UNIT – III

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION: Introduction To Prestressed Concrete, Advantages Of

Prestressed Concrete, Types Of Pre-Stressing, Methods Of PreStressing, Equipment For Pre-Stressing
Operation.

PREFABRICATED STRUCTURES: Introduction To Prefabricated Structures, Planning For Pre-Casting,

Selection Of Equipment For Fabrication, Transport And Erection Of Prefabricated Components,
Quality Measures, Design Considerations Of Precast Elements, Safety Measure During Erection.

Introduction To Prestressed Concrete

INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE:

Prestressed concrete components are similar to normal concrete but it has high strength concrete and
high tensile steel wires.

High-grade concrete is used in prestressed concrete because reinforcement imposes large

pressure forces for members causing high stresses at the ends to be developed by anchoring
equipment.
The stress generated at the end of the beam can only be resisted by high strength concrete.

Due to the high strength concrete, the cross-sectional area required for the member will
decrease, reducing the dead load of the member.

METHODS OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE:

1.Pre-tensioning:
In this system, wires/cables are stressed before casting concrete.

One end of the reinforcement is secured to the abutment, while the other end of the
reinforcement is pulled using a jack and then this end is fixed to the other abutment and
concrete is poured.

After treatment and hardening, reinforcement intentions are revoked.

The reinforcement that bends to resume its original length would be compressed by bending
the concrete around it, thus transmitting the prestress to the concrete.

2.Post-tensioning:
i) Bonded posttension ->stressing cables direct contact with concrete
ii) Unbonded posttension -> not contact with concrete

In this system, reinforcement is tensioned after the concrete is hardened, leaving the ducts to
first insert the cable to the beam.
The ducts are released into the concrete by providing a steel spiral to the corrugated steel
tubes.
When the concrete is hardened and develops its strength, the cable is passed through the
ducts, one end is fixed to the anchor, then the other end of the cable. Jack pulls the cable
and compresses the concrete at the same time.

EQUIPMENT USED IN PRESTRESSED CONCRETE :

Tensioning apparatus:
Prestressing steel may be tensioned by means of levers, screw jacks, hydraulic jacks or similar
mechanical apparatus.

The type of tensioning apparatus shall be such that a controlled force can be applied.

A device should be attached to this apparatus for measuring applied force, this measuring
device should not have an error of more than 5 %.

Temporary gripping devices:

Wedges, yokes, double cones are the gripping devices, the prestressing wires may be gripped
signally or in. group.

Gripping device shall be such that in a tensile test, the wires fixed by them should bleep
before the failure of grip.

Releasing device:
It should be such that during the period between the tensioning and release, the tension in
the prestressed concrete elements is fully maintained by positive means as external
anchorage.

Anchorage:
The anchorage may consist of any device, which will provide the following clauses:

• It should be strong enough to resist the breaking strength of tendons.

• Holding capacity should be more.
• It should be safe against dynamic, static and impact loads.

Advantages of Prestressed Concrete:

1. The reinforcement of concrete using excessive tensile steel improves the
effectiveness of the material.
2. The prestressing system works for a span greater than 35 m.
3. Prestressing will increase the shear strength and exhaustion resistance of
concrete.
4. Dense concrete is provided by a prestressing system, thereby bettering
durability.
5. The best choice for constructing smooth and thin buildings.
6. Prestressing helps reduce the useless load of concrete construction.
7. Prestressed concrete remains uncontrolled even below service load conditions
which proves structural effectivity.
8. Composite construction using this concrete unit and cast-in-unit achieves
economic structure.
Disadvantages of prestressed concrete:
1. This concrete is high materials cost.
2. Formwork is extra complicated than RC.

Uses of prestressed concrete:

• In bridges, pre-stressed concrete is used to increase the potential span of the
bridge and to make the bridge more durable under moving traffic conditions.
• The types of concrete are used to reduce the overall weight of the building
thus reducing seismic forces and making the building economical.
• These slabs can also span large distances which can reduce the number of
columns in the building.
• They are used in construction work such as factories and warehouses.
• They are durable and can travel great distances.
CONCLUSION:
Prestressed concrete can be used in a wide range of residential and commercial
construction in the interior and exterior of buildings.

Types Of Pre-Stressing

1. Pre-Tensioning System
Hoyer system or long line method is often adopted in pre-tensioning. Two bulk
heads or abutments independently anchored to the ground are provided several
meters apart, say, 100m wires are stretched between the bulkheads. Moulds are
placed enclosing the wires. Concrete is placed surrounding the wires.

