Transmission
POWER SYSTEM
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Transmission
Introduction to transmission line
A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from generating
substation to various distribution units.
Transmission line is made up of conducting material e.g. Ag, Cu, Al, Au(gold). Silver
has highest conductivity.
Aluminium is preferred because of low cost (as compared to Cu) and resistivity of
Aluminum is more as compared to copper.
Corona is less on ‘Al’ conductor.
Overhead line insulation level designed based on per phase peak voltage i.e.,
For same RMS operating voltage of the conductor, HVAC insulation level is more
compared to HVDC.
For voltages more than 300 kV line to line, switching over voltage magnitude is more
compared to lightening over voltage magnitude. So, insulation for 400 kV, 765 kV
line designed based on switching over voltages.
Design of insulation level, the voltage to be considered is the highest value among
lightening & switching over voltage.
Types of conductors
Circular conductor is mostly preferred than squared conductor because of least
corona loss takes place.
For bus-bar application, hollow conductor is suitable. It has highest mechanical
strength & also has less corona loss as its cross sectional area is more.
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Skin Effect
It is the tendency of A.C. current to be concentrated only on skin or surface of the
conductor.
Where,
δ = skin depth (It is the depth of conductor from surface in which current is ap-
preciably very high.
ω = 2πf
σ = conductivity
5σ = Depth from surface of the conductor in which non-zero current flows.
J = Jmax e-x/δ
For ideal conductor
ρ = 0 or σ = ∞
⇒δ=0
i.e., skin effect maximum for ideal conductor
As δ↑, skin effect ↓
As δ↓, skin effect ↑
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Factor on which skin effect depends
As f ↑, δ↓, skin effect ↑
⇒ Skin effect ∝ μr
As physical area (a) ↓, skin effect ↓
Stranded conductor
Have multiple conductor twisted together.
If all conductor is made up of ‘Al’ called as ‘All Aluminium Conductor (AAC)
Also known as Homogeneous stranded conductor
Stranded has less mechanical strength, so it will have more chances of breaking
down as compared to solid.
Due to spirality effect, resultant amount of conducting material required is more.
Where,
w = weight
l = span length
T = Tension
For AAC conductor,
As T↓, sag↑, h↓, safety for system↓
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Composite standard conductor
Some of aluminium strands replaced with new strands having good mechanical
strength (i.e., steel is used)
Also known as Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)
ACSR is represented as x/y
Where,
x = Number of Al strands (or) Number of steel strands
y = Number of steel strands (or) Number of aluminium strands
Number of strands = (3n2 – 3n + 1)
Where n = Number of layers.
For n layers,
D = (2n – 1) d
Here, D = Diameter of each strand
d = Diameter of ACSR
Most used conductor in the distribution system is ACSR 1/6
GMD & GMR
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GMD
It is the effective distance over which mutual magnetic flux linkages will occur.
It is geometric mean of all mutual distance from one conductor to remaining return
conductor in same system.
Note: To calculate GMD, Number of paths has to be considered but not the num-
ber of conductors.
GMR
It is the effective distance over which self-magnetic flux linkages will occur.
It is self-distance or self GMD.
GMR = 0.7788r = r’
Here r = physical radius
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Equivalent circuit
Internal Inductance (Lint)
External Inductance (Lext)
Total Inductance (LTotal)
Flux linkage
Bundled conductor system
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It means more than one conductor per phase.
It is used to reduce corona or electric field intensity in the system.
Advantage of Bundled conductors
Bundling of conductors leads to reduction in line inductance.
The maximum power transfer capability of the line increases as
The voltage regulation of the line is also increased as the reactance of the line is
reduced.
They will increase Surge Impedance Loading.
They reduce corona discharge.
They improved transmission efficiency of the line.
Reduction in communication line interference due to reduction in corona.
The current carrying capacity of bundled conductors is much increased in compari-
son to single large conductor owing to reduced skin effect.
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Three phase transmission line
Symmetrical configuration
La = Lb = Lc
Radio interference is absent.
Asymmetrical configuration
La ≠ Lb ≠ Lc
All GMD’s are unequal.
Unequal voltage drop’s in conductors, receiving end voltage are unbalanced.
Radio interference is present.
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Transposition
In this method, exchange the position of conductor so that each conductor experi-
ences all the three inductances or all the three positional GMD.
If system is unbalanced, no matter whether we are using symmetrical configura-
tion or asymmetrical configuration, whether or not transposing the line, there will
always be radio interference.
Radio Interference is due to only zero sequence components of current.
