dy
Now, in many cases rather than trying to find an explicit formula for z = we’ll just be
dt
dy
interested in finding out when = 0. We can usually get this information from (7.4) by using
dt
the initial condition for (7.1) to find C. We shall now consider two examples which arise in later
sections.
Example 1. The equation
g
θ̈ = − sin θ (7.5)
l
dw dw
arises in the study of the simple pendulum (§8.2). With w = θ̇ we have θ̈ = ẇ = θ̇ = w ,
dθ dθ
and so
g
wdw = − sin θdθ
l
or
1 2 g
w = cos θ + C. (7.6)
2 l
The constant of integration is found by using the initial condition. (We’ll complete this later.)
Example 2. The equation
µ
r̈ = −
r2
dv dv
arises in the section on Escape Velocity (§9.3). With v = ṙ we have r̈ = v̇ = ṙ = v , and so
dr dr
µ
vdv = − dr
r2

or
1 2 µ
v = + C.
2 r
The constant of integration is found from the initial condition. (Again we’ll finish this later.)

8 Constrained particle motion.

We consider particles whose motion is constrained by surfaces or strings. This means that
motion is often in 1D or 2D.

8.1 Motion along surfaces with friction

Consider a particle sliding on a surface S, so that motion is essentially in 2D. The surface exerts
a force on the particle which has two components:

67
 R

n motion

mg
S

1. The normal reaction, R, is ⊥ to the surface, so R = Rn, where n is the normal to the
surface and R ≥ 0 on physical grounds.

2. The tangential component is the frictional force, f , which acts in the direction opposite
to the direction of motion.

Experiment shows that to a good approximation,

f = µR (8.1)

where f = kf k, R = kRk. The constant µ ≥ 0 is the coefficient of (dynamic) friction. If the

body is at rest relative to a surface, physically,

f ≤ µR, (8.2)

which corresponds to the so-called “static friction”. Notice that (8.2) only specifies the magnitude
f of the friction force f : its direction is such that maintains the particle’s static position at the
sufrace. In some physical models of friction, the coefficient of static friction µs in (8.2) may
differ from the coefficient of the dynamic friction µ in (8.1).
(8.1) and (8.2) constitute Coulomb’s Law of Friction, due to C.A. Coulomb (1736 - 1806).
If µ = 0, f = 0, and the surface is said to be smooth. In this case the total force acts ⊥ to S.
N.B.: f 6= µR!! (8.1) is a relation between the lengths of the vectors but not between the
vectors themselves: while f points in the direction opposite to the direction of motion, R is
orthogonal to the surface.
Example: A particle (for example, a brick) of mass m slides along a horizontal plane. At time
t = 0 its speed is v0 . Let µ be the coefficient of dynamic friction. Show that the particle comes
v0
to rest at time T = .
gµ

68
 R j
motion
f
i

mg

Solution (Use “5-point plan”)

Step 1: (Diagram, Origin, Axes, position vector)
Position vector is x = xi.
Step 2: (Forces and N2) Forces: normal reaction R = R j, gravity mg = −mg j and friction
f = −f i. So, from N2:

mẍ = F = R + f + mg,

or
mẍ i = R j − f i − mg j. (8.3)

Step 3: (I.C.) x(0) = x(0) i = 0, so x(0) = 0. Also ẋ(0) = ẋ(0) i = v0 i, so ẋ(0) = v0 .

Step 4: (Solve N2)

(i) First, take the dot product of (8.3) with j (equivalently, equate the y-components of (8.3)),
to give
0 = R − mg ⇒ R = mg.

(ii) Next, take the dot product of (8.3) with i, to give

mẍ = −f = −µR (using Coulomb’s Law)

Hence, the motion is described by

ẍ(t) = −µg. (8.4)

With the initial condition ẋ(0) = v0 , we can integrate (8.4) to get

ẋ(t) = −µgt + v0 .

v0
If the particle comes to rest at t = T , then ẋ(T ) = 0. Hence 0 = −µgT + v0 , or T = . 2
µg
More examples: Sheet 10 Qns 1, 4.