With this Hoyer system, several members can be produced along one line. This
method is economical and is used in almost all pre-tensioning factories.

For tensioning, a hydraulic jack is used. Wires are gripped at the bulkheads, using
split-cone wedges. These wedges are made from tapered conical pins. Flat
surface of the pin carries serrations to grip the wire (fig. 1 and 2).

There is another pre-tensioning method known as Shorer system. In this system

a central tube of high strength steel carries the prestress from surrounding wires
and the entire assembly is placed in position and concreted.

After the concrete has attained sufficient strength, the tube is removed and the
prestress is transferred to concrete through bond. The hole left by the tube is
grouted.
The advantage in pre-tensioning system is that there is no expenditure on end
anchorages and on rubber core or metal sheath required for post-tensioning
system. There is greater certainty about the prestressing force. In post-tensioned
members certainty of the force depends on the two end anchorages.

Disadvantages in this system are that the end abutments should be very strong
and are provided only in precast factories. This naturally limits the size of the
member as large sizes are difficult to transport from factory to the site of
construction. Loss is more in pre-tensioned members.

Fig.1: Typical Pre-tensioning Bed

Fig.2: Some Typical Wire Gripping System

2. Post-Tensioning System

A metal tube or a flexible hose following intended profile is placed inside the mould and

concrete is laid. Flexible hose is then removed leaving a duct inside the member. Steel cable is

inserted in the duct.

The cable is anchored at one end of the member and stretched using a hydraulic jack at the

other end. After stretching the cable is anchored at the other end also. Therefore post tensioning

system consists of end anchorages and jacks.

The popular post-tensioning systems are the following:

1. Freyssinet system
2. Magnel Blaton system
3. Gifford-Udall system
4. Lee-McCall system

1. Freyssinet System

Freyssinet system was introduced by the French Engineer Freyssinet and it was the first

method to be introduced. High strength steel wires of 5mm or 7mm diameter, numbering 8 or

12 or 16 or 24 are grouped into a cable with a helical spring inside. Spring keeps proper spacing

for the wire. Cable is inserted in the duct.

Fig.3: Freyssinet system of Post-tensioning

Anchorage device consists of a concrete cylinder with a concentric conical hole and corrugations

on its surface, and a conical plug carrying grooves on its surface (Fig. 3). Steel wires are carried

along these grooves at the ends. Concrete cylinder is heavily reinforced.

Members are fabricated with the cylinder placed in position. Wires are pulled by Freyssinet

double acting jacks which can pull through suitable grooves all the wires in the cable at a time.

One end of the wires is anchored and the other end is pulled till the wires are stretched to the

required length. An inner piston in the jack then pushes the plug into the cylinder to grip the

wires.

2. Magnel Blaton system

In Freyssinet system several wires are stretched at a time. In Magnel Blaton system, two wires

are stretched at a time. This method was introduced by a famous engineer, Prof. Magnel of

Belgium.

In this system, the anchorage device consists of sandwich plate having grooves to hold the wires

and wedges which are also grooved. Each plate carries eight wires.

Between the two ends the spacing of the wires is maintained by spacers. Wires of 5mm or 7mm

are adopted. Cables consists of wires in multiples of 8 wires. Cables with as much as 64 wires

are also used under special conditions.

A specially devised jack pulls two wires at a time and anchors them. The wires with the

sandwich plate using tapered wedge is shown in fig.4.

Fig.4: Anchorage of Magnel System

3. Gifford Udall System

This system originated in Great Britain, is widely used in India. This is a single wire system.

Each wire is stressed independently using a double acting jack. Any number of wires can be

grouped together to form a cable in this system. There are two types of anchorage device in this

system.

a) Tube anchorages

b) Plate anchorages

Tube anchorage consists of a bearing plate, anchor wedges and anchor grips. Anchor plate may

be square or circular and have 8 or 12 tapered holes to accommodate the individual

prestressing wires. These wires are locked into the tapered holes by means of anchor wedges.

In addition, grout entry hole is also provided in the bearing plate for grouting. Anchor wedges

are split cone wedges carrying serrations on its flat surface.

There is a tube unit which is a fabricated steel component incorporating a thrust plate, a steel

tube with a surrounding helix. This unit is attached to the end shutters and form an efficient

cast-in component of the anchorage (fig.5).

(fig.5).

Fig.5: Plate Anchorage

Plate Anchorage

4. Lee McCall System

This method is used to prestress steel bars. The diameter of the bar is between 12 and 28mm.

bars provided with threads at the ends are inserted in the performed ducts. After stretching the

bars to the required length, they are tightened using nuts against bearing plates provided at the

end sections of the member (fig.6).

