General Science

(General Knowledge)
SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways
and Other Competitive Exams

DAKSH

i
ii
General Science
(General Knowledge)
SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways
and Other Competitive Exams

Powered by: Physics Wallah

First Edition

Written by: General Studies Team, Govt. Exam Wallah

iii
Edition: First

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 Preface

Science forms the bedrock of our understanding of the world around us. It fuels our curiosity, shapes our advancements,
and underpins the very fabric of modern society. This book, meticulously curated for SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE,
Railways and Other Competitive Exams, aims to serve as your companion in unraveling the wonders of science while
preparing for your assessments.
Comprising a comprehensive array of topics from physics, chemistry, biology, and more, this book is designed to
align with the syllabus requirements, offering a concise yet thorough exploration of essential scientific principles.
Each chapter is crafted to provide clarity and depth, assisting you in grasping complex concepts and enabling a firm
foundation in scientific knowledge.
Throughout these pages, you will encounter a blend of theoretical insights, practical applications, and real-world
examples, fostering a holistic understanding of scientific phenomena. Additionally, ample practice questions and
exercises are incorporated to reinforce your learning and sharpen your problem-solving skills, facilitating a confident
approach to the examination.
Our endeavor is to not only assist you in preparing for SSC exams but also to ignite a lasting fascination and
appreciation for the captivating realm of science. We encourage you to delve into these pages, explore with curiosity,
and embrace the joy of scientific inquiry.
We extend our best wishes for your success in the SSC examinations and hope that this book serves as a valuable
asset in your academic journey.

Happy reading and learning!

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 Table of Contents

Sr. No. Topic Page No.

PHYSICS
1 Units and Measurements 1-7
2 Motion and Force 9-17
3 Work, Energy and Power 19-23
4 Sound Wave 25-26
5 Properties of Liquid 27-31
6 Heat and Thermodynamics 33-40
7 Light and Optics 41-45
8 Electric current 47-50
9 Radioactivity 51-55
CHEMISTRY
1 Matter, Atoms and Molecules 57-61
2 Metallurgy, Metals, Non-Metals and Alloys 63-72
3 Acids, Bases and Salts 73-79
4 Organic Chemistry 81-88
5 Periodic Classification 89-98
6 Kinetic Theory of Gases 99-102
7 Chemistry in Daily Life 103-107
BIOLOGY
1 Cell the Unit of Life 109-114
2 Nutrition in Plants 115-118
3 Nutrients 119-124
4 Deficiency and Diseases 125-129
5 Reproductive System 131-135
6 Reproduction In Plants 137-140
7 Sensory Organs 141-147
8 Respiratory System 149-153
9 Digestive System 155-162
10 Circulatory System 163-168
11 Excretory System 169-172
12 Endocrine System 173-177
13 Nervous System 179-183
14 Musculo Skeletal System 185-189
15 Classification 191-195
16 Economic Zoology 197-199

