PURCOM 101: ✔ Non-verbal communication primarily involves

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION attitudes not ideas.

✔ Non-verbal communication behaviour provides
clues, not facts.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
✔ Non-verbal communication provides much
more information than verbal communication.
1. Verbal communication refers to form of
communication which uses spoken and written words
Three Elements of Non-verbal:
for expressing and transferring views and ideas.
Language is the most important tool of verbal
1. Appearance
communication and it is the area where cultural
differences play its role. All countries have different
a. Speaker – clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of
languages and to have a better understanding of
cosmetics
different culture it is required to have knowledge of
b. Surrounding – room size, lighting, decorations,
languages of different countries.
furnishings
Two Types:
2. Body Language
a. Oral Communication – spoken words are used;
a.Facial Expression/Display refers to the way our
- it includes face t- face conversations, speech, video,
facial muscles are set to indicate emotions or feelings
voice over, internet;
of happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, excitement,
- influenced by pitch, volume, speed, clarity of speaking
indifference and disgust, among others. Some
as a fault
researchers claim that facial displays are inborn, while
others like Birdwhistell say they are acquired or
Advantages:
learned (Wahlstrom 92). Whether or not they are
1. It brings quick feedback.
inborn facial expressions can be managed and
2. Facial expression and body language is visible.
controlled. We can get our faces express what we want
to convey and hide what we want to hide. For instance,
Disadvantages:
we can make a face, keep a “poker face” and create
1. In a face to face discussion, the speaker us unable to
other faces to go along with how we feel.
deeply think about what he/ she is delivering.
b. Gesture is a purposive movement of our fingers
b. Written Communication – written words, signs, or
hands, arms, head or shoulders to describe, to suggest
symbols are used to communicate.
or to emphasize something. For example, we expect to
- messages can be transmitted via email, letter, report,
see a hand gesture to accompany the verbal
memo, etc.
description “this long”, a gesture of shrugging a
shoulder or tossing the head with the verbal
Advantages:
suggestion “something like that” and a pointing finger,
1. Messages can be edited and revised.
a pounding clenched fist or some other gestures with
2. Written communication provide record and backup.
the verbal emphasis “stop it right now”. People,
3. A written message enables receiver to fully
however, differ in the amount of gesturing that they
understand it and send appropriate feedback.
make while talking; some “talk with their hands” more
than others.
Disadvantages:
1. It doesn’t bring immediate feedback.
2. It take more time in composing a written message as c. Posture means our manner of bearing the body,
number of people struggles in their writing ability. while we are in standing or sitting position. The
generally accepted posture is when we are erect, but
2. Non-verbal communication is a very wide concept appear relaxed. Posture indicates self-confidence,
and it includes all the other forms of communication status, friendliness, and mood. Poor posture in an
which do not uses written or spoken words. interview may mean that a person is disrespectful,
unenthusiastic or lazy. Even changes in posture can
Characteristics of Non-verbal Communication convey a meaning. Suddenly sitting upright and
✔ Non-verbal communication gives hints of how leaning forward means “I’m interested” and standing
people feel. up signals “I’m done”.
✔ Non-verbal communication makes it
impossible for people no to communicate. 3. Sounds – tone of voice, volume, pitch, rate

1
 or writing one‟s self a memo (Gordon Wiseman &
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION Larry Barker 69).

