Basic Control Systems
1. What is the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control
systems?
○ Open-loop systems do not use feedback, while closed-loop
systems use feedback to adjust performance.
2. List the basic components of a closed-loop system.
○ Reference input, actuator, sensor, error detector, controlled
variable.
3. Explain the formula for the overall gain of a closed-loop system with
negative feedback.
○ Gain=G1+GH\text{Gain} = \frac{G}{1 + GH}, where G is the
open-loop gain and H is the feedback factor.
4. How does a closed-loop system improve stability over an open-loop
system?
○ It continuously adjusts output based on feedback to reduce errors.
5. What is meant by system response time in control systems?
○ The time taken for the system to reach a stable output after an
input change.
6. Define gain in an open-loop system.
○ The ratio of output to input without feedback consideration.
7. What is a transducer in a control system?
○ A device that converts one form of energy into another (e.g.,
sensor or actuator).
8. Give an example of a practical closed-loop control system.
○ A thermostat-controlled heating system.
Positional Resistance Transducers
9. What are the two main types of positional resistance transducers?
○ Rotary and slider variable resistors.
10. What materials are commonly used for the resistance track in a
variable resistor?
○ Carbon track or wire-wound.
11. What is the difference between a linear and logarithmic track
resistor?
○ A linear track provides uniform resistance changes, while a
logarithmic track changes exponentially.
12. How does a potentiometer work in measurement circuits?
○ It provides a variable voltage based on wiper position.
13. Explain the function of a Wheatstone bridge in resistance
measurement.
○ It balances resistance to determine an unknown value accurately.
14. How does loading affect a potentiometer’s output voltage?
○ It can create non-linearity by changing the effective resistance.
15. What is the purpose of a servo potentiometer?
○ It is motor-driven to adjust settings automatically.
16. What happens when a dual polarity voltage source is used with a
potentiometer?
○ It allows both positive and negative output voltages.
Wheatstone Bridge Measurements
17. What is the principle behind null balance in a Wheatstone bridge?
○ The bridge is balanced when the voltage difference between two
points is zero.
18. Write the formula for calculating an unknown resistance using a
Wheatstone bridge.
○ Rx=R2×R3R1R_x = \frac{R_2 \times R_3}{R_1}.
19. Why is a null balance method preferred in precise measurements?
○ It minimizes errors due to voltage drops and variations.
20. What is the role of a galvanometer in a Wheatstone bridge?
○ It detects the null balance point.
21. How does a three-wire resistance circuit improve measurement
accuracy?
○ It compensates for lead resistance errors.
22. What type of resistances can a Wheatstone bridge measure?
○ Low and medium resistances accurately.
23. What is bridge sensitivity in measurement?
○ Higher sensitivity allows for more precise resistance readings.
24. Explain how a Wheatstone bridge is used in strain gauge
measurements.
○ It detects small resistance changes caused by strain.
Temperature Measurement
25. What are the common types of temperature sensors used in
electronics?
○ Thermocouples, RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors), and
Thermistors.
26. How does a thermocouple measure temperature?
○ It generates a voltage based on the temperature difference
between two junctions.
27. What is the Seebeck effect?
○ The phenomenon where a voltage is generated due to a
temperature gradient in a thermocouple.
28. What is the advantage of using a platinum RTD?
○ High accuracy, stability, and repeatability.
29. How do RTDs differ from thermistors?
○ RTDs have a positive temperature coefficient, while thermistors
can have either positive or negative coefficients.
30. What is the main drawback of thermocouples?
○ They require reference junction compensation for accurate
readings.
31. How does self-heating affect thermistor measurements?
○ It can cause erroneous readings by increasing the sensor’s
temperature.
32. Give a key application of infrared temperature sensors.
○ Non-contact temperature measurement in industrial applications.
Light Measurement
33. What are the common types of light sensors used in
instrumentation?
○ Photodiodes, phototransistors, LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors).
34. How does an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) work?
○ Its resistance decreases as light intensity increases.
35. What is the spectral response of a photodiode?
○ The range of wavelengths it can detect, typically in the visible and
infrared range.
36. How does a phototransistor differ from a photodiode?
○ A phototransistor has amplification properties, providing higher
sensitivity.
37. What is the function of a lux meter?
○ It measures the intensity of light in units of lux.
38. What type of sensor is used in optical encoders?
○ Photodiodes or phototransistors in combination with a slotted
disk.
39. How does ambient light affect sensor readings?
○ It can introduce noise and affect measurement accuracy.
40. Explain the principle behind photovoltaic light sensors.
○ They generate voltage in response to light exposure.
Linear Position or Force Applications
41. What are the main types of linear position sensors?
○ LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer), potentiometers,
and optical encoders.
42. How does an LVDT work?
○ It converts linear displacement into an electrical signal using
mutual induction.
43. What is the advantage of using an LVDT over a potentiometer?
○ Higher accuracy, no physical contact, and longer lifespan.