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PHYSICS

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 Chapter

Units and
1 Measurements

current, kelvin (K) for temperature, mole (mol) for

Importance of Units and amount of substance, and candela (cd) for luminous
Measurements in Science intensity.
Units and measurements are integral to daily life, employed 2. FPS System (Foot-Pound-Second System): This is
in quantifying physical attributes like length, mass, time, an imperial system of units, which uses foot for length,
and temperature. Their significance lies in standardization, pound for mass, and second for time. It’s primarily
ensuring a universal understanding when measuring used in the United States. For example, distances
quantities. This clarity aids communication, as objective are measured in feet and miles rather than meters or
units replace subjective descriptors. In trade, units kilometers.
maintain fairness by establishing standardized quantities 3. CGS System (Centimeter-Gram-Second System):
for goods and services. Scientific research relies on precise This is an older system of metric units. As the name
measurements for reproducibility, while everyday tasks, suggests, it uses centimeter for length, gram for mass,
from cooking to driving, involve units and measurements. and second for time. It was widely used in the sciences,
In essence, these standardized metrics facilitate consistency, but has been largely replaced by the SI system.
communication, fairness in commerce, scientific rigor, and
efficiency in routine activities. 3. Base Units in SI system
1. Quantity, Unit and Measurement Following are the seven base units in the SI system:
1. Quantity: In the context of units and measurements, a a. kilogram (kg): The kilogram is the unit of mass.
quantity is a property or aspect of a physical object or It is defined by setting the Planck constant to
phenomenon that can be measured or calculated. It can 6.62607015×10-34 kg.m²/s.
be anything that we are able to measure. For example, Before 2019, the definition of the kilogram relied on a
length, mass, time, temperature, etc. are all quantities. platinum-iridium cylinder known as the International
2. Unit: A unit is a specific measure used to represent Prototype Kilogram, housed at the International
a physical quantity. For example, the physical Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France.
quantity ‘length’ can be measured in units like meters, In the English measurement system, mass is quantified
centimeters, inches, etc. Similarly, ‘time’ can be using the unit called the slug, which represents a mass
measured in seconds, minutes, hours, and so on. Units with a weight of 32.17 pounds at sea level.
provide a standard for expressing and comparing these The kilogram (the unit of mass in the SI system), was
quantities. redefined in terms of fundamental constants, including
3. Measurement: Measurement is the process of the Planck constant. The current definition came into
determining the ratio of a physical quantity, such as a effect on May 20, 2019. The formula is based on the
length, time, temperature etc., to a unit of measurement, energy-mass equivalence principle from Einstein’s
such as the meter, second or degree Celsius. For theory of relativity (E=mc2). The relationship involves
example, when we say a room is 10 meters long, we’re the Planck constant (ℎ) and the speed of light (c):
expressing a measurement. The quantity is length, the E=h.f
unit is meters, and the measurement is 10 meters.
● where E is the energy of a particle or a system of
2. System of Units particles,
1. SI System (International System of Units): This ● h is the Planck constant (6.62607015×10−34 J.s)
is the modern form of the metric system and is the
● f is the frequency of the associated electromagnetic
most widely used system of measurement. It includes
wave.
seven base units: kilogram (kg) for mass, meter (m)
for length, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric Now, since E=mc2,

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 1
 where c. density: Density is a measure of mass per unit volume.
It is derived from the base units of mass (kilogram)
m is mass,
and length (meter), and its unit is kilograms per cubic
c is the speed of light (3.00×108 m/s), and meter (kg/m³). For example, the density of water is
approximately 1000 kg/m³.
E is the energy, you can express mass in terms of the
Planck constant and frequency: d. force: Force is a measure of the push or pull on an
object. It is derived from the base units of mass
E h⋅ f (kilogram), length (meter), and time (second), and its
=
m =
c2 c2 unit is newtons (N). For example, the force exerted by
b. meter (m): The meter is the unit of length. It is defined gravity on a 1 kilogram object near the Earth’s surface
by setting the speed of light in vacuum to exactly is approximately 9.8 N.
299,792,458 meters per second. e. pressure: Pressure is the force applied perpendicular
The meter is the distance that light travels in a vacuum to the surface of an object per unit area. It is derived
during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 seconds. from the base units of force (newton) and length
(meter), and its unit is pascals (Pa). For example, the
This definition was established by the 17th General atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately
Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 101,325 Pa.
1983. The effective date for using the speed of light as
a reference for the meter definition was on January 1, Supplementary Units
1984. The redefinition provides a precise and constant In the SI system, supplementary units are dimensionless
value for the speed of light, anchoring the definition of units utilized in conjunction with base units to create
the meter in a fundamental constant of nature. derived units. Established in 1960 by the 11th CGPM
c. second (s): The second is the unit of time. It is (Resolution 12), this category encompasses units not
defined by setting the ground state hyperfine splitting derived from or classified as base units. Within this class,
frequency of the caesium-133 atom at zero magnetic there are two purely geometrical units:
field to exactly 9,192,631,770 Hz. radian (rad): A unit measuring plane angles, often favored
d. ampere (A): The ampere is the unit of electric current. in science and mathematics over degrees.
It is defined by setting the elementary charge to steradian (sr): A unit for solid angles, employed in
1.602176634×10-19 coulombs. three-dimensional geometry, especially in physics and
e. kelvin (K): The kelvin is the unit of thermodynamic engineering.
temperature. It is defined by setting the Boltzmann Initially deemed supplementary from 1960 to 1995, the
constant to 1.380649×10-23 joules per kelvin. 20th CGPM reclassified both radian and steradian as
f. mole (mol): The mole is the unit of amount of derived units in 1995, discontinuing the supplementary
substance. It is defined by setting the Avogadro category.
constant to exactly 6.02214076×1023 particles per 5. Measurement of Length, Mass and Time
mole.
Measurement of Length
g. candela (cd): The candela is the unit of luminous
intensity. It is defined by setting the luminous efficacy a. Ruler: A ruler is a straightedge with equally spaced
of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz markings along its length. It’s used for measuring
to exactly 683 lumens per watt. short lengths and can be graduated in millimeters,
centimeters, inches, or other units.
4. Derived Units
b. Measuring Tape: A measuring tape is a flexible ruler
Derived units are combinations of the seven base units and that can measure longer lengths. It’s often used in
are used to measure other physical quantities. Here are construction and tailoring.
some examples:
c. Vernier Calipers: Vernier calipers are a precision
a. speed: Speed is a measure of how fast something is instrument that can measure internal and external
moving. It is derived from the base units of distance dimensions extremely accurately. They’re used in
(meter) and time (second), and its unit is meters per fields where precision is important, like engineering
second (m/s). For example, if a car travels 100 meters and scientific research. VC can measure length upto
in 10 seconds, its speed is 10 m/s. 0.1mm.
b. volume: Volume is the amount of space that a d. Micrometer Screw Gauge: This is a device used for
substance or object occupies. It is derived from the precision measurement of components in mechanical
base unit of length (meter), and its unit is cubic meters engineering and machining as well as most mechanical
(m³). For example, the volume of a box that is 1 meter trades, along with other metrological instruments such
long, 1 meter wide, and 1 meter high is 1 cubic meter. as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Screw Gauge can
measure length upto 0.01mm.