1. Intrapersonal Communication is a communication In other words, you, for instance, can tune into
that occurs in your own mind. It is the basis of your one way in which you can communicate internally by
feelings, biases, prejudices, and beliefs. listening to that little voice that lives in your mind. You
were made to do this in the short discussion of
• Examples are when you make any kind of decision – intrapersonal communication in a previous chapter,
what to eat or wear. When you think about something but do it again. Take a, moment now, and listen to what
– what you want to do on the weekend or when you that little voice is saying before reading on. Did you
think about another person. hear it? It may have been saying something like “What
little voice? I don‟t hear any little voice!‟ This voice is
2. Interpersonal communication is the the “sound” of your thinking (Ronald B. Adler & George
communication between two people but can involve Rodman 8).
more in informal conversations.
You usually don‟t use words in thinking, but
• Examples are when you are talking to your friends. A whether the process is apparent or not, the way you
teacher and student discussing an assignment. A mentally process information influences your
patient and a doctor discussing a treatment. A manager interaction with others. Thus, even though
and a potential employee during an interview. Intrapersonal communication involves just you as a
single communicator, it does affect your
3. Small Group communication is communication communication with other people.
within formal or informal groups or teams. It is group
interaction that results in decision making, problem COMMUNICATION STIMULI
solving and discussion within an organization.
There are two kinds of stimuli that incite you to
• Examples would be a group planning a surprise communicate with others: internal and external.
birthday party for someone. A team working together
on a project. Internal Stimuli are nerve impulses received by the
brain. These stimuli may be psychological or
4. One-to-group communication involves a speaker physiological in nature (e.g psychological feelings of
who seeks to inform, persuade or motivate an anticipation, apprehension, tension, joy or happiness
audience. may stimulate communication): joy in winning a lotto,
excitement from joining a marathon, and so on. The
• Examples are a teacher and a class of students. A thirst that is making your throat ache may result in
preacher and a congregation. A speaker and an your asking for a glass of water even from a stranger.
assembly of people in the auditorium.
External Stimuli are received from sources outside
5. Mass communication is the electronic or print the communicator’s body, impinge upon his/her
transmission of messages to the general public. Outlets immediate environment. External stimuli may be
called mass media include things likeradio, television, overt or covert.
film, and printed materials designed to reach large
audiences. Overt Stimuli