Fig.6: End
Anchorage for Lee McCall System

5. Other Methods of Prestressing

a) Electrical Prestressing

in this method, reinforcing bars is coated with thermoplastic material such as sulphur or low

melting alloy and buried in the concrete. After the concrete is set, electric current of low voltage

but high amperage is passed through the bar.

Electric current heats the bar and the bar elongates. Bars provided with threads at the other end

are tightened against heavy washers, after required elongation is obtained. When the bar cools,

prestress develops and the bond is restored by solidification of the coating.

b) Chemical Prestressing

Chemical prestressing is done using expanding cement. Prestressing can be applied b

embedding steel in concrete made of expanding cement. Steel is elongated by the expansion of

the concrete and thus gets prestressed. Steel in turn produces compressive stress in concrete.

Methods Of Pre-Stressing
Methods of Prestressing
There are two methods of prestressing:
• Pre-tensioning: Apply prestress to steel strands before casting concrete;
• Post-tensioning: Apply prestress to steel tendons after casting concrete.

Pre-tensioning

This is the most common form for precast sections. In Stage 1 the wires or strands are stressed; in
Stage 2 the concrete is cast around the stressed wires/strands; and in Stage 3 the prestressed in
transferred from the external anchorages to the concrete, once it has sufficient strength:
In pre-tensioned members, the strand is directly bonded to the concrete cast around it.

Therefore, at the ends of the member, there is a transmission length where the strand force is
transferred to the concrete through the bond:

At the ends of pre-tensioned members it is sometimes necessary to debond the strand from the
concrete. This is to keep the stresses within allowable limits where there is little stress induced by self
with or other loads:
Post-tensioned

In this method, the concrete has already set but has ducts cast into it. The strands or tendons are fed
through the ducts (Stage 1) then tensioned (Stage 2) and then anchored to the concrete (Stage 3):

The anchorages to post-tensioned members must distribute a large load to the concrete, and must
resist bursting forces as a result. A lot of ordinary reinforcement is often necessary.

A typical tendon anchorage is:

And the end of a post-tensioned member has reinforcement such as:

Losses

From the time the prestress is applied, the prestress force gradually reduces over time to an
equilibrium level. The sources of these losses depend on the method by which prestressing is applied.

In both methods:

• The member shortens due to the force and this relieves some of the prestress;

• The concrete shrinks as it further cures;

• The steel ‘relaxes’, that is, the steel stress reduces over time;

• The concrete creeps, that is, continues to strain over time.

In post-tensioning, there are also losses due to the anchorage (which can ‘draw in’ an amount) and to
the friction between the tendons and the duct and also initial imperfections in the duct setting out.
Planning For Pre-Casting (photo)

Equipment For Pre-Stressing Operation

CCL Prestressing Equipment

Preshcon’s Prestressing Systems Equipment range incorporates the combination of CCL

Jacks with CCL Pumps. CCL Prestressing Jacks have remained the world’s leading
Prestressing Jacks since their original development in the 1960s combining industry
leading design with the highest quality to deliver the highest performance. CCL
Prestressing Pumps are manufactured to endure the world’s most demanding
environments, choosing the highest quality hydraulic components available has
delivered unrivalled reliability and performance on even the most challenging of
construction projects for over 50 years.

Prestressing Jacks

CCL “Stressomatic” Prestressing Jack range incorporates power lock-off to ensure

wedges are correctly seated inside the grip barrel, and to prevent the release of strand
under force. All standard models are of leightweight construction for ease of handling
by one operator without lifting gear. Long stroke rams for 160kN and 300kN forces are
also available, and all CCL jacks now incorporate new hard wearing seals for extended
life.

Unique features of the CCL Stressomatic Prestressing Jacks include:

• Minimum strand wastage: Pulling wedges are located inside the jack near to the
so only the short length of wire or strand is required for attachment.
• Speedy operation: The jack extends and retracts rapidly under power and any
length of strand may be stress, the strand passing down the center hole of the
ram. Typically, 13mm strand on the 30m long stressing bed can be stress within
25 seconds.
• Power lock-off: The front of the hydraulic cylinder automatically locks off to
reduce wedge drawing to a minimum.
 • Safety: Operation is by push button controls-hand-held or clamp to the pump
unit - with 3m lead for maximum operator safety.
• Maintenance: Stressomatic jacks are easily and quickly stripped down for
cleaning and maintenance using the tools provided.