2 General Science (General Knowledge)

e. Laser Measure: A laser measure is a tool that b. Electronic Weighing Machine: An electronic
uses a laser to measure distances. It’s often used in weighing machine measures the weight of an object
construction and interior design. and converts it to mass. These are commonly used in
various settings like your bathroom scale at home, a
f. Optical Comparator: An optical comparator (also
grocery store scale, or a postage scale at the post office.
known as a profile projector) is a device that applies the
principles of optics to the inspection of manufactured c. Spring Scale: A spring scale measures weight (the
parts. force exerted on an object due to gravity), which can
be converted to mass knowing the acceleration due to
g. Interferometer: An interferometer is a type
gravity. These are often used in physics classrooms.
of scientific instrument that can measure small
displacements, refractive index changes, and surface Table: 2 Different types of Units used in measurement of
irregularities. mass.
h. Atomic Force Microscope (AFM): AFM is a type Unit Description Equivalent
of scanning probe microscopy, with demonstrated
resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer,
more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction
limit. Kilogram (kg) The base unit of mass -
in the SI system
Units of Length Measurement
Table 1: Units of length measure Gram (g) Commonly used for 1 kg = 1,000 g
smaller masses
Unit Description Equivalent
Used for general Milligram Used for very small 1 g = 1,000 mg
Meter (m) -
measurements in science (mg) masses
Centimeter
Used for smaller lengths 1 m = 100 cm
(cm) Microgram Used in scientific 1 mg = 1,000
Millimeter Used for even smaller 1 cm = 10 (µg) research for tiny µg
(mm) lengths mm masses
Micrometer Used for microscopic 1 mm = 1,000
(µm) lengths µm Tonne (t) Used for large 1 t = 1,000 kg
Nanometer Used in the study of 1 µm = 1,000 masses, like vehicles
(nm) molecules and atoms nm or whales
Picometer Used in the study of 1 nm = 1,000
(pm) atomic nuclei pm Atomic Mass Used in chemistry to 1 amu ≈ 1.66 x
Used in crystallography Unit (amu) express the masses of 10-27 kg
Angstrom atoms and molecules
and the study of 1 Å = 0.1 nm
(Å)
molecular structures
Measurement of Time
1 fm =
Fermi (fm) Used in nuclear physics Tools used for measuring time:
1 × 10-15 m
Used in astronomy to a. Clock: A clock is a device that tells the time. It can
Astronomical 1 AU ≈ 149.6
measure distances within be analog (with hands pointing to hours, minutes,
Unit (AU) million km
our solar system and sometimes seconds) or digital (displaying time
Used in astronomy to numerically). Clocks are everywhere in our daily
Light Year 1 ly ≈ 9.461 lives, from the wall clock in your home to the clock on
measure interstellar and
(ly) trillion km your computer or smartphone.
intergalactic distances
Parsec (pc) Also used in astronomy 1 pc ≈ 3.26 ly b. Stopwatch: A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece
Measurement of Mass designed to measure the amount of time that elapses
between its activation and deactivation. It’s used for
Measurement of mass is a fundamental concept in science timing events where precision is important, such as
and our daily lives. Here are some tools used for measuring races or experiments.
mass and their real-life applications:
c. Timer: A timer is a specialized type of clock used for
a. Balance: A balance is a device that measures mass measuring specific time intervals. It can be used for a variety
by balancing an object with a known mass. One of purposes, such as cooking, studying, or exercising.
common type of balance is the beam balance, where
you place the object on one side of the beam and add d. Calendar: A calendar is used to measure longer
known masses to the other side until the beam is level. periods of time, from days to weeks, months, and
Balances are often used in laboratories for precise years. It helps us keep track of important dates and
measurements. plan for future events.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 3
Table 3: Units used in measuring time time, is so minute that there are as many attoseconds in
one second as there have been seconds since the birth
Unit Description Equivalent of the universe. The laureates’ experiments, measuring
pulses in attoseconds, unveil the potential to capture
images of processes within atoms and molecules. This
Second (s) The base unit of time in - breakthrough enables scientists to observe and comprehend
the SI system previously inaccessible ultrafast processes, exemplifying
how advancements in measurement techniques drive
Minute (min) Commonly used for 1 min = 60 s breakthroughs in our understanding of the world.
short periods of time
6. Accuracy, Precision, and Errors in Measurement
Accuracy and Precision
Hour (h) Used for longer periods 1 h = 60 min Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the
of time true value or the standard value. For example, if in lab
you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given
Day (d) Used to measure the 1 d = 24 h substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then
time from one midnight your measurement is not accurate.
to the next
On the other hand, Precision refers to how close the
agreement is between repeated measurements (which are
Week (wk) Used to measure a 1 wk = 7 d repeated under the same conditions). Consider you are
standard working week weighing the same substance five times, and you get 3.2 kg
each time, then your measurement is very precise. Precision
Year (yr) Used to measure long 1 yr ≈ tells you about the repeatability of your measurement.
periods of time 365.25 d
To differentiate between Accuracy and Precision,
consider an archery target. Accuracy is hitting the center
of the target, while precision is hitting the same spot on the
target over and over again, regardless of whether that spot
Millisecond Used for very short 1 s = 1,000 is the center of the target. A measurement system can be
(ms) periods of time ms accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, neither,
or both.