• A television commercial. A magazine article. Hearing You get overt stimuli at your conscious level and you
a song on the radio. receive them through one of your sensory organs that
•Books, Newspapers, Billboards. The key is that you transmit them to your brain. Examples are a pretty girl
are reaching a large amount of people without it being walking down the street and a sign in a store window.
face to face. Feedback is generally delayed with mass The pretty girl may become an overt stimulus to a
communication. young man who is approaching her so that he may feel
a desire to communicate upon seeing her. The sign, on
The Nature of Intrapersonal Communication the other hand, can be an external stimulus to a
prospective buyer.
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Rarely does only one overt stimulus affect an
Intrapersonal communication refers to the individual at a given instance? Usually, several will
processes which operate within the originating or affect him/her simultaneously. The degree to which
responding communicator. It ranges from simply overt stimuli affect an individual depends on a
thinking, meditating and reflecting to talking to oneself complexity of factors such as the strength of the
2
stimuli, the familiarity with the stimuli and the which between the two stimuli (the aching of your
emotional connotations which the stimuli produce. head or the attire of the speaker) that reached you is
worth your attention. In other words, this process
Covert Stimuli separates the significant from the insignificant.
Examples are at a given moment you feel your hair
On the other hand, you receive covert stimuli at the being dishevelled by the ceiling fan, your head is
preconscious or subconscious level. Reading while aching, there are people engaged in a rally outside the
thinking of something else is a good example of this building, you hear the hum of the air-conditioning unit,
type of reception. It is not always an assurance that the beige window curtains are pretty and the speaker
you can remember what you have read, even if the in front of the room is wearing a pink blouse and a
stimuli - the words on the printed page - are right in checkered green skirt. These stimuli as well as
front of you. countless others are all reaching you simultaneously
You cannot deny that your eyes received the stimuli, and it is impossible to take time to think about each
but you received them at the subconscious level. The one. Of these, perhaps the strongest stimuli are your
information was stored in your central nervous system aching head, the words of the speaker and her pink
without you knowing it. And psychologists believe that blouse and checkered green skirt. The discrimination
this information can be transmitted to your conscious process screens out all of the insignificant or weak
level through hypnotism. stimuli without you being aware of them. This process
occurs below your conscious level. Without this
The Stages of Intrapersonal Communication discrimination process, your mind would literally be
muddled with so many thoughts that you could not
Reception is the process wherein the stimulus is devote enough attention to anyone of them. A second
received by the body. It takes place in each of the five process which operates almost simultaneously with
senses. The stimuli received by the body are converted discrimination is the process of regrouping.
into nerve impulses before they are transmitted to the
brain. Regrouping lists or rates the stimuli in order of
In intrapersonal communication, both internal and importance and strength. In the situation described
external receptions transmit information to the central above, you are now vaguely aware that there is pain in
nervous system. Internal receptors such as nerve your temples and that the speaker is wearing
endings relate information in the form of feelings incongruous attire, but her words are attracting most
and/or sensations, which reflect the state of the of your conscious attention. Once the strongest or
individual communicator. On the other hand, the most important stimuli reach your conscious level, the
external receptors, located on or near the surface of process of regrouping will put the stimuli in a
the body, react to physical, mechanical and chemical meaningful order for you to act on the strongest and
stimuli and provide information as to relations most important stimulus before the weakest stimulus.
between the communicator and his/her environment. Note that the stimuli are not received in a
Since at a given instance numerous external and preconceived order and follow no pattern of
internal stimuli are reaching you, there must be some arrangement. Now, through the regrouping process,
processes which enable you to cope with all of these. It some kind of order is made out of the many chaotic
is obvious that you do not communicate as a result of and diverse stimuli received. After the completion of
every stimulus you receive though you receive all the discrimination and the regrouping processes, the
stimuli that are present in the physical communication symbolic transformation takes place.
situation.
The question is, what then determines which stimuli Symbol Decoding assigns symbols to the raw stimuli
are allowed to reach the conscious level and stimulate ideas, places, sounds, things and so on. According to
thought? One factor is the relative strength of stimulus. most biologists, our thought symbols are in the form of
For verbal stimuli, this could mean the actual intensity electrochemical impulses.
or loudness of the message. For visual stimuli, this
could be the size of a visual aid or the magnitude of a Ideation is the process of planning, thinking and
gesture or movement. However, there are other factors organizing your thoughts. It involves thinking of all
that help determine which stimuli reach you at the ideas as tentative solutions or leads to other ideas.
conscious level. This process, according to Osborn, is a “freewheeling
of the mind”. The store of knowledge from your past
Rationalization is a form of intrapersonal conflict experiences particularly your readings and everything
resolution. else you know will help enrich the ideas you wish to
convey in a given situation.
Discrimination determines the stimuli that will
stimulate your thought and it happens below your Incubation is the process of thinking and collecting
conscious level. This process helps you discriminate information which can be associated with the present.
3
You may have finished your research work and are The Blind Area
now ready to submit it, but new ideas that are truly
relevant to your work crop up your mind, certainly for The second pane (the Blind Area) contains information
additional information, so you have to revise your that I do not know about myself, but others may know.
work. A touch of new ideas added to old ones for the As I begin to participate in a group, I communicate all
sake of clarity and information is worth waiting for. As kinds of information of which I am not aware, but
the saying goes, “the longer the preparation, the better which is being picked up by other people. This
the result”. Wiseman and Barker consider this process information may be in the form of nonverbal cues,
as a period for hatching or for arousing before being mannerisms, the way I say things or the style in which
put forth. If you do not go through this process, you I relate to others. How others react to my mannerisms,
can commit the error of speaking without weighing etc. may also be unknown to me.
your ideas first.
The Hidden Area
Symbol encoding is the process of putting an idea into
words or gestures that convey meaning to a listener. It The third pane (the Hidden Area) is a thing that I know
is the important and final step in the transmission of about myself, but which the group is unaware of. I
the message. keep this information hidden (ideas, dreams, feelings
and experiences) for fear that they might reject me the
Transmission is the process of sending messages moment they know my secret.
through a medium. The transmission may be through
brain cellsor nerve impulses. The Area of Potential

Life orientation process interacts with all other The fourth pane can be called “Area of Potential”. It
processes. Your life orientation is the totality of social, contains things about me which I am not aware of, and
hereditary and personal factors that contributed to which others are not aware of either.
your development. We all encounter problems in
communication because of the differences in our life Understanding Self-Concept
orientation.
Self-concept is a set of relatively stable perceptions
Feedback is usually thought of as the reaction of the each of us holds about ourselves. It includes our
listener to the message given by the speaker and conception about what is unique about us and what
feedback completes the cycle of communication. In makes us both similar to and different from others. To
intrapersonal communication, the types of feedback put it differently, self-concept is rather like a mental
involved are external self-feedback and internal self- mirror that reflects how we view ourselves not only
feedback. our physical features, but also emotional states, talents,
likes and dislikes, values and roles (Adler & Rodman
External self-feedback occurs when you hear 26).
yourself. This is the feedback that can make you
correct your own mistakes. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Principles consist of the validated guidelines that are
Internal self-feedback happens “physically”. You used in performing different tasks or functions to
know you make a mistake when you mispronounce a achieve pre-defined goals.These principles guides in
word or use the wrong facial expression for a forming message, its style and importance so that it
particular utterance. becomes more effective for the target audience.