Available Sizes

Long / Short
Type STRAND RANGE Stroke Length (mm) WEIGHT (KG) Closed length(mm
Stroke

60KN UP TO 7MM SHORT STROKE 200 12.25 62

SHORT STROKE 200 25.00 7

160KN 7 – 13MM
LONG STROKE 500 35.00 10

SHORT STROKE 200 41.00 7

300KN 13 – 18MM
LONG STROKE 400 61.00 10

Prestressing Pumps

CCL Prestressing Pumps are able to deliver a range of pressures speeding up stressing
operations but delivering exact control when needed for precise stressing. Advanced
force control systems allow accurate multiple input and transfer of data to computer for
real time analysis, storage and printing. Remote push button control means safe and
simple operation with the user able to take up safe positioning while stressing.

Unique features of the CCL Stressomatic Prestressing Pumps include:

• Bespoke manifold systems to reduce risk of faults on complex pipe work

• Two speed pump increases speed at low pressure and slows when accuracy is
required when reaching required load
 • All Steel Pressure system which is quieter, stronger, more reliable
• Seated Valves which allows a lighter/smaller oil reservoir and less heat
generation
• Innovative integrated pump/motor giving smaller, more compact, lightweight
designs
• Power Lock-off to provide safe stressing operation
• High quality Gauges accurate to 1% gives instant visual display
• EC Thermoplastic pipes fitted with anti-kink springs for safety

CCL Prestressing Pumps are available in 2 ranges :

i. SR3000 Prestressing Pumps are a more robust design with protection frame as
standard, their exceptional build quality and specifications ensure high reliability
and low maintenance over their lifetime. The SR3000 Prestressing Pump offers
rapid, reliable 2 speed stressing up to 18mm strand.
ii. SRX Prestressing Pumps are a more compact, lightweight prestressing pump,
capable of delivering fantastic performance on small strand diameters. Ideal for
site work or workshops where pump mobility is key they are available in various
voltages. Both Prestressing Pump types are available in various sizes and
voltages with many interchangeable features making them the ideal drive unit
for any Prestressing Jack.

PREFABRICATED STRUCTURES
Introduction To Prefabricated Structures

Structures constructed by the method of pre-fabrication and precast are called prefabricated
structures.

Prefabricated structure can be easily transported, assembled and dismantled.

After dismantling, it is again moved to the required location, where it can be reassembled
easily.

METHODS OF PREFABRICATED STRUCTURE:

1.Plant Pre-construction:
The process in which various precast concrete components are manufactured in the factory itself
called plant pre-fabrication.

In-plant pre-fabrication, precast concrete components are manufactured under precise quality
control and each precast member is inspected and tested then transported to the site.
These members are operated by hoist and crane equipment, the site requires heavy transport fees
to carry a precast member.

2.Site Pre-Construction:
When the process in which various precast concrete components are manufactured on site
called site pre-fabrication. It does not require any transportation fees to carry the precast
member, but does require lifting equipment to assemble the precast components.

Laboratory testing for various materials required for components and precast components
cannot be performed in site pre-fabrication.

Selection Of Equipment For Fabrication

Linear members:
This includes members such as beams, lintels, columns, walls that are forecast for pre-
construction work.

Rigid frames:
This includes R.C.C. Portal frames, these rigid frames are manufactured at the factory and
then transported to the required site.

This is very difficult to transport a rigid frame to the site because the overall size of the frame
is high therefore desirable to construct a rigid frame on site.

Roofing and flooring members:

The various roofing and floor members are prefabricated in the factory then transported to
the place where they are assembled.

R.C. doors and windows:

Reinforced concrete doors and windows are prefabricated at the factory then transported to
site for installation.

Wall panels:
Various wall panels of desired size and shape are prefabricated then transported to the site
where they are assembled.

Advantages of prefabricated structure:

1.Mass manufacturing of units:
Automation of the manufacturing process can save labor and reduce the price, designers can
use units of requirements and prepare entries for details.

2.The discount on prices and construction time on site:

Much less work to be accomplished on-site, saving the use of formwork on the site.
Precast units could be erected in a dangerous climate.

3.Effective use of formwork:

Metal formwork is often used and increases the diversity of users up to 200 times.
Precast units can be formed so that they are self-stripping and impose labour exemption on
molds.

4.Improved high quality of units:

Factory manufacturing under strict high-quality control.

Prefabricated structure units could be carefully checked after manufacture .

5.The particular shape and surface finishes:

Items can be cast in any place, similar to an upside-down on their sides and so on.

Coloured concrete could be produced by using white cement and colour pigment.
6.Casting under cover:
Safety from scorching or drying winds.

