b' is low. The opposite is
true if the cell is in state 0. The b and b' are complements of each other. The sense/write circuits
connected to the bit lines monitor the states of b and b' and set the output accordingly.

Write operation
• For write operation, the state to be set is placed on the line b and its complement is placed on
line b' and then the word line is activated. This action forces the cell into the corresponding state
and write operation is completed.

CMOS Cell

• The Fig. 8.3.2 shows the CMOS cell. Here, transistor pairs (T3, T5) and (T4, T6) form the cross-
coupled inverters and transistors T1and T2act as a switches. The latch is connected to two bit lines
by transistors T1 and T2.

• The word line controls the opening and closing of transistors T1 and T2. When word line is at
logic 0 level (ground level), the transistors T1 and T2 are off and the latch retains its state.

Read operation

• For read operation, word line is made high to switch-on transistor T1 and T2. The cell is in state
1, if voltage at point X is maintained high by having transistors T3 and T6 on, while T3 and T5 are
off. The cell is in state 0, if the voltage at point X is maintained low by having transistors T 3 and
T6 off, while T4 and T5 are on.

Write operation

• For write operation, the state to be set is placed on the line b and its complement is placed on
line b', and then the word line is activated. This action forces the cell into the corresponding
state.

DRAM (Dynamic RAMs)

• Dynamic RAM stores the data as a charge on the capacitor. Fig. 8.3.3 shows the dynamic RAM
cell.
• A dynamic RAM contains thousands of such memory cells.

• When COLUMN (Sense) and ROW (Control) lines go high, the MOSFET conducts and
charges the capacitor.

• When the COLUMN and ROW lines go low,the MOSFET opens and the capacitor retains its
charge. In this way, it stores 1 bit.

• Since only a single MOSFET and capacitor are needed, the dynamic RAM contains more
memory cells as compared to static RAM per unit area.

• The disadvantage of dynamic RAM is that it needs refreshing of charge on the capacitor after
every few milliseconds. This complicates the system design, since it requires the extra hardware
to control refreshing of dynamic RAMs.

Comparison between SRAM and DRAM

(Read Only Memories)

• We can't write data in Read Only Memories (ROM). It is non-volatile memory i.e. it can hold
data even if power is turned off.

• Generally, ROM is used to store the binary codes for the sequence of instructions and data such
as look up tables. This is because this type of information does not change.

• ROMs are also accessed randomly with unique addresses.

• The Fig. 8.3.4 shows the typical configuration of a ROM cell. It consists of a transistor T and
switch P.

• The transistor T is driven by the word line.

• The contents of cell can be read from the cell when word line is logic 1.

• A logic value 0 is read if the transistor is connected to ground through switch P. If switch P is
open, a logic value 1 is read.

• The bit line is connected through a resistor to the power supply.

• A sense circuit at the end of the bit line generates the proper output value. Data is stored into a
ROM when it is manufactured.

• There are four types of ROM Masked ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM or E2PROM.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

• PROMS are programmed by user. To provide the programming facility, each address select and
data line intersection has its own fused MOSFET or transistor.

• When the fuse is intact, the memory cell is configured as a logic 1 and when fuse is blown
(open circuit), the memory cell is logical 0.
• Logical 0s are programmed by selecting the appropriate select line and then driving the vertical
data line with a pulse of high current.

• Fig. 8.3.5 shows a PROM fused MOSFET memory cell.

• The fuse uses material like nichrome and polycrystalline. For blowing the fuse it is necessary to
pass around 20 to 50 mA of current for period 5 to 20 μs. The blowing of fuses according to the
truth table is called programming of ROM.

• The PROMS are onetime programmable.Once programmed,the information stored is

permanent.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

• Erasable programmable ROMs use MOS circuitry. They store 1's and 0's as a

packet of charge in a buried layer of the IC chip.

• EPROMs can be programmed by the user with a special EPROM programmer.

• The important point is that we can erase the stored data in the EPROMS by exposing the chip
to ultraviolet light through its quartz window for 15 to 20 minutes, as shown in the Fig. 8.3.6.
• It is not possible to erase selective information, when erased the entire information is lost.

• The chip can be reprogrammed.

• This memory is ideally suitable for product development, experimental projects and college
laboratories, since this chip can be reused many times.