69
8.2 Simple pendulum

A particle of mass m is fixed to the end of an inextensible light string of length l. The other end
is fixed at the origin O. The string swings in a vertical plane, so motion is in 2D. Physically, the
tension in the string exerts a force T on the particle acting along the string towards the origin.
Example: Assume at t = 0, θ(0) = 0, the string remains taut, and the horizontal speed is v0 .

(1) Assuming the string remains taut prove that

g
θ̈ + sin θ = 0.
l

(2) Prove that

v02 2g
θ̇ 2 = − (1 − cos θ).
l2 l

(3) Find expressions for the angle where θ̇ = 0 and the angle where T = 0.

(4) Hence describe the possible motions of the particle.

Solution (“5 point plan”)

Step 1:
O
l

θ T eθ

θ er
mg

Position vector: In polar coordinates er , eθ with the origin at the fixed end of the string we
have:

x = rer , and,

ẋ = ṙer + r θ̇eθ ,

ẍ = (r̈ − r θ̇ 2 )er + (r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇)eθ .

Step 2: (Forces, N2) Forces:

mg = mg cos θer − mg sin θeθ ,

T = − T er , (T ≥ 0).

70
Hence, N2:

mẍ = mg + T,

or,
m(r̈ − r θ̇ 2 )er + m(r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇)eθ = (mg cos θ − T )er − mg sin θeθ . (8.5)

Step 3: (I.C.) The initial conditions are: θ(0) = 0 and the horizontal speed at t = 0 is v0 . Since,
at t = 0, r = l, a constant, then ṙ(0) = 0. So

ẋ = ṙer +r θ̇eθ = lθ̇eθ

|{z}
=0
⇒ lθ̇(0) = v0 (setting t = 0).
v0
⇒ θ̇(0) = .
l
Step 4: (This question has many different points, so it isn’t convenience to stick rigidly to the
plan!)
Take the dot product of (8.5) with er and eθ to give,

m(r̈ − r θ̇ 2 ) = mg cos θ − T, (8.6)

m(r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇) = − mg sin θ. (8.7)

Proof of (1): Provided the string remains taut, r = l = constant, so ṙ = 0, r̈ = 0 (since the
string is inextensible). Therefore, (8.6) and (8.7) give

T = mg cos θ + mlθ̇ 2 (≥ 0), (8.8)

lθ̈ = − g sin θ.

Hence
g
θ̈ + sin θ = 0 , as required (8.9)
l
Proof of (2): Equation (8.9) is a nonlinear ODE for θ(t) which we saw in §7. It is integrated
dw dw
once as follows. Set w = θ̇ so that θ̈ = ẇ = θ̇ = w , giving
dθ dθ

g
w dw + sin θ dθ = 0.
l
Hence

1 2 g
θ̇ − cos θ = c, (8.10)
2 l

71
 v0
for some constant, c. Thus, setting t = 0 in (8.10) and using the fact that θ̇(0) = (from Step
l
3), gives
v02 g
c= −
2l2 l
Hence
v02 2g
θ̇ 2 = − (1 − cos θ) . (8.11)
l2 l
This cannot be solved analytically, but could be solved numerically using techniques discussed
in later Units. However, we can obtain quite a bit of information about the solution with further
analysis.
Proof of (3): Recall (8.8), namely,

T = mg cos θ + mlθ̇ 2 .

Thus, using (8.11),

mv02
T = + mg (3 cos θ − 2) . (8.12)
l
Notice that as θ increases from zero, cos θ decreases and so
(a) T decreases (from (8.12)), and
(b) θ̇ decreases (from (8.11)), so the particle slows down.
In fact, from (8.11), θ̇ 2 = 0 (ie. zero speed) ⇐⇒

v02 2g
2
= (1 − cos θ) ,
l l

or,
v02
cos θ = 1 − =: P, say.
2gl
Now −∞ < P ≤ 1, so provided P > −1 the ‘critical’ angle where θ̇ = 0 is given by

θ1 = cos−1 P.