7.Demountable structures:
Bolted connections could be easily dismantled and re-erected in other places.

8.Construction over and underwater:

No or little formwork is required, falsework will not be required.

Minimal disruption to visitors, the precast bridge could be constructed without falsework.

Disadvantages of prefabricated structure:

1. Cautious handling of prefabricated parts similar to concrete panels or metal
and glutes panels is required.
2. The insert strength and corrosion resistance of the prefabricated sections
should be considered to keep them away from joint failure.
3. Equally, prefabricated parts might leak at the joints.
4. Transportation prices could also be higher for voluminous prefabricated
sections than for the materials that are made or might often be packed more
compactly.
5. Massive prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes to place in position,
exact measurement, and handling.
6. A small variety of units required might prove to be uneconomical.
7. Particular connections, similar to special bearings to transmit vertical and
horizontal loads can add value to the system.
CONCLUSION:
These prefabricated structure are inbuilt a managed factory environment.

However, individual parts of a room or unit are built separately and then put together
completely before the entire structure is transported to the site and assembled onto the
foundation.

Transport And Erection Of Prefabricated Components

TRANSPORT
 • The transport of the prefabrication elements must be carried out and with extreme
care to avoid any flock and anguish in the elements and handled as much as possible
to place it in the final portion.

• The transport of prefabricated elements within the factory depends on the

production method selected for manufacturing.

• The transport of prefabricated elements from the factory to the place of action must
be planned in accordance with the traffic rules and regulations stipulated by the
authority, the size of the elements is often restricted by the availability of appropriate
transport equipment, such as the tractor -am- tailored, to adapt to the load and
dimension of the member, in addition

Transportation and erection: – After complete curing is done the components are transported to the
site with heavy trucks and erection will be done using cranes with skilled labour force.
Prefab Building Components
Some of the prefabricated components are as explained below

Prefab Column to Column Connection

Columns: – A column is a vertical member carrying the beam and floor loadings to the foundation. It
is a compression member and therefore the column connection is required to be proper. The main
principle involved in making column connections is to ensure continuity and this can be achieved by a
variety of methods.

Beams: – Beams can vary in their complexity of design and reinforcement from the very simple beam
formed over an isolated opening to the more common encountered in frames where the beams transfer
their loadings to the column. Methods of connecting beams and columns are

• A precasting concrete haunch is cast on to the column with a locating dowel or stud
bolt to fix the beam.
• A projecting metal corbel is fixed to the column and the beam is bolted to the
corbel.
• Column and beam reinforcement, generally in the form of hooks, are left exposed.
The two members are hooked together and covered with insitu concrete to
complete the joint. This is as shown in the figure.
Waffle unit for flooring / roofing: – These are suitable for roofs / floors spanning in two directions.
They are laid in a grid pattern. These units are cast in moulds. The saving achieved is not much. Also
Shuttering are complicated and costly. Time consumption for construction is less

Prefab Column to
Beam Connection
Advantages And Disadvantages
Advantages:
1. Saving in cost, material, time & manpower.
2. Shuttering and scaffolding is not necessary.
3. Installation of building services and finishes can be done immediately.
4. Independent of weather condition.
5. Components produced at close supervision .so quality is good
6. Clean and dry work at site.
7. Possibility of alterations and reuse
8. Correct shape and dimensions and sharp edges are maintained.
9. Very thin sections can be entirely precast with precision.
Disadvantages:
• Handling and transportation may cause breakages of members during the transit
and extra provision is to be made.
• Difficulty in connecting precast units so as to produce same effect as monolithic.
This leads to non-monolithic construction.
• They are to be exactly placed in position, otherwise the loads coming on them are
likely to get changed and the member may be affected.
• Disadvantages:
• High transport cost
• Need of erection equipment
• Skilled labour and supervision is required.

Quality Measures

5. Precautions against the quality problems of prefabricated building construction

5.1 Strengthen the use of auxiliary tools.

In the prefabricated building construction and installation, due to the large weight of most PC
components, it brings great difficulty to the hoisting and installation of the project, so the use of
auxiliary tools is strengthened. For example, use a corner plate "L-shaped" spreader. The corner
plate is prone to bending and damage during transportation, management and hoisting [6]. In order
to ensure the quality of the corner plate to the utmost extent, the "L-shaped" spreader is used in the
hoisting process, and the tensile force of the corner plate is hoisted. Transfer to the "L-shaped"
spreader to ensure the quality of the corner plate.