EPROM Programming :

• When erased each cell in the EPROM contains 1. Data is introduced by selectively
programming 0's into the desired bit locations. Although only O's will be programmed, both 1's
and O's can be presented in the data.

• During programming address and data are applied to address and data pins of the EPROM.
When the address and data are stable, program pulse is applied to the program input of the
EPROM. The program pulse duration is around 50 ms and its amplitude depends on EPROM IC.
It is typically 5.5 V to 25 V.

• In EPROM, it is possible to program any location at any time - either individually, sequentially
or at random.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

• Electrically erasable programmable ROMs also use MOS circuitry very similar to that of
EPROM.

• Data is stored as charge or no charge on an insulated layer or an insulated floating gate in the
device.

• The insulating layer is made very thin (<200 Å). Therefore, a voltage as low as 20 to 25 V can
be used to move charges across the thin barrier in either direction for programming or erasing.

• EEPROM allows selective erasing at the register level rather than erasing all the information
since the information can be changed by using electrical signals.
• The EEPROM memory also has a special chip erase mode by which entire chip can be erased
in 10 ms. This time is quite small as compared to time required to erase EPROM. It can be erased
and reprogrammed with device right in the circuit.

Disadvantage

• EEPROMs are most expensive and the least dense ROMs.

Flash Memory

Flash memories are read/write memories. In flash memories it is possible to read the contents of
a single cell, but it is only possible to write an entire block of cells. A flash cell is based on a
single transistor controlled by trapped charge.

Flash devices have greater density than the EEPROM memory. Due to this flash devices have
higher capacity and a lower cost per bit. They require a single power supply voltage and
consume less power in their operation. The low power consumption of flash memory makes it
suitable for portable equipments such as hand-held computers, cell phones, digital cameras, MP3
music players and so on. In hand-hold computers and cell phones, flash memory is used to store
the software needed to operate the equipment. In digital cameras, flash memory is used to store
picture image data. In MP3 players, flash memory is used to store the sound data.

The flash memories are available in modules. These modules are implemented in two types: flash
cards and flash drives.

Flash Cards: In this, flash chips are mounted on a small card. Flash cards have a standard
interface that makes them usable in variety of applications. These cards are available in variety
of memory sizes. The sizes are 8, 32 and 64 Mbytes.

Flash Drives: Flash drives are manufactured to replace hard-disk drives. These drives are
designed to fully emulate the hard disk, to the point that they can be fitted into standard disk
drive bays. However, the storage capacity of flash drives is significantly lower than that of hard
disk drives. Currently, the capacity of flash drives is less than 1 Gbyte. The Table 8.3.1 shows the
comparison between flash drives and hard disk drives.
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

• DRAMS whose operation is directly synchronised with a clock signal are known as
synchronous DRAMS or simply SDRAMs.

• In a typical DRAM, the processor has to wait through delay of access time slowing the system
performance. To solve above problem, the SDRAM exchanges data with the processor
synchronized to an external clock signal.

• Advantage: This allows processor to read/write data with memory without imposing wait
states.

• In this, DRAM latches the address sent by the processor and then responds after a set number
of clock cycles.

• Advantage: Meanwhile, the processor can do other task while the SDRAM is processing the
request.

• The Fig. 8.3.7 shows the internal architecture of SDRAM. The cell organisation of SDRAM is
same as asynchronous DRAM. The address and data lines are buffered by means of buffer
registers.

• It supports burst mode transfer.

• Advantage: In burst mode, after first access, no address setup or row/column line pre-charge
time is needed. This improves system performance.
• Its mode register allows burst length, burst type and latency to be customized to suit specific
system needs.

• Advantage: The SDRAMs have built in refresh circuitry.

• The Fig. 8.3.8 shows a timing diagram for a typical burst read cycle of length 4.
• The first clock cycle row address is latched by activating RAS control signal. The memory
typically takes 2 or 3 clock cycles to activate the selected row. (Fig. 8.3.8 shows 2 clock cycles).

• Then, the column address is latched by activating the CAS control signal.

• After a delay of one clock cycle, the memory places the first set of data bits on the data lines.

• The SDRAM then automatically increments the column address to access the next three sets of
data bits in the selected row in three successive clock cycles.

