Systems engineering is an approach, an attitude, and a loose set of methods

for solving complex problems.

Systems engineering requires a broad approach that applies general
principles to promote understanding across disciplines and clarify
interactions between system components. System components include
hardware, software, environmental influences, and human operators.
1.THE SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE-
Systems engineering maintains a broad, long-term view of the constraints and
the product life cycle. There is a continual improvement to satisfy the long-
term requirements within the life cycle of the systems solution.
Constraints peculiar to each situation shape the methods that apply. Some
basic constraints are found in most projects:
1. Functionality
2. Cost
3. Safety

4. Reliability
5. Maintainability
6. Utility
7. Time
Within such constraints, a product passes through a life cycle that includes
development, evaluation, maintenance, and disposal. The life cycle describes
the evolution of the system bounded by the constraints.

2.DOCUMENTATION-
Documentation provides systems engineering and is central to good
engineering. Understanding the customer and the requirements, measuring
progress and test results, creating drawings by computer-aided design (CAD),
producing instructions, and presenting the product in a user manual all
require communication and records.. Concise, clear, and complete
documentation will provide a critical avenue of communication and record
progress effectively.

It records progress during development. These records indicate how well

satisfying the requirements. Documents help establish the legal liability.
All documentation fits into an overall scheme called configuration
management that ensures a match between the delivered product and its
documentation and that captures a history of the development effort.

3.CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT-
Systems engineering begins with defining the problem. No matter how superb
your ability, you can't solve a problem if you don't understand it. Therefore,
definition is an absolutely necessary first step. You must establish the
following:
1. Customer objectives
2. User needs

3. Mission or regions of operation

4. Constraints
5. Regulations and standards
Defining these elements will provide the who, what, where, and when of a
problem. Corporate vision will explain why this problem is important and why
it should be solved. The remaining techniques described in this book will help
establish the how.
Concept of development enters an iterative cycle of analyses to define
candidate solutions. The analyses include functional analysis, modeling, and
feasibility. Beginning with functional analysis, determine what must be done
by illuminating the operations flow. All systems have some sort of operations
flow, for example, data flow, energy distribution and consumption, monetary
trans- actions, or passenger and material transport. Once functional analysis
defines the operations, discover the numerous operations or solutions exist
for a particular problem. Then model each solution to characterize it and
perform a feasibility study to reveal trade-offs. After defining the operations,
model the solutions, and test their feasibility iteratively, the concepts
development can be used in determining the requirements.

4.REQUIREMENTS-
Requirements crystallize the function, operation, and performance of the
system. The requirements result from the various efforts of concept
development: analysis, simulation, and prototyping as well as functional and
feasibility analyses. The requirements establish metrics for quantifying
progress during development of the system solution. Requirements define the
what of system function (but not the how).
However, requirements can change. The mere existence of a developing
system solution will spark change in the requirements by causing customers
and potential users to envision possibilities not previously considered.
A development plan in concert with the requirements, and both plan and
requirements should be mentioned in the configuration management plan.
Include the following elements:
1. Schedule and milestones
2. Deliverables
3. Design reviews

4. Test reviews
Requirements have attributes that vary from hard metrics with readily
measurable properties to subjective qualities that are difficult to evaluate.

5.DESIGN DEVELOPMENT-
Design synthesizes the how of component interaction within the system.

All parts of systems engineering revolve around the synthesis of the solution.
Concept development proposes various approaches to design.
The synthesis of functionality, testability, manufacturability, and marketability
requires an interdisciplinary team throughout the product development.
Process of interdisciplinary cooperation is concurrent engineering. Within the
necessary standards and teamwork approach, development may proceed
along one of several lines or methods:
1. Top-down: The requirements completely drive the design.
2. Bottom-up: The solution is synthesized from current designs and available
technology.
3. Outside-in: System interfaces drive the design.