5.2 Reasonable control of component connection quality.

During the construction process, relevant personnel should appropriately increase the aperture,
improve the hole penetration rate of the alignment bar, and enhance the integrity of the connection
of the prefabricated members to effectively solve the prefabricated steel bars and the reserved
holes in the field [6]. The problem of the alignment. In addition, in order to effectively solve the
problem of insufficient filling of reserved holes, relevant personnel should strengthen the quality
supervision of hole grouting and strengthen the operation skills of the operators. The supervision
unit supervises and inspects the grouting quality by 100% inspection to ensure the quality of
grouting.

5.3 Establish a sound assembly quality supervision mechanism.

 Many problems at the construction site are not caused by the construction personnel, but the
assembly engineering design or the prefabricated components have problems in the production and
processing, which has led to a series of construction quality problems. Through the establishment of
a scientific and perfect quality supervision mechanism, through the comprehensive and full-process
supervision and inspection, the problems that may exist in the construction process are controlled in
the germination, thereby reducing the problems encountered in the construction process and
improving the construction efficiency, so as to be more comprehensive [7]. Strengthen the
supervision work of prefabricated building construction. Standardize engineering supervision in the
aspects of construction plan review, construction production supervision, component factory
entrance inspection, model house witness, grouting waterproofing and other key links, installation
risk point protection supervision and structural engineering acceptance [6].

5.4 BIM-based component design and construction.

In the design and construction of prefabricated buildings, accurate three-dimensional modeling is

carried out through the application of BIM technology to solve the collision between structural
members, embedded pipelines and staggered steel bars, guiding the production, construction and
installation of prefabricated components and engineering [7], Application of BIM technology in
prefabricated building design

5.5 Strengthen the training of construction personnel.

Inviting assembled construction engineering research professionals to carry out relevant

construction technical training for construction management personnel and construction personnel
to standardize the construction process and construction process, or dispatch personnel to the
advanced construction units of assembly and construction technology at home and abroad to learn
and advanced the construction design and construction process are applied during the construction
process, so as to improve the construction efficiency and ensure the quality of the assembled
construction project.

Design Considerations Of Precast Elements

Description of the Project

The building is a 12-storey office block in a mix commercial development
comprising car parkings , shopping malls and service apartments. A typical floor
of the building measuring 24 m x 72 m with 8 m building grids in both
directions is shown in Figure 4.1. The design floor-to-floor height is 3.6 m.
Staircases, lift cores and other building services such as toilets, AHU, M&E risers
are located at each end of the floor which are to be cast in-situ.

Structural System
Precast construction is adopted from the second storey upwards to take
advantage of the regular building grids and simple structural layout. The areas
from grids A to C and from J to K are, however, cast in-situ due to drops, floor
openings and water-tightness considerations. Beside acting as load bearing
walls, staircase wells and lift cores also function as stabilising cores for the
superstructure. The walls are 300 mm thick, cast in-situ and are tied
monolithically at every floor. The precast components consist of hollow core
slabs, beams, columns and staircase flights.

a. Hollow core slabs

The design of hollow core slabs (215 mm thick) is based on class 2 prestressed
concrete structure with minimum 2 hours fire rating. The hollow core slabs are
cast with C50 concrete. Each unit (1.2 m nominal width) is designed as simply
supported with nominal100 mm seati at the support. Resultant stresses are
checked at serviceability and at prestress transfer. Design of the slab is carried
out by the specialist supplier.

b. Precast beams
535 mm deep full precast beams are used in the office area. The beams, which
are unpropped during construction, are seated directly onto column corbels and
are designed as simply supported structures at the final stage. To limit cracking
of the topping concrete at the supports, site placed reinforcement is provided as
shown in the typical details in Figure 4.2.

c. Precast columns
The columns are 500 mm x 700 mm and are cast 2-storey in height with base
plate connection at every alternate floor. They are designed as pin-ended at the
ultimate limit state. The base plate connection is designed with moment
capacity to enable the columns to behave as a 2-storey high cantilever. This is
to facilitate floor installation works which are to be carried out two floors in
advance of a finally tied floor at any one time during the construction of the
office block. The use of base plate connection will eliminate heavy column props
and result in a safer and neater construction site. A nominal 50 mm gap is
detailed in the design of the column-to-column connection in order to provide
sufficient tolerances for the insertion of in-situ reinforcement at the beam
support regions. The gap will be filled with C50 non-shrink grout. Each column is
cast with reinforced concrete corbels in the direction of the precast beams. The
corbels are provided with T25 dowel bars which are used to prevent toppling of
the precast beams when the hollow core slabs are laid. The depth of the corbel is
designed to be concealed visually within the final ceiling space. At the final state,
all columns are considered braced in both directions.

d. Floor diaphragm action and structural integrity

All precast components are bound by a 65 mm thick concrete topping which is
reinforced with a layer of steel fabric. The steel fabric serves as structural floor
ties in order to satisfy the integrity ties requirement under the building
robustness design considerations. The final floor structure will behave as a rigid
diaphragm which transmits horizontal loads to the stabilising cores at each end
of the floor.