THE JOHARI WINDOW The Seven (7) Cs of Communication

The JOHARI Window illustrates how we can grow as 1. Conciseness

persons through our effective communication with - Concise in communication means that one
others. It helps us see why feedback can be a very should stick to the point and keep it brief.
important instrument for our personal growth. - The message or information should be
articulated completely in such way that it is
The Open Area forwarded to the desired audience or receivers
in fewer words or signals.
The first pane (the Open Area) contains information - Avoiding “filler words”
that I know about myself, and which others know. It is
the area for free exchange of information between 2. Courtesy
others and me. It is likewise the area where I believe I - True courtesy involves being aware not only of
am most effective in my communication with others. the perspective of others, but also their feelings.
4
 - The sender should show respect to the ⮚ Physiological-impairment noise. Physical
audience or receiver. maladies that prevent effective
- Avoiding expressions that might hurt, irritate communication, such as actual deafness or
or insult the receiver. blindness preventing messages from being
- Courtesy stems from a simple “You” attitude. received as they were intended.

3. Correctness
⮚ Semantic noise. Different interpretations of
- The core of correctness is proper grammar,
the meanings of certain words. For example,
punctuation, and spelling.
the word "weed" can be interpreted as an
- Using the right level of language and
undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism
acceptable writing mechanics.
for marijuana.
- Choose a non-discriminatory language.
- Accuracy of facts, figures, and words.
⮚ Syntactical noise. Mistakes in grammar can
4. Clarity disrupt communication, such as abrupt
- The message being conveyed must be clear. changes in verb tense during a sentence.
- Getting the meaning from your head to the
head of your reader. ⮚ Organizational noise. Poorly structured
- Choose short, familiar, and conversational communication can prevent the receiver from
words depending on the situation. accurate interpretation. For example, unclear
and badly stated directions can make the
5. Completeness receiver even more lost.
- The message is complete when it contains all
the facts the reader or listener needs for the ⮚ Cultural noise. Stereotypical assumptions can
reaction you desire. cause misunderstandings, such as
- Able to answer all the questions. unintentionally offending a non-Christian
- Providing extra or additional information and person by wishing them a "Merry Christmas".
elaboration if necessary.

6. Coherence ⮚ Psychological noise. Certain attitudes can also

- The communication should be both consistent make communication difficult. For instance,
and in logical. great anger or sadness may cause someone to
- All terms of the message should be lose focus on the present moment. Disorders
interconnected and relevant to the message such as autism may also severely hamper
being conveyed. effective communication.
- The flow of the message should be in order to
be able to understand by the receiver. COMMUNICATIONG IN A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
AND THE WORLD
7. Concreteness
- Being specific, definite, and vivid rather than UNDERSTANDING GLOBALIZATION
vague and general or unclear in conveying the
message. GLOBALIZATION
- Use specific facts and figures to strengthen the ✔ Process of world shrinkage, of distance getting
message or idea. closer, things moving closer. – Thomas Larson
- The clear and particular message is defines a ✔ Borderless world. – Ohmae
concrete message.
✔ Internationalizing of production, labor, state,
BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION movements, and competitiveness. – Robert Cox
In any communication model, noise is interference ✔ Growing multidirectional flows of people,
with the decoding of messages sent over a channel by objects, places, and information as well as
an encoder. There are many examples of noise: structures and barriers to, or expedite these
flows. – Ritzer
⮚ Environmental noise. Noise that physically ✔ The increasing economic, political, and cultural
disrupts communication, such as standing integration and interdependence of diverse
next to loud speakers at a party, or the noise cultures
from a construction site next to a classroom
making it difficult to hear the professor. DIVERSITY
✔ The recognition and valuing of difference
5
GLOCALIZATION INTERRACIAL COMMUNICATION
✔ How globalization affects and merges with ✔ The interpreting and sharing f meanings with
local interests and environments individuals from different races

MULTICULTURALISTS INTERETHNIC COMMUNICATION

✔ Persons respectful of and engaged with people ✔ Interaction with individuals of different ethnic
from distinctly different cultures origins

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Cultural diversity makes communication difficult ✔ Communication between persons representing
and may lead to: different nations