Used in scientific For example, if an experiment contains a systematic

Microsecond 1 ms = 1,000 error, then increasing the sample size generally increases
research for extremely
(µs) µs precision but does not improve accuracy. The result
short periods of time
would be a consistent yet inaccurate string of results from
the flawed experiment. Eliminating the systematic error
Nanosecond Used in computing and 1 µs = 1,000 improves accuracy but does not change precision.
(ns) telecommunications ns A measurement system is considered valid if it is both
accurate and precise. Related terms include bias (non-
random or directed effects caused by a factor or factors
Picosecond Used in quantum 1 ns = 1,000 unrelated to the independent variable) and error (random
(ps) physics and chemistry ps variability).
Error
Used in ultrafast The measured value of a quantity typically deviates from
Femtosecond 1 ps = 1,000
science, including the true value of the physical quantity. This disparity
(fs) fs
femtochemistry between the true value and the measured value is termed as
an error, calculated as the difference between the true value
Used in photonics and and the measured value:
Attosecond 1 fs = 1,000
the study of electron Error = true value – measured value.
(as) as
dynamics
Types of errors and how to minimize them
The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics holds relevance in our In the process of measurement, two types of errors
discourse on units and measurements, honoring Pierre commonly occur: systematic errors and random errors.
Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, and Anne L’Huillier for their
groundbreaking experimental methods generating a. Systematic Errors: These are errors that are
attosecond pulses of light to study electron dynamics consistent and repeatable, which can be due to a fault
in matter. An attosecond, an extraordinarily brief unit of in the equipment or the design of the experiment.
For example, if a stopwatch used in an experiment is

4 General Science (General Knowledge)

 consistently slow by 0.5 seconds, then this would be a c. Careful Procedure: Following the experimental
systematic error. procedure carefully and accurately can help to
reduce errors. This includes things like reading
b. Random Errors: These are errors that occur
measurements at eye level to avoid parallax error,
unpredictably and vary from one measurement to
and ensuring measuring instruments are clean and
another. They often result from the experimenter’s
zeroed before use.
inability to take the same measurement in exactly the
same way to get exact the same number. d. Use of Appropriate Tools: Using the right tool
for the measurement can also reduce errors.
To minimize these errors, we can use the following
For example, it would be more accurate to
methods:
use a thermometer rather than estimating the
a. Calibration: Equipment should be properly temperature by touch.
calibrated. This means checking them against
e. Error Analysis: After the experiment, error
a standard and adjusting them as necessary to
analysis can be done to identify any systematic
ensure they give accurate readings.
errors and correct for them.
b. Repeated Trials: Conducting multiple trials and
Remember, while it’s impossible to completely eliminate
then averaging the results can help to minimize
errors in an experiment, these steps can help to minimize
random errors.
them and improve the accuracy and reliability of your results.