44. How does strain gauge technology measure force?
○ By detecting resistance changes in a material under strain.
45. What is the role of a load cell in force measurement?
○ It converts force into an electrical signal, often using strain gauges.
46. Why is signal conditioning important in force measurement?
○ To amplify and filter the small voltage signals generated by
sensors.
47. What are some common applications of linear position sensors?
○ Robotics, industrial automation, and structural health monitoring.
48. How does hysteresis affect sensor performance?
○ It causes different output values for the same input when
approached from different directions.
Environmental Measurement
49. What environmental parameters can be measured using electronic
sensors?
○ Temperature, humidity, pressure, air quality, and light intensity.
50. How does a humidity sensor work?
○ It measures moisture levels using capacitive, resistive, or thermal
conductivity methods.
51. What is a barometer used for?
○ Measuring atmospheric pressure.
52. What role does an anemometer play in environmental
measurements?
○ It measures wind speed and direction.
53. What type of sensor is used to measure air quality?
○ Gas sensors such as MQ-series sensors detect pollutants like CO,
CO₂, and VOCs.
54. How do ultrasonic sensors help in environmental studies?
○ They measure distance, liquid levels, and detect objects in
monitoring systems.
55. What is the function of a pyranometer?
○ It measures solar radiation intensity.
56. Why is environmental monitoring important?
○ It helps in climate studies, pollution control, and disaster
prevention.
Rotational Speed or Position Measurement
57. What are common sensors used for rotational speed measurement?
○ Tachometers, rotary encoders, and Hall-effect sensors.
58. How does a tachometer measure speed?
○ It counts the number of rotations per unit of time.
59. What is the principle of operation of a Hall-effect sensor?
○ It detects changes in magnetic fields to determine position or
speed.
60. What is the function of an optical rotary encoder?
○ It converts angular position into an electrical signal using an
optical disk.
61. How does a magnetic encoder differ from an optical encoder?
○ It uses magnetic fields instead of light for position detection.
62. Why is rotational speed measurement important in industrial
applications?
○ It ensures accurate motor control, automation, and process safety.
63. What is the relationship between frequency and rotational speed in a
sensor?
○ Frequency is directly proportional to rotational speed.
64. How can rotational sensors be used in robotics?
○ They provide precise feedback for motor control and positioning.
Sound Measurement
65. What is the unit of measurement for sound intensity?
○ Decibels (dB).
66. What are the common types of sound sensors?
○ Microphones, piezoelectric sensors, and MEMS acoustic sensors.
67. How does a condenser microphone work?
○ It converts sound waves into an electrical signal using a capacitive
diaphragm.
68. What is the role of an SPL (Sound Pressure Level) meter?
○ It measures sound intensity in an environment.
69. How does frequency affect sound perception?
○ Higher frequencies correspond to higher-pitched sounds, while
lower frequencies correspond to deeper sounds.
70. What is the human hearing range in Hz?
○ Approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
71. How can ultrasonic sensors be used in sound measurement?
○ They detect high-frequency sound waves for distance
measurement and object detection.
72. What industries rely on precise sound measurement?
○ Audio engineering, environmental noise monitoring, and medical
diagnostics.
Sound Output Devices
73. What are the main types of sound output devices?
○ Speakers, buzzers, and alarms.
74. How does a piezoelectric buzzer generate sound?
○ It uses electrical signals to create mechanical vibrations in a
piezoelectric material.
75. What is the difference between an electrodynamic and an
electrostatic speaker?
○ Electrodynamic speakers use magnetic fields, while electrostatic
speakers use static charges.
76. How does an amplifier enhance sound output?
○ It increases the amplitude of audio signals to drive speakers.
77. What is the purpose of an equalizer in a sound system?
○ It adjusts different frequency ranges to enhance audio quality.
78. What is the function of a crossover in a speaker system?
○ It splits the audio signal into different frequency bands for
different drivers (e.g., woofer, tweeter).
79. How does Bluetooth technology transmit sound wirelessly?
○ It compresses and sends digital audio signals over short distances.
80. What are common applications of sound output devices?
○ Music systems, alarms, public address systems, and hearing aids.
Linear or Angular Motion Output
81. What is the difference between linear and angular motion?
○ Linear motion occurs along a straight path, while angular motion
involves rotation around a fixed point.
82. What are common sensors used for linear motion measurement?
○ LVDTs, potentiometers, and optical encoders.
83. How does a gyroscope measure angular motion?
○ It detects changes in orientation based on rotational forces.
84. What is the principle behind an accelerometer?
○ It measures acceleration due to changes in velocity using MEMS
technology.
85. What is the function of a servo motor in motion control?
○ It provides precise control of angular or linear motion using
feedback systems.
86. How does an optical encoder determine position?
○ By counting light pulses as an optical disk rotates.
87. What industries use linear and angular motion sensors?
○ Robotics, aerospace, automotive, and industrial automation.
88. How does hysteresis affect angular motion sensors?
○ It causes different output values for the same input when
approached from different directions.