4. Inside-out: The design is driven by developing technology.

5. Hybrid: A combination of approaches is used.
The actual design process involves identification, trade-offs, and specification
of different approaches to components and component interaction. For
example, weigh temperature stability versus cost in selecting a resistor type in
circuit design. The steps that define interactions occur in the following
sequence:
1. Identify parameters (performance, cost, etc.).

2. Select the evaluation techniques necessary to analyze each choice.

3. Perform a sensitivity analysis for uncertain parameter values.
4. Identify the attendant risks.
5. Recommend the preferred approach.

6.RAPID PROTOTYPING AND FIELD TESTING-

Rapid prototyping and field testing provide two more ways to close the
feedback loop in design. They can pull the design toward the intent of the
requirements and fit the system to the customer’s desires. Specifically, they
validate a design.
Rapid prototyping presents various functions to a user who then assesses
each of the possible modes.
Rapid prototyping is most useful for addressing issues related to the human
interface:
1. Presentation
2. Ease of use
3. Intuitiveness

4. Response latency
Rapid prototyping is characterized by a short duration, or latency between
mode comparisons. The prototype usually implements a subset of the system
functions to give the user a feel for its operation.
In contrast, a field test implements a more finished product and exhibits
longer durations between updates or alterations. Field testing concentrates
on the longer term effects and attempts to shake out the more obscure bugs,
flaws, and inadequacies.

7.VALIDATION, VERIFICATION, AND INTEGRATION-

Formal tests certify the fulfillment of the requirements and the system goals.
Validation determines how well the requirements suit the intent of the system
solution. Verification evaluates how well the system satisfies the
requirements. Integration is the process of assembling the components and
subsystems and performing the acceptance tests of validation and
verification.
Verification quantifies system performance and compares it with the
requirements. Verification occurs later in the development process and tends
to be more extensive than validation. Integration may proceed along one of
several courses:

1. Modular
2. Spiral development
3. Expanding envelope
The modular approach adds each subsystem sequentially, followed by a
prescribed set of tests. It works well for integrating a very modular system
such as a rack of test equipment. Spiral development prepares and tests the
major functions first, followed by lower-priority functions. Some software
programs follow a spiral development model. Finally, the expanding envelope
approach is used for systems and that must have a critical mass or a majority
of assembled components and sub- systems before meaningful tests can be
performed.
8.MAINTENANCE AND LIFE-CYCLE COSTS-

Many designers fall short in planning for the maintenance within the life-cycle
costs of a system. Consequently, maintenance becomes a bag of trial-and-
error tricks that can be time consuming, inefficient, and costly. Maintenance
must be carefully considered to build success into a product.
Maintenance is either planned or unscheduled. For example, battery
replacement or lubrication. Unscheduled maintenance, or repair, returns the
system to operation after a failure.
The philosophical basis assigns a level of functionality and availability to the
system during either a failure. The five levels of functionality, generally
arranged in decreasing order of availability or in increasing order of expertise
required for repair, are as follows:
1.Fail operational: Redundant architecture allows uninterrupted operation.

2. Cold spare: Switch in a redundant system to minimize interruption.

3. Line-replaceable unit: Remove the failed circuit board or module, and plug
in a spare.
4. Component replacement: Diagnose and repair the specific component
failure.
5. Disposable: Throw away the failed device and get a new one.

Life-cycle costs figure into all considerations of operation and maintenance.

These costs are difficult to measure or even estimate, but they directly affect
customer and consequently the future acceptance and success of device or
system. A reasonable and clearly defined set of life-cycle costs increases the
customer’s confidence in product; it also provides a gauge for the
effectiveness of future product developments. Life-cycle costs fall, rather
arbitrarily.

9.FAILURE, ITERATION, AND JUDGMENT-

Learning by experimentation, iteration and failure advances technology and
engineering development. The goal of learning is to perfect engineering
judgment.
Ultimately, you want to engineer a successful product and reduce failure.
Experimentation and design iteration can reduce the magnitude of failure due
to assumptions – at the same time learn and expand experience.