The Self from the Perspective of Psychology

 Key Concepts:

o The "Me" and the "I": William James proposed that the self is
composed of two parts: the "Me" self (the empirical self, the
object of self-awareness) and the "I" self (the pure ego, the
thinking self).

o "Me" Self: This is the self we perceive as an object,

encompassing our experiences, possessions, and social
roles. It's further divided into:

o Material Self: This includes our physical body,

possessions, and material belongings. It's the
tangible aspect of our self-concept.

o Social Self: This refers to how we present ourselves

in different social situations. We have multiple social
selves, adapting our behavior to different contexts.

o Spiritual Self: This is the most subjective and

intimate part of the self, encompassing our
personality, values, morals, and beliefs. It's the core
of who we are.

o "I" Self: This is the conscious, thinking self, the one who
perceives and acts. It's the subjective experience of being
aware of ourselves.

o Global and Differentiated Self Models:

o Global Self: This represents the overall value that a

person places upon himself. This affects how he views and
feels about himself. It is inevitable for a person to be born
and to grow up in the presence of the people. The groups
of people that he interacts with everyday of his life strongly
influence him. He turns to them for support and seeks their
approval in the journey of finding himself. His global self is
the product of all experiences that he had in the society
which accounts for the kind of person he presently is.

o Differentiated Self: This has the ability to separate

feelings and thoughts. The person recognizes that he has
his own personality and therefore endowed with unique
 characteristics not found in other members of the group.
With this knowledge he realizes that for him to attain self-
fulfillment, he should have the will to separate himself from
the group, live his own life and fulfill his destiny. Being able
to free himself from the influence of others allows him to
define himself. Two forces affecting the person:

o Togetherness: Too much togetherness creates

friction and conflict and prevents the development of
the person’s sense of self.

o Individuality: Too much individuality results in

distant and estrange feelings towards family and
other people.

o Real and Ideal Self-Concepts:

o Self-concept: This refers to how a person thinks about or

perceives himself.

o Real Self-Concept: This is who we actually are, based on

our experiences and perceptions.

o Ideal Self-Concept: This is who we aspire to be,

influenced by our values, aspirations, and societal
expectations.

o Congruence: This occurs when the real and ideal selves

align, leading to satisfaction and happiness. When there is
a discrepancy between the real and ideal selves, it can
lead to dissatisfaction and may see himself as a failure or a
loser (self-discrepancy).

o Multiple and Unified Self: The Multiple Selves Theory suggests

that there exits in the individual different aspects of the self. It
makes sense that the self is a whole made up of parts. These
parts of the self may manifest themselves when situations call
for it. A unified being is essentially connected to consciousness,
awareness and agency. To be considered a well-adjusted person,
success and failures should be accepted and understood. This is
a person who is able to deal with and accept the complexities
and the perceived unfairness that exist in life. They manifest
content with the present state of affairs and continue to adjust,
 adapt, evolve and survive as an individual with an integrated,
unified multiple selves.

o True and False Selves: The true self is authentic, creative, and
spontaneous, while the false self is a mask that hides the true
person, often used as a defense mechanism to conform to social
norms.

o The Self as Proactive and Agentic: The Social Cognitive

Theory emphasizes the human capacity for agency, including
intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-
reflectiveness. These features allow individuals to influence their
own behavior and achieve desired outcomes.

o Self-Regulation: The ability to set goals, monitor progress, and

adjust behavior to achieve desired outcomes. This involves self-
awareness, self-monitoring, and self-control.