1. Stereotyping and Prejudice– is the process of INTRACULTURAL COMMUNICATION

creating a picture of a whole culture. Overgeneralizing
✔ Interaction with members of the same racial or
all people belonging to the same culture.
ethnic group or co-culture as yours
2.Ethnocentrism – is the process of dividing cultures
as “us” vs “them”. CULTURE
3.Racism – prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism
directed against a person or people on the basis of ✔ A system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs,
behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired,
their membership of a particular racial or ethnic group,
shared, and used by members during their
typically one that is a minority or marginalized.
daily living
4.Xenophobia – dislike of or prejudice against people
from other countries.
CO-CULTURES
5.Cultural Appropriation – is the adoption of an
element or elements of one culture by a member of ✔ Groups of persons who differ in some ethnic or
another culture that can be controversial when used sociological way from the parent culture
inappropriately.
ASSIMILATION
Other factors that affect communication: ✔ The means by which co-culture members
attempt to fit in with members of the dominant
1. Gender Roles culture
2. Age and Generational Difference
ACCOMODATION
3. Racial and Ethnic Identity
4. Religious Identity ✔ The means by which co-culture members
maintain their cultural identity while striving
5. Socio-Economic Identity
to establish relationships with members of the
dominant culture
Few examples of cultural ignorance on
communication: SEPARATION
✔ The means co-culture members use to resist
1. Showing the soul of your shoes is insulting in
Muslim countries. interacting with members of the dominant
culture
2. Crossing your legs is insulting to Koreans.
3. It is impolite to blink while talking with a Taiwanese. ETHNOCENTRICISM
4. Slurping when eating noodles is acceptable in Japan.
✔ The tendency to see one's own culture as
5. It is disrespectful to touch someone’s head or hair in superior to all others
Thailand.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
✔ The acceptance of other cultural groups as
✔ Is a discipline that studies communication equal in value to one's own
across different cultures and social groups.
✔ It seeks to understand how people from STEREOTYPES
different countries and cultures act, ✔ Mental images or pictures that guide our
communicate and perceive the world around reactions to others
them. PREJUDICE
✔ A positive or negative prejudgment

6
MELTING-POT PHILOSOPHY As the car turned to corner, she let out a
✔ The view that different cultures should be scream. A high pitched, piercing shriek. Then she
assimilated into the dominant culture fainted.

HIGH-POWER-DISTANCE CULTURES ✔ Abbreviations

✔ Cultures based on power differences in which The period is used to indicate an abbreviation,
subordinates defer to superiors although it is optional for some.

LOW-POWER-DISTANCE CULTURES ✔ Outlines

✔ Cultures that believe that power should be In outlines, the period is used optionally after letters
used only when legitimate or numbers designating sections and sub-sections.

MASCULINE CULTURES ✔ Numericals

✔ Cultures that value aggressiveness, strength, Period is used in a numerical form such as
and material symbols of success representing a decimal point within a sentence.

FEMININE CULTURES
2. THE QUESTION MARK ( ? )
✔ Cultures that value tenderness and
relationships
The question mark is used to indicate an interrogative
and to mark textual data as questionable.
CULTURALLY CONFUSED
✔ Lacking an understanding of cultural difference
✔ To mark the end of an interrogative
The question mark is used to mark the end of any
CULTURAL IMPERIALISM
sentence that asks a question (no kidding?), including
✔ The expansion of dominion of one culture over in a quotation,
another “Is it time to leave? She asked.
Or a declarative sentence from as a question.
VIRTUAL NEIGHBORS AND COMMUNITIES It’s time to leave?
✔ Online, surrogate communities
In imperative sentence which makes a request will
DIGITAL DIVIDE take either question mark or a period.
✔ Information gap Will you please leave?
Will you please leave.
PUNCTUATION MARKS
✔ Within a sentence
Punctuation marks are symbols that are used to aid the The question mark is used optionally within a sentence
clarity and comprehension of written language. to add emphasis to a multiple query
Punctuation is how you tell the reader to take a breath. Do you want to do this in three easy lessons,
Not far from the truth. Correct punctuation helps your one hard one or not at all?
reader comprehend your message. It also gives you Do you want to this in three easy lessons?
some control of the pace of the narrative to further One hard one? Or not all?
convey your feelings. And it you didn’t tell some
readers when to breathe, they just might explode. The question mark may be used in parenthesis within
a sentence to show that there is some question about
1. USES OF PERIOD (.) the information which precedes it.
The period is used to end a sentence, to each an I expect to arrive at noon (?) on Tuesday.
abbreviation and punctuate the elements in an
outline. 3. THE EXCLAMATION POINT ( ! )
✔ End of a sentence
The period is used to indicate the end of a sentence not ✔ The exclamation point is used to mark the end
otherwise ended by a question mark, exclamation of an exclamatory sentence.
point or the period following an abbreviation. It also Watch out for that tree! (George! George of
be used to indicate the end of an incomplete thought the jungle.)
injected into a narrative. Will you please leave!