Safety Measure During Erection

2.1 ACCESS TO SITE

The vehicle transporting your building parts must gain access to the building site from the adjacent
highway or road. Such access should be studied and prepared in advance of arrival. All obstructions,
overhead and otherwise, must be removed and the access route graveled or planked if the soil will
not sustain the heavy wheel loads. Inspect to insure that there is enough room to physically perform
the tasks required to erect the building. Application of sheeting and trim can be expensive when
there is not sufficient working space because of the proximity of adjacent buildings or other
obstructions. The availability of any required utilities should also be considered in advance. Take
careful note of any over head electric lines or other utilities to avoid hazards and damage (Notify
your utility company when necessary) Develop a comprehensive safety awareness program in
advance to familiarize the work force with the unique conditions of the site, and the building
materials, along with the appropriate “Safe Work’ practices that will be utilized.

2.2 UNLOADING OPERATIONS

Pre- planning of the unloading operations is an important part of the erection procedure. This involves
careful, safe and orderly storage of all materials. Detailed planning is required at the job site where
storage space is restricted. Here, a planned separation of materials in the order of the erection process
is necessary to minimize the costly double handling of materials. While set procedures are not
possible in all cases, special attention should be given to the following items.

1.Location of carrier vehicle during unloading.

Unload material near their usage points to minimize lifting, travel and rehandling during building
assembly.

2. Prepare necessary ramp for truck

The edges of the concrete slab should be protected to minimize the danger of chipping or cracking
from truck traffic if the materials are to be laid out on the slab. One important safety consideration is
the fact that materials stored on the slab may subject the workers to possible injury from falling
objects.

3.Schedule lifting equipment (not by RIGID)

The type and size of lifting equipment is determined by the size of the building and the site
conditions. Length of boom, capacity and maneuverability of lifting equipment will determine its
location for both unloading and erection. Use the same lifting equipment to unload and erect
structural parts. Lifting equipment costs are usually minimized by combining the unloading process
with building erection. As soon as the truck is unloaded, the lifting equipment should start erecting
the columns and raising the asembled rafters into position.

4.Consideration of overhead electric wires

Overhead power lines are a continuing source of danger. Extreme care must be used in locating and
using lifting equipment to avoid contact with power lines.

5.Schedule crew

Depending on the crew size, valuable time can generally be gained if the supervisor plans and
watches ahead instead of getting tied up with a particular unloading chore.

6.Check shipment

When shipments are received in the fi eld, two inspections are necessary: a. When items, boxes,
crates, bundles or other large components are received and unloaded from the carrier, they should
be checked off from the packing list.
2.3 LOCATION OF BUILDING PARTS

• Columns and rafters are usually unloaded near their respective installed positions on blocking on
the slab in position for easy makeup.

• Endwalls are usually laid out at each end of slab with the columns near respective anchor bolts.

• Hardware packages should be located centrally, usually along one sidewall near the center of the
building. This will minimize walking distances to other parts of the slab area.

• Purlins and girts, depending on the number of bundles, are usually stored near the sidewalls clear
of other packages or parts.

• Sheet packages are usually located along one or both sidewalls off the ground and sloping to one
end to encourage drainage in case of rain.

• Accessories are usually unloaded on a corner of the slab or off the slab near one end of the
building to keep them as much out of the way as possible from the active area during steel erection.

3.1 STRUCTURAL

As previously emphasized, a great amount of time and trouble can be saved if the building site
according to a pre-arranged plan. Proper location and handling of components will eliminate
unnecessary handling. Inspect all shipments prior to releasing the tie-downs for loads that may have
shifted during transit, REMEMBER, SAFETY FIRST!

Blocking under the columns and rafters protects the splice plates and the slab from damage during
the unloading process. It also facilitates the placing of slings or cables around the members for later
lifting and allows members to be bolted together into sub-assemblies while on the ground. Extra
care should always be exercised in the unloading operations to prevent injuries from handling the
steel and to prevent damage to materials and the concrete slabs.