The Self from the Perspective of Anthropology

 Key Concepts:

o The Holistic View of Humanity: Anthropology studies the

totality of what it means to be human, examining physical,
social, and cultural aspects. It recognizes both similarities and
differences among people, highlighting the beauty and
uniqueness of each individual.

o Cultural Determinism: The theory that culture has a strong

impact on how individuals view themselves and the world. There
is no universal or right way of being human; the right way is
always based on one’s culture.

o Culture as a Way of Life: Culture encompasses behaviors,

beliefs, values, and symbols that are socially transmitted and
shape an individual's identity. Culture provides a framework for
understanding the world and for interacting with others.

o The Importance of Survival: Survival is a fundamental aspect

of human nature, and different cultures have developed unique
ways to adapt to their environments and ensure survival. Human
cultures have developed diverse strategies for survival, from
hunting and gathering to agriculture and technology.
 o Language as a Key to Culture: Language is a powerful tool for
communication, shaping meaning, forming ideas, and promoting
social change. It reflects a group's culture and worldview.
Language is a key element of cultural transmission and identity.

The Self from the Perspective of Sociology

 Key Concepts:

o Social Behaviorism: This approach emphasizes the power of

the social environment in shaping human behavior and the self.
Our interactions with others, the social groups we belong to, and
the norms and values of society all influence our sense of self.

o The Self as a Social Construct: The self is not innate but

develops through social interaction. We learn who we are through
our relationships with others and our experiences in society.

o George Herbert Mead's Stages of Development: Mead

proposed three stages of self-development:

o Preparatory Stage: Children learn through imitation and

begin to understand symbols. They mimic the behaviors of
others and begin to develop a sense of self.

o Play Stage: Children engage in role-playing, taking on the

perspectives of others. They learn to understand different
social roles and how people behave in different situations.

o Game Stage: Children develop a sense of the

"generalized other," understanding social norms and
values. They learn to internalize the expectations and rules
of society.

o The "I" and the "Me": The "I" is the spontaneous, impulsive
self, while the "Me" is the socialized self, reflecting internalized
social expectations. The "I" is the creative and independent part
of the self, while the "Me" is the self that conforms to social
norms.

o Charles Horton Cooley's Looking-Glass Self: We develop a

sense of self based on how we imagine others perceive us. We
reflect on how others see us and form our self-concept based on
those perceptions.
 o Erving Goffman's Impression Management: We consciously
manage how we present ourselves to others to create a desired
impression. We engage in "face-work" to maintain a positive
image and avoid embarrassment.

o Dramaturgical Approach: Goffman viewed social interaction

as a theatrical performance, with individuals playing roles and
managing their "face" to maintain a positive image. We are
constantly performing for others, trying to project a favorable
image of ourselves.

The Self from the Perspective of Philosophy

 Key Concepts:

o Socrates: The self is the soul, and true knowledge and virtue
come from within. The Socratic Method, a process of questioning
and critical thinking, helps individuals to discover their true
selves.

o Plato: The self is the soul, which is divided into three parts:
reason, spirit, and appetites. The soul is immortal and strives for
true knowledge and perfection. Plato's Theory of Forms posits
that the true reality lies in the realm of Forms, which are eternal,
unchanging, and perfect.

o St. Augustine: The self is the soul, and true happiness is found
in love for God. St. Augustine emphasized the importance of
grace and the sinfulness of human nature.

o René Descartes: The self is a thinking thing ("Cogito, ergo

sum"). Descartes believed that the mind is distinct from the body
and that reason is the primary source of knowledge.

o John Locke: Personal identity is based on self-consciousness and

memory. Locke believed that the mind is a "tabula rasa" (blank
slate) at birth, and knowledge is acquired through experience.

o David Hume: There is no "self" as a permanent, unchanging

entity. The self is a bundle of constantly changing perceptions
and sensations.

o Immanuel Kant: The self is a unifying subject, an organizing

consciousness that makes intelligible experience possible. Kant
 believed that the mind actively structures our experience of the
world.

o Sigmund Freud: The self is multi-layered, consisting of the id

(primitive instincts), the ego (mediator between the id and the
superego), and the superego (moral conscience).

o Gilbert Ryle: The self is the way people behave. Ryle rejected
the idea of a separate "mind" and argued that mental states are
simply ways of behaving.

o Patricia and Paul Churchland: The self is the brain. They

argued that mental states are ultimately reducible to brain
states.

o Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The self is embodied subjectivity. Our

bodies are the primary site of our experience of the world, and
our sense of self is intertwined with our physical being.