7
 ✔ The exclamation point is used after an of sentence; the places where a reader might
interjection or after my word used as an pause to grasp a concept before moving on.
interjection. Following are some tips to help you along.
Hey! Excellent! Help! Beautiful!
✔ Separate dependent clauses and phrases which
are incidental to the main body of sentence.
✔ The exclamation point add emphasis to imply a
After the party, an elegant affair, they went
sense of urgency and to capture the reader’s
to the theatre.
attention.
Look! Good grief! Get out here!
✔ Separate independent clauses in a compound
4. THE INTERROBANG ( ?! ) sentence, particularly if they are long and
divergent.
The interrobang is a combination of question mark and
exclamation point to emphasize those statement which The meeting lasted most of the afternoon,
engender both wonderment and a strong emotional and they had to face the long drive home.
response: not quite a question, but certainly
questionable. ✔ Use a comma to separate a word which
interrupts the flow of a sentence such as mind
She did what?! interjection or a connective which modifies a
clause even it is at the beginning of a sentence.
5. THE USES OF COMMA ( , ) See conjunctions for a list of the modifiers.

A comma is customarily indicate a brief of pause. I can’t believe you mean that, Susan.

A.The comma is used to separate elements within a ● Do not interrupt the flow of thought or split a
sentence, follow the opening of aninformal letter, clause by placing a comma between the subject
follow the closing of any letter, separate the and its verb or between the verb and its object.
elements in a date, separate the elements in an The team fought hard, to keep up the pace
address, separate a person’s name from his or her and … wrong!
title and to section off large numbers.
● Do not use a comma to replace a conjunction.
✔ Separating elements within a sentence The team fought hard to keep up the pace,
Here’s one you are going to have to think about. Like consequently they won. Wrong!
mother said, it’s for your own good. There are a
number of rules which recount in great detail precisely
how and when to use a comma. Most of them be ● Do not use a comma to replace a conjunction.
condensed into three simple rules. The team fought hard to keep up the pace,
consequently they won. Wrong!
Rule #1: Use a comma only when it is
necessary to assure that the message will not be ● Do use a comma to follow the connective when
misunderstood. a semicolon is used as the conjunction.
Rule #2: Don’t use a comma it is not The team fought hard to keep up the pace;
necessary and especially if might obscure the consequently, they won.
meaning of sentence.
Rule #3: Never forget Rule #2. ✔ Do use your own good judgement! Read the
sentence over after it has been punctuated.
✔ The comma should be used to set off any Don’t hesitate to take out any commas the
phrase or clause which might otherwise be interrupt the flow unnecessarily and don’t
misread. Here’s the part where you have to hesitate to add a comma if the sentence sounds
concentrate. Avoid the temptation to drop in a like runaway train.
bunch of commas just to break up a long
sentence. Take a look at the sentence and try to ✔ Elements in a series
recognize how it might be misread. Look for For the sake of clarity, words and clauses in a
words and phrases which are incidental to the series need to be separated.
flow of the main body of the sentence and need The dress comes in four colours; aqua, pink,
to be set off by commas. Look at long sentences orange or black.
which have independent clauses which need
separation. Find the natural breaks in the flow
8
 ✔ The final comma before the conjunction 6. THE COLON ( : )
is optional. Use if you need to for clarity or just The colon is used at the end of a clause to indicate that
because you like it. Other than for clarity; word, a list, a phrase or another clause is to follow. It is
whichever form you adopt should be used after the opening of a business letter and it used
consistent throughout your documents. after a division of time or literary reference to indicate
that a subdivision follows.
✔ Independent modifiers ✔ The colon is used to end a clause introducing a
Independent modifiers are those modifiers which are slit of items.
not dependent on or directly associated with any other The parts of speech are as follows: Nouns,
modifiers; two or more which modify the same Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions,
member should be separated by a comma. Conjunction and interjections.