On the other hand, from (8.12),

v02
T =0 ⇐⇒ + 3 cos θ − 2 = 0,
lg
   
1 v02 2 v02 2
⇐⇒ cos θ = 2− = 1− = P.
3 gl 3 2gl 3

Therefore, if T = 0 at θ = θ2 , then
 
2 3
θ2 = cos −1
P , provided − ≤ P ≤ 1.
3 2

72
Proof of (4): (Step 4) Now let’s work out the possible types of motion.
1). First, assume v02 < 2gl. In this case, 0 < P < 1 and so θ1 < θ2 . Thus θ̇ = 0 occurs before
T = 0. In this case
cos θ ≥ P,

(since if cos θ < P then θ̇ 2 < 0 from (8.11).) Hence

 
v2
θ(t) ∈ [−θ1 , θ1 ] , θ1 = cos −1
P = cos −1
1− 0 .
2gl

We have a periodic
motion with amplitude θ1
θ1
π
0 < θ1 ≤ (the amplitude is less than 90o
2
and the particle swings back and forth)

2). Next, assume v02 > 2gl ⇔ P < 0. Now since P < 0,

2P
0> > P.
3

There are two further possibilities:

2P
(a) > −1 and so,
3  
2 v2
1− 0 > −1,
3 2gl
which implies that
2gl < v02 < 5gl.

In this case, starting at θ = 0, θ increases (therefore cos θ decreases) until

2P
cos θ = ⇐⇒ θ = θ2 .
3

At this point the tension T in the string becomes zero and the string becomes slack. Since
π
P < 0 this will occur for some value < θ2 < π. On the other hand, for 0 > 2P/3 > −1,
2
either P < −1 or −1 ≥ P < 2P/3 < 0. In the former case θ̇ 2 > 0 always, while in the
latter case θ1 > θ2 , i.e. the particle reaches θ2 (the string becomes slack) before it could
stop (θ = θ1 ). Hence, in either case, the motion is such that the particle falls inside the
loop at θ = θ2 (see diagram).

73
 O parabola
θ2
(particle falls inside
the loop)

(The last case: v02 > 5gl)

O The string never becomes

slack and particle never stops, so
we have complete revolutions

2P
(b) < −1 ⇔ v02 > 5gl. Then T > 0 and θ̇ 2 > 0 always hold. This corresponds to complete
3
revolutions: the string never becomes slack and the particle never stops (see diagram).

Note: We could have had a weightless thin inextensible rod instead of string. Then T < 0
would also be physically possible. In this case there are only two possible motions:

(a) oscillations (v02 < 4gl ⇔ P > −1), and

(b) full revolutions (v02 > 4gl ⇔ P < −1).

The borderline case v02 = 4gl corresponds to “bifurcation”: a switch between the two regimes.

8.3 Special case: small oscillations

Let v0 be small (and we expect that a small initial velocity will lead to small oscillations). More
precisely, we assume:
v02
<< 1.
2gl
v02
Then we are obviously in the case < 1 in the previous section. Now
2gl
|θ(t)| ≤ θ1 = cos−1 P
 
v02
= cos −1
1− << 1
2gl
θ3
⇒ sin θ = θ − + · · · ≈ θ, to a good approximation.
6

74
 v02
<< 1
2gl

g
Then the equation θ̈ + sin θ = 0 is approximated by
l
g
θ̈ + θ = 0
l
g1
2
⇔ θ̈ + ω 2 θ = 0, ω := ,
l

which gives rise to simple harmonic motion.

Example: Sheet 10 Qn 3.

9 Motion under Central Forces.

9.1 Central forces

A central force is a generalisation of the gravitational force (§§5.1, 5.3). Consider a particle of
−−→
mass m at P with nonzero position vector x = OP .
P
m

Definition 9.1 F(x) is a “central force” if it is always directed towards (or away from) O,
and its magnitude depends only on the distance r = kxk.

So,
f (r)
F(x) = f (r) x̂ = x,
r

75