Summary, Sections 1.1, 1.

2
Proposition
 Statement, Truth value,
 Proposition, Propositional symbol, Open proposition
Operators
 Define by truth tables
 Composite propositions
 Tautology and contradiction
Equivalence of propositional statements
 Definition
 Proving equivalence (by truth table or equivalence
laws)

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 Propositional Functions & Predicates
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.
Let us call this propositional function P(x), where P
is the predicate and x is the variable.
What is the truth value of P(2) ? false
What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
When a variable is given a value, it is said to be
instantiated
Truth value depends on the value of the variable

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 Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.
Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the
variables.
What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true
What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
A propositional function (predicate) becomes a
proposition when all its variables are instantiated.

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 Propositional Functions
Other examples of propositional functions
Person(x), which is true if x is a person
Person(Socrates) = T
Person(Rose) = F
CSCourse(x), which is true if x is a
computer science course
CSCourse(CSE173) = T
CSCourse(MATH155) = F
How do we say
All humans are mortal
Some CS courses are interesting
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 Universal Quantification

Let P(x) be a predicate (propositional function).

Universally quantified sentence:

For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.

Using the universal quantifier :

x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, not a propositional function.)

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 Universal Quantification
Example: Let the universe of discourse be all people
S(x): x is a NSU student.
G(x): x is a genius.
What does x (S(x)  G(x)) mean ?
“If x is a NSU student, then x is a genius.” or
“All NSU students are geniuses.”
If the universe of discourse is all NSU students, then
the same statement can be written as
x G(x) = G(1)  G(2)  ……

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 Universal Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let Q(x) be the x.1 = x
What does x Q(x) mean ?
“For every x, x.1 = x”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? yes

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 Universal Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x) be the x.0 = x
What does x P(x) mean ?
“For every x, x.0 = x”

Is it true? No (x = 1)

Is it true for the natural numbers? No (x = 1)

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 Universal Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the integers’ set.
Let Q(x) be the x is an even integer
Let R(x) be the x2 is a multiple of 4
What does x [Q(x)  R(x)] mean ?
“For every x, if x is an even integer then x2 is
multiple of 4 and if x2 is multiple of 4 then x is even”

Is it true? yes

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 Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse for
which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier :

x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”
“For some x P(x).”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, but not propositional function.)
x P(x) = P(1)  P(2) …..
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 Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a NSU student.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (P(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a NSU student and x is

a genius.”
or
“At least one NSU student is a genius.”
“Some NSU students are genius.”

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 Existential Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let Q(x) be the x.1 = x
What does x Q(x) mean ?
“There exists a value of x such that, x.1 = x”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? yes

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 Existential Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x) be the x.0 = x
What does x P(x) mean ?
“There exists a value of x such that x, x.0 = x”

Is it true? Yes (x = 0)

Is it true for the natural numbers? no

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 Existential Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x) be the x2 ≥ 0
Let Q(x) be the 3.x > 10

x P(x) is it true? yes

x P(x) is it true? yes
x Q(x) is it true? No (x = 2)
x Q(x) is it true? yes
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 Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? No (x = 400)

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 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x,y) be x > y
What does xy P(x, y) mean?
“We can find a value of x such that no matter what
the value of y, we have x >y”

Is it true? No (x = 2, y = 3)
What does yx P(x, y) mean?
“For all y there is an x such that x > y”
Is it true? Yes ( x = y+1)
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 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse set of integers.

What does xy (x.y = 0) mean ?

“There exists a x such that for all values of y, we

have x . y = 0”

Is it true? Yes (x = 0)

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 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse set of integers.

What does xy (x.y = 15) mean ?

“There is some value of x and some value of y such

that such that x . y = 15”

Is it true? Yes (x = 3, y = 5)

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 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let Q(x, y, z) be x + y = z
What does:
xyzQ(x, y, z) mean?
Is it true? no
xyzQ(x, y, z) mean?
Is it true? yes
zxyQ(x, y, z) mean?
Is it true? no
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 Disproof by Counterexample

A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so that

P(c) is false.

Statements such as x (P(x)  Q(x)) can be

disproved by simply providing a counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”

Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

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 Negation

What does (x P(x)) means?

It is not the case that for all value of x, P(x) is true

That means for some value of x, P(x) is false

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

This is de Morgan’s law for quantifiers

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 Negation
Let the universe of discourse be the integers.
Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 > 1
What does xQ(x) mean ?
“For every x, x2 > 1.”

Is it true? No (x = 0, or 1)

~xQ(x) is equivalent to x (Q(x)).

x (Q(x))  “For some x, x2 ≤ 1.”

Is it true? Yes (x = 0)
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 Negation
What does (x P(x)) means?

It is not the case that for some x, P(x) is true

That means for all value of x, P(x) is false

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

This is de Morgan’s law for quantifiers

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 Negation
Let the universe of discourse be the integers.
Let Q(x) be the predicate 2x is odd
What does xQ(x) mean ?
“For some value of x, 2x is odd”

Is it true? no

~ xQ(x) is equivalent to x (Q(x)).

“It is not the case that for some value of x, 2x is odd”
“For all values of x, 2x is not odd”
Is it true? yes
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 Negation Summary
(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

Let universe of discourse all real numbers

Let P(x, y) be the predicate x.y = 1
xyP(x, y) means:
For all x there is some y such that x.y = 1
Is it true or false?
False (think about x = 0)
xyP(x, y) is equivalent to xy(P(x, y) )
For some x, no matter what value of y is x.y ≠ 1
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 Negation
More Examples
Not all roses are red
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))

Nobody is perfect
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))

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 Equivalency
Let universe of discourse be set of integers
E(X) be the predicate x is even
O(x) be the predicate x is odd
x[E(x)  O(x)] is true
xE(x)  xO(x) is also true

Thus x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are equivalent

But x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are not equivalent

Example:
x[E(x)  O(x)] and xE(x)  xO(x) are not equivalent

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 Equivalency
Let universe of discourse set of integers

Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 ≤ 0

P(x) be the predicate “ x is an even prime “

x Q (x)  x P(x) is True

[Letting x = 0 for Q(x) and x = 2 for P(x)]

x [Q (x)  P(x)] is False

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 Equivalency
Let universe of discourse be set of integers

E(X) be the predicate x is even

O(x) be the predicate x is odd
x[E(x)  O(x)] is true
xE(x)  xO(x) is false

Thus x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are not equivalent

But x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are equivalent

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 Equivalency
Let universe of discourse set of integers

Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 > 0

P(x) be the predicate x < 2

x[Q (x)  P(x)] is true

xQ (x)  xP(x) is False

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 Equivalency
Let universe of discourse set of integers

Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 > 0

P(x) be the predicate x.1 = x

x[Q (x)  P(x)] is true

xQ (x)  xP(x) is also true

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 Summary, Sections 1.3
 Propositional functions (predicates)
 Universal and existential quantifiers, and the
duality of the two
 When predicates become propositions
 All of its variables are instantiated
 All of its variables are quantified
 Nested quantifiers
 Quantifiers with negation
 Logical expressions formed by predicates,
operators, and quantifiers

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