The long, black station wagon drove down the ✔ The colon is also used to highlight a clause to
dusty, winding, dirt road. follow.
As you go through life, remember one thing:
B. Comma in Quotations The most humiliating criticism is indifference.
Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from its
source unless it is superseded by other punctuation. ✔ Traditionally, the colon has followed the
She said, “I want to see the play.” salutation in opening of business letter.
Dear Sir: To whom it may concern: Dear Madam:
Comma superseded by the question mark. Dear Sir or Madam, as the case may be: (My
personal favorite)
C. Opening and closing of a letter
Traditionally, the opening of an informal letter is Although some companies cling this form most prefer
followed by a comma, the personalized greeting followed by a comma. Now
Dear John, Dear Susan, used primarily for occupant mailings, the demise of
this very impersonal from has been hastened by the
and the closing of any letter is followed by a comma. personalized computer letter.
Very truly yours, Sincerely yours, The colon is used after a division of time, literature, etc.
to indicate a subdivision follows.
D. Dates and addresses 3:45 P.M 15:45:17
The parts of dates and addresses are separated by Isaiah 65:17 Psalms 23:1
commas.
January 27, 1993 27 January, 1993 7. THE SEMICOLON ( ; )
Tallahassee, Fl 32304 New York, NY 10016 The semicolon is used to join two independent clauses
with or without a modifying connective.
Grammatical conventions aside, the Postal Service has Sharon has a managerial position; she
instituted an incentive program for business which enjoys the rights and privileges which go with the
precludes all punctuation on address labels. responsibility.
Undoubtedly, financial considerations will dominate,
so that before long it may be commonplace to
✔ In place of a comma
eliminate punctuation from all addresses which
There are situations which call for comma where the
doesn’t seem to be in any way detrimental to
use of a semicolon is preferred in interest of clarity.
aesthetics of function.
Think of it as two-tier punctuation with the semicolon
as the stronger element two.
E. Name and titles
A sentence containing a combination of incidental
Titles after a name are commonly separated by a
words, lists of words, clauses, or phrase which
comma, as are the elements of a name when they are
requires a comma before a conjunction might be
reversed.
dearer if a semicolon were used before the conjunction.
John M. Chavin , M.D. Chavin, John M.
We carefully planned the trip, packed the
car and were ready to set out for the campground;
F. Numbers
but our plans went awry when the car, an old Buick
Commas are used to separate the thousands in large
with failing brakes, refused to start.
numbers.

81,548 7,071, 639 346,931

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A comma could be used before but; however, the special words or phrase such as slang, technical terms
semicolon is a stronger indicator in contrast to the and nicknames.
commas, and further serves notice to your reader to
take a well-earned breath. If the sentence were, we ✔ Direct quotations
carefully planned the trip, packed the car and were Only the exact words of the speaker or writer are
ready to set out for the campground, but our plans enclosed in quotation marks.
went awry ended there, the comma is not a bad choice. She said, “I want to go, but only if we leave
A list of phrases or clauses is best separated by by dawn.”
semicolons, particularly if the clauses are punctuated “There is nothing to fear, but fear itself.”
by commas. Quotation marks are omitted for any quotation or
Among the things we packed for the trip portion thereof which is quoted indirectly
was the small, green teen; two sleeping bags; a She said that she wants to go, but “only if we
selection of fresh and freeze-dried foods; the leave by dawn.”
lantern, with fuel for two nights; an assortment of She said that she wants to go, but only if we
pots, pans and eating utensils; and a change of leave by dawn.
clothes. Either of the above two examples is correct, only the
As with the comma, I don’t overuse the semicolon and second part of the sentence may be enclosed in
don’t hesitate to use it when it clarifies your meaning. quotation marks because they quote the speaker’s
exact words.
8. THE APOSTROPHE ( ‘ )
The apostrophe is used to show possession, to show
✔ Punctuation within quotations
plurals for symbols and indicate missing letters in a
A period or comma is always placed before the closing
contraction.
quotation marks.
✔ Showing possession John said, “the report is due this week.”
The apostrophe is used with s to show the possessive
form of nouns which do not end in s.
✔ The speaker is always separated from the
One man’s hat many men’s hats
quotation by a comma whether at the
that woman’s hat
beginning of the sentence as in the first
example above, or ringed by the quote as in the
The apostrophe is used alone show the possessive
following examples.
form of nouns which end s.
The report is due next week,” said Joan,
The pliers’ jaws the scissors’ edge
“and it must be delivered on time.”
Mr. Jones’ car
✔ Note that the quotation starts with a capital
Singular nouns ending in s, such as Jonesmay also take letter, but the second part of split quotation
an apostrophe s ending. It’s the writer’s choice. does not, unless it is a new sentence.
The possessive of more than one taken together as a “The report is due next week,” said Joan. “It
unit is shown by making the last member possessive. must be delivered on time.”
Joan and Bob’s house is on the outskirts of the city
The question mark or exclamation point is enclosed
To indicate individual ownership, make each member with the quotation marks when it applies only to the
possessive. quote and outside and outside the quotation marks
Joan’s and Bob’s houses are outside the city. when it applies to the entire sentence. Punctuation us
not required within the quotation marks when
punctuation is placed after the closing quotation mark.
✔ Plurals for symbols
“When do you need to leave?” he asked.
The plural for individual letters, number and signs are
indicated by apostrophe s.
Any other punctuation in the sentences remains the
Mind your p’s and q’s.
same as it would be without a direct quotation.
✔ Contractions
✔ Titles
The apostrophe is used to indicate the position of
Titles of short works such as magazine articles, essays.
missing elements in contractions.
Songs, poems, paintings and sculpture are set off by
don’t in November ’86
the quotation marks. The rule of thumb is that
anything long enough to appear in book form including
9. ABOUT QUOTATION MARKS ( “ “ )
plays, opera, collection of art, etc. are underlined or
Quotation marks are used to set off direct quotations;
printed in italics. All other titles are set off by
titles of articles poems, works of art and such; and
quotation marks.