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 5
 Exercise

1. What is the primary reason for the significance of 12. Systematic errors are:
units and measurements? (a) Consistent and repeatable
(a) Standardization for universal understanding (b) Unpredictable and variable
(b) Subjective description replacement (c) Result from the inability to take the same
(c) Ease of quantifying complex data measurement
(d) Personal preference in measurement (d) Both (a) and (c)
2. Which system of units is primarily used in the 13. Random errors occur:
United States? (a) Consistently and predictably
(a) SI System (b) FPS System (b) Due to the inability to take the same measurement
(c) CGS System (d) MKS System (c) Unpredictably and vary from one measurement
3. What is the SI unit for measuring mass? to another
(a) Gram (b) Kilogram (d) Resulting from equipment faults
(c) Pound (d) Ounce 14. Which technique helps to minimize random errors
in measurements?
4. Which unit is defined by setting the speed of light
in vacuum to a specific value? (a) Calibration
(a) Meter (b) Second (b) Using appropriate tools
(c) Candela (d) Kelvin (c) Conducting multiple trials
(d) Careful experimental design
5. The unit of electric current in the SI system is:
15. What unit of time is employed to measure extremely
(a) Ampere (b) Ohm
short periods in femtochemistry?
(c) Watt (d) Volt
(a) Nanosecond (b) Picosecond
6. What is the derived unit for measuring force?
(c) Femtosecond (d) Attosecond
(a) Newton (b) Joule
16. The SI unit for measuring luminous intensity is:
(c) Watt (d) Ohm
(a) Kelvin (b) Candela
7. The unit for measuring speed is derived from which
(c) Mole (d) Ampere
base units?
17. Which unit is used in astronomy to measure
(a) Mass and time (b) Length and time
interstellar distances?
(c) Length and mass (d) Mass, length, and time
(a) Light Year
8. What is the measure of how fast something is
(b) Parsec
moving?
(c) Astronomical Unit
(a) Acceleration (b) Velocity (d) Nanometer
(c) Speed (d) Momentum
18. Accuracy in measurement is primarily concerned
9. Which unit is used to measure the amount of with:
substance?
(a) How close measurements are to the true value
(a) Mole (b) Candela (b) The repeatability of measurements
(c) Ampere (d) Kelvin (c) How close measurements are to each other
10. Accuracy in measurements refers to: (d) The sensitivity of measurement tools
(a) How close measurements are to each other 19. The primary advantage of using units and
(b) How close measurements are to the true value measurements in science is:
(c) The repeatability of measurements (a) Facilitation of communication and standardization
(d) The sensitivity of measurement tools (b) Easier quantification of complex data
11. Precision in measurements indicates: (c) Elimination of experimental errors
(a) How close measurements are to the true value (d) Subjective description replacement
(b) The repeatability of measurements 20. The SI unit for measuring temperature is:
(c) The sensitivity of measurement tools (a) Kelvin (b) Celsius
(d) How close measurements are to each other (c) Fahrenheit (d) Rankine

6 General Science (General Knowledge)

21. What unit is employed to measure the force exerted (b) Engineering
on an object due to gravity? (c) Astronomy
(a) Newton (b) Watt (d) Chemistry
(c) Volt (d) Ampere 24. The SI unit for measuring the distance f is:
22. Which system of units uses foot for length and (a) kilometer (b) meter
pound for mass? (c) centimeter (d) Foot
(a) SI System (b) FPS System 25. Which unit of time is commonly used for short
(c) MKS System (d) CGS System periods of time?
23. The unit for measuring angles in radians is utilized (a) Second (b) Millisecond
prominently in which field? (c) Hour (d) Week
(a) Mathematics and Science
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 7
 STUDENT'S NOTES

8 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

2 Motion and Force

Examples of uniform circular motion:

1. Motion
A car turning in a circle at a constant speed: The car is
Motion is the change in position of an object with respect
experiencing uniform circular motion. The friction between
to its surroundings in a given interval of time. It involves
the tires and the road provides the centripetal force needed
the displacement of an object from one location to another,
to keep the car moving in a circle.
and it can be described in terms of its direction, speed, and
acceleration. Motion is a fundamental concept in physics, A planet orbiting the sun: The planet moves in a circular
and it encompasses a wide range of phenomena, from the path at a nearly constant speed. The gravitational pull of
movement of celestial bodies in space to the motion of the sun provides the centripetal force that keeps the planet
particles at the microscopic level. The study of motion is a in its orbit.
crucial aspect of understanding the physical world and is a A child on a merry-go-round: The child moves in a
key component of classical mechanics. circular path at a constant speed. The structure of the
Linear Motion: merry-go-round provides the centripetal force that keeps
the child moving in a circle.
Linear motion, also known as translational motion,
occurs when an object moves along a straight line. The Periodic Motion:
object’s position changes with time, and its velocity and Periodic motion is repetitive and follows a regular pattern
acceleration can be along the same line. For example a car over time. The object returns to its initial position after a
moving along a straight road. fixed period, and the motion can be described by parameters
Circular Motion: like amplitude, frequency, and period. For example a
swinging pendulum.
Circular motion involves the movement of an object along
a circular path. The object maintains a constant distance Random Motion:
from a central point, and its velocity is constantly changing, Random motion, also known as chaotic or Brownian
always tangent to the circle. For example, Earth orbiting motion, is unpredictable and lacks a specific pattern. The
around the Sun. movement of particles is influenced by random factors,
Uniform Circular Motion: such as collisions with other particles. For example the
motion of gas molecules.
Uniform Circular Motion refers to the motion of an object
along a circular path at a constant speed. Even though the Uniform Motion:
speed is constant, the velocity is not, because the direction Uniform motion occurs when an object covers equal
of motion is continuously changing. distances in equal intervals of time. The speed of the object
The properties of uniform circular motion: remains constant throughout the motion. On a distance-
time graph, the motion is represented by a straight line.
Constant Speed: The speed of the object remains constant
Since speed is constant there is no acceleration in uniform
throughout its motion. However, because the direction of
motion. For example a car moving with a constant speed
motion is constantly changing, the velocity (which is speed
on a straight road.
in a given direction) is not constant.
Non-Uniform Motion:
Centripetal Acceleration: The object in uniform circular
motion experiences an acceleration that is directed towards Non-uniform motion occurs when an object covers unequal
the center of the circular path. This is known as centripetal distances in equal intervals of time. The speed of the object
acceleration. changes at various points of time during the motion. On a
distance-time graph, this motion is represented by a curved
Centripetal Force: The force that keeps the object moving
line. Because speed keeps changing there is acceleration
along the circular path is called the centripetal force. It is
or deceleration in non-uniform motion. For example a car
always directed towards the center of the circle.
accelerating from rest, or a cyclist slowing down.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 9
 negative acceleration, signifies the reduction in an object’s
2. Speed vs Velocity velocity over time. Vehicles accelerate on highways during
Speed overtaking maneuvers. Braking systems in vehicles cause
deceleration to stop at traffic lights.
Speed measures the rate at which an object covers distance.
It signifies how fast an object moves, devoid of directional Change in Velocity
information. Thus speed is a scalar quantity. The standard Acceleration =
Time Interval
unit for speed in the International System of Units (SI) is
meters per second (m/s). 3. Laws of Motion
Distance Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia):
Speed =
Time
This law states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest, and
Average speed quantifies the overall rate of travel by an object in motion tends to stay in motion, with the same
dividing the total distance covered by the total time taken. speed and in the same direction, unless acted upon by a net
When a body travels equal distances with different speeds, external force. This is also known as the law of inertia. For
then the average speed is the harmonic mean of different example, if you slide a hockey puck on ice, eventually it will
speeds. stop, because of the friction between the ice and the puck.

2 1 1 Inertia at Rest
= +
s s1 s2 Inertia at Rest is the property of a body to resist a change in
its state of rest unless an external force is applied.
2 s1 s2
s= Instances of Inertia at Rest
s1 + s2
Dusting a Cloth: Vigorously shaking a cloth or carpet
When a body travels for equal duration of time with during dusting prompts dust particles to resist moving
different speeds, then the average speed is the arithmetic along with the cloth. The inertia at rest causes them to
mean of different speeds. maintain their original positions, leading to their separation
from the cloth.
s1 + s2
s= Abrupt Vehicle Start: When a vehicle quickly transitions
2
from a state of rest to motion, passengers instinctively lean
Velocity backward. This response is attributed to the inertia