Double-Data-Rate Series

• The standard SDRAM performs its operations on the rising edge of the clock signal. On the
other hand, the faster SDRAMs transfers data on both the edges of the clock signal.

• The latency of the faster SDRAMs is same as that for standard SDRAM. However, since they
transfer data on both the edges of the clock signal, their bandwidth is effectively doubled for long
burst transfer. Such faster SDRAMs are known as Double-Data-Rate SDRAMs (DDR
SDRAMs).

• In DDR SDRAMs, the cell array is organized in two banks as shown in Fig. 8.3.9.

• As shown in Fig. 8.3.9 it has dual bank architecture to support on-chip parallelism.

• It also supports burst mode transfer. This allows the sequential reading of number of bits from
same row, eliminating the address setup time for each bit.
• Each bank can be accessed separately.

• Consecutive words of a given block are stored in different banks. Therefore, it is possible to
transfer two words on successive edges of the clock signal.

Comparison between DRAMs and SDRAMs

Internal Organization of Memory Chips

• Memory cells are organised in the form of an array, in which each cell is capable of storing one
bit of information. Let us see the organisation of memory chip. using single decoder and using
two dimensional decoding.

Organization using Single Decoder

• The Fig. 8.3.10 shows the organization of 16 × 8 (16 words of 8-bit each) memory. Here, the
organisation is shown with detail connections of address lines, data lines and control lines. The
data input and the data output of each sense/write circuit are connected to a single bidirectional
data line that can be connected to the data bus of a computer. Two control lines, ,
are provided in addition to address and data lines. The input specifies the
required operation and the input selects a given chip in a multichip memory system.
• As shown in the Fig. 8.3.10 there are 16 words of 8-bits each. A memory with 16 words needs
four address lines. The four address inputs go through a 4 × 16 decoder to select one of the
sixteen words. The decoder is enabled with a memory enable input. When the memory enable is
0, all outputs of the decoder are 0 and none of the memory words are selected. With the memory
select at 1, one of the sixteen words is selected, dictated by the value in the four address lines.
Once a word has been selected, the read/write input determines the operation. During write
operation, the data available in the input lines are transferred into the eight memory cells of the
selected word. The memory cells that are not selected are disabled and their previous binary
values remain unchanged.

Example 8.3.1 Draw the organization of 4 K×1 memory cell and explain.

Solution: The Fig. 8.3.11 shows the organization of 4K×1 memory cell. Such organization
needs12 address lines and one data line, and two control signals ( ), resulting 15
external connections. Here, 12-bit address is

divided into two groups of 6-bit each to form therow and column addresses for the cell array. A
row address selects a row of 64 cells, all of which are accessed in parallel. However, according to
the column address, only one of these cells is connected to the external data line by the output
multiplexer and input demultiplexer.

Review Questions

1. What are the types of RAMs? Explain them in detail.

2. Describe the organization of a typical RAM chip. AU May-07,Dec.-09, Marks 6

3. Write notes on static memories. AU: Dec.-07, Marks 8

4. Describe the working principle of RAM. AU: Dec.-08, Marks 6

5. Draw a CMOS memory cell and explain its function. AU May-09, Marks 6

6. Write a note on asynchronous DRAM. AU: Dec.-10, Marks 8

7. Differentiate DRAM and SRAM. AU: Dec.-08, Marks 2

8. Write a note on synchronous DRAM. AU: Dec.-10, Marks 8

9. Compare SDRAM with DDR SDRAM. AU May-09, Marks 2

10. Explain synchronous DRAM technology in detail. AU May-12, Marks 8

11. Draw the block diagrams of two types of DRAMs and explain. AU May-13, Marks 10

12. What is Rambus and Rambus channel?

13. Draw and explain the Rambus interface using Rambus channel.

14. Explain the data transfer between Rambus controller and slaves.

15. Write note on ROM technologies. AU: Dec.-07, Marks 4

16. Give the features of a ROM cell. AU: May-08, Marks 2

17. Briefly explain any four nonvolatile memory in detail. AU: May-09, Marks 10

18. Write note on flash memory.

19. Compare flash drives with hard-disk drives.

20. Elaborate on the various memory technologies and its relevance. AU: May-15, Marks 16