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 ✔ Extraneous material in quotes ✔ Parentheses may be used to indicate lower
Quotation marks are used to direct attention to special level subdivision in an outline. For example,
words in a sentence such as slang, technical terms, first, second, third, etc. levels might be, in order,
colloquialisms, nicknames and material referred to I (Roman numerals), A, 1, a, (1), (a).
elsewhere in the sentence. Incidentally, parentheses is plural; one
Note that such highlighting may also be achieved by (parentheses?) is a parenthesis.
underlining, or printing in italics or bold face.
✔ Brackets are used to insert editorial
✔ Single quotation marks commentary; that is to indicate that the
Single quotation marks are used in the same manner material inserted is not a part of the original
as double quotes to set off material already contained material.
in double quotes-in effect, to set off a quotation within He said that they (the Jones family) have only lived
a quotation. in this area for six months.
“I think she said, ‘be ready by noon,”’ Tom The letter mentioned, “there [sic]
reported. inability to cope.” The word sic, for thus, is
used in the context to show that the preceding
10. THE HYPHEN ( - ) word or phrase has been quoted verbatim and
The hyphen is used to join the parts of certain in the opinion of the one making the insertion
compound words. is incorrect or at least questionable.
mother-in-law pre-Columbian
weak-heated ✔ Indicating omissions – the ellipsis
It may also be used to create an expression comprised The ellipsis (plural ellipses) is a series of three dots (or
of several words which are to be taken as unit. periods) used to indicate the omission of a word or
Cock-of-the-walk holier-than-thou words. When used at the end of a sentence, it is
A hyphen is placed after the syllables of a word divided followed by the ending punctuation.
at end of line to indicate that the balance of the word She said, “The report… is unacceptable.” The
follows on the next line. missing material is descriptive information which is
not germane to the writer’s point; that the report is
✔ The dash unacceptable.
A dash indicates a break in the flow of a sentence,
usually to insert a parenthetical remark or for
emphasis. “Don’t worry about failures, worry about the chances you
When I passed the house – the one at the miss when you don't even try.”
end of block – it was empty. - Rachel Dantes
There’s only one thing that can save us –
Superchicken.

11. PARENTHESES ( ) AND BRACKETS [ ]

Parentheses are used to separate incidental
information which would otherwise interrupt the flow
of the sentence.
We set put on July 27, (Susan’s birthday) to tour
the area.
✔ Parentheses are often used to separate
confirming numbers is a sentence.
The admission price is eight dollars ($8.00) for
advance reservations and ten dollars ($10.00) the
day of the show.

✔ Parentheses set off letters or numbers which

are used in a sentence to enumerate items in a
list.
Our goal is to see that you (a) understand the
proper use of English and (b) use your knowledge
to communicate effectively in the language.

11