3.2 WALLS AND ROOF PANELS

RIGID’s wall and roof panels including color coated, galvalume and galvanized, provide excellent
service under widely varied conditions. All unloading and erection personnel should fully understand
that these panels are quality merchandise which merit cautious care in handling. Under no
circumstances should panels be handled roughly. Packages of sheets should be lifted off the truck
with extreme care taken to insure that no damage occurs to ends of the sheets or to side ribs. The
packages should be stored off the ground suffi ciently high to allow air circulation underneath the
packages. This avoids ground moisture and deters people from walking on the packages. One end of
the package should always be elevated to encourage drainage in case of rain. All stacked metal
panels are subject, to some degree,to localized discoloration or stain when water is trapped
between their closely nested surfaces. RIGID exercises extreme caution during fabricating and
shipping operations to insure that all panel stock is kept dry. However, due to climatic conditions,
water formed by condensation of humid air can become trapped between stacked sheets. Water can
also be trapped between the stacked sheets when exposed to rain. This discoloration caused by
trapped moisture is often called wet storage stain. The stain is usually superfi cial and has little effect
on the appearance or service life of the panels as long as it is not permitted to remain on the panels.
However, moisture in contact with the surface of the panels over an extended period can severely
attack the fi nish and reduce the effective service life. Therefore, it is imperative that all panels be
inspected for moisture upon receipt of the order. If moisture is present, dry the panels at once and
store in a dry, warm place. CAUTION: Care should always be taken when walking on panels. Use
safety lines and nets when necessary! Panels are slippery. Oil or wax applied to the roof and wall
panels for protection against weather damage will make them a very slippery surface. Wipe dry any
oil that has puddled from bundles stored on a slope. Dew, frost, or other forms of moisture greatly
increase the slipperiness of the panels. Always assume panel surface is slippery and act accordingly.
Think safety!! Use wood blocking to elevate and slope the panels in a manner that will allow
moisture to drain. Wood blocking placed between bundles will provide additional air circulation.
Cover the stacked bundles with a tarp or plastic cover leaving enough opening at the bottom for air
to circulate.

3.3 UNLOADING

A crane and/or forklift is necessary for unloading the components of a metal building. Care should
always be taken to avoid damaging material. Always spread the forks as wide as possible to prevent
the panels from bending. Even with the forks as wide as possible, it is still may be necessary to lift
certain loads with a crane and spreader bar to avoid damaging the material.

3.4 CABLE TENSION AND HOOK HEIGHT

Tension and hook height for lifting weights at various angles are shown by the diagrams below

Notice how the cable tension increases as the lifting angle is decreased. It is of interest to note that if
angle is reduced to 15 degrees, the cable tension is 3.9 times the vertical lift; at 10 degrees, it is 5.7
and at 5 degrees it is 11.5. When tension in the cable increases, the compressive or buckling load on
the peak rafter section also increases. Slings with low lifting angles should therefore be avoided both
to protect the cable and to prevent bucling the rafter.

SAFTY NOTE: Check the wire rope for broken strands, broken wires and kinking. Replace damaged,
unsafe rope immediately. Always use equipment with an adequate safety margin over the lifted
load! Safety First!

3.5 STRUCTURAL FRAMING PRECAUTIONS

The layout, assembly and erection of steel should be completed by responsible personnel,
experienced in rigging and handling light steel members in a safe manner. Improper handling can
easily result in injury, delays and unexpected added costs. This is particularly true when raising
assembled rafters for wide buildings.

KEEPING ERECTION COSTS DOWN

Minimum costs should be obtained when the following conditions are met during the erection of a
RIGID building:

1. When safety practices are discussed and initiated in advance of any work procedure.

2. When the overall work of erecting the building is divided into individual jobs, and when each job is
assigned (in proper sequence) to teams of workers consisting of from two to seven workers each,
with three to fi ve worker teams preferred.

3. When individual workers are properly trained and instructed in advance as to what they are to do
and the safe way to do it. This eliminates time wasted while waiting to be told what to do next.

4. When building parts are properly laid out according to advanced planning so as to avoid lost time
in repetitive handling or in searching for speciffi c items.
5. When as many parts as can be safely raised in a single lift are bolted together in sub-assemblies on
the ground where assembly work is faster and safer, thereby, requiring fewer lifts and fewer
connections to be made in the air.

6. When erection of the steel framework starts at one end and continues bay by bay to the other
end of the building.

7. When the fi rst bay is completed, the individual frames are erected and tied together by skeleton
purlins, and the fi ll-in purlins are installed after the costly lifting equipment has been released.

8. When tools and equipment of the proper kind, in good,safe condition, are available in suffi cient
quantity.