Capacitance
For 1 – ϕ, 2-wire system
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Three-phase system
For bundle Conductor
Charging current
Ic= ω Cph Vph
Reactive power
Effect of parameters
If l↑ ⇒ R↑, L↑, C↑, Ic↑
If r↑ ⇒ R↓, L↓, C↑, Ic↑
If d↑ ⇒ R = constant, L↑, C↓, Ic↓
If f↑ ⇒ R↑, L = C = constant, Ic↑
If V↑ ⇒ R, L, C = constant, Ic↑
Efficiency of line
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Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation is the magnitude change in receiving end voltage from No-load
to full load as a ratio of full load voltage.
Assumption: |Vs| = constant
Classification of transmission lines
Based on physical length of line at a specified frequency
Or
On the basis of consideration of capacitor ‘C’ into electrical equivalent circuit.
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Transmission line
Short transmission line Medium transmission line Long transmission line
Ic is Negligible Ic is considered Ic is very large
l < 80 km, f = 50 Hg 80 km < l < 160 km l > 160 km
lf < 4000 km/sec 4000 < lf < 10000 lf > 10000
‘C’ can be removed ‘C’ can be considered ‘C’ should be taken in the
RL lumped model RLC lumped parameter network
model RLCG distributed model
Medium Transmission line
Load end or receiving end capacitor ‘C’ model
Source end capacitor ‘C’ model
Nominal – T model
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Nominal π model
Note:
Nominal π model is preferred as compared to nominal T model.
For long transmission line, distributed model is used.
Steady state Analysis is done using lumped model while transient analysis is done
using distributed model.
ABCD parameters
→ open circuit driving point input impedance
→ Short circuit driving point input impedance
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Characteristic Impedance
For symmetrical network
A=D
For reciprocal or passive Network
AD – BC = 1
Cascading of Transmission line
Voltage regulation
This is universal formula for any transmission line.
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Line charging current
This is universal formula for any transmission line.
Short transmission line analysis
Observation
Symmetrical Condition: A = D
Reciprocal Condition: AD – BC = 1
Voltage regulation:
Charging Current:
Medium transmission line
Receiving end ‘C’ model
It exhibits Ferranti effect.
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Sending end ‘c’ model
It does not exhibit Ferranti effect.
Nominal T model
This model is also exhibit Ferranti effect. But less than Receiving end ‘C’ model.
Nominal π model
Note: Both Nominal T & Nominal π model have same Ferranti effect
Long Transmission line
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Per unit ABCD parameters
Apu = A
Cpu = C Zbase
D = Dpu
Complex representation
A = |A| ∠α; |A| ≤ 1, very close to unity α = 0° to 10°
B = |B| ∠β; β = 60° to 90°
C = |C| ∠γ; γ ≃ 90°
D = |D| ∠Δ; |D| ≤ 1, very close to 1, Δ = 0° to 10°
Static power transfer equations
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Real power injected to receiving end bus,
Reactive power injected to receiving end bus,
Maximum power transfer condition:
β=δ
For maximum power transfer, receiving end pf should be leading.
If system is stable (δ < β)
If system is unstable (δ > β)
If system is maginally stable (δ = β)
In case of short transmission line,
If (δ1 – δ2) > 0 then ‘P’ flows from bus (1) to bus (2)
If (δ1 – δ2) < 0 then ‘P’ flows from bus (2) to bus (1)
‘P’ always flows from leading voltage terminal to lagging voltage terminal.
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If X/R of line > X/R of load, then ‘P’ flows from leading V-terminal to lagging V-
terminal.
If X/R of line < X/R of load, then ‘P’ flow, from lagging V-terminal to leading V-
terminal.
If |V2| > |V1| cos (δ1 – δ2) then Bus (2) delivers ‘Q’
If |V2| < |V1| cos (δ1 – δ2) then Bus (2) absorbs ‘Q’
‘Q’ flows from higher magnitude V-terminal to lower magnitude V-terminal whenev-
er both voltages are taken on same reference.
Distortion less line
Loss less line
R=G=0
Flat or infinite line
ZL = Zc
Velocity of electromagnetic wave
propagation
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Propagation constant (γ)
For lossless line:
Wavelength
Surge impedance or characteristic
impedance or natural impedance
Surge impedance of attenuated line is ‘capacitive’ in nature.
For loss-less model
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; pure resistive in nature
Surge Impedance loading (SIL)
Note:
Loading = SIL Loading > SIL Loading < SIL
ZL = ZC ZL < ZC ZL > ZC
|Vs| = |VR| |Vs| > |VR| |Vs| < |VR|
|IS| = |IR| |IS| < |IR| |IS| > |IR|
Unity pf lagging pf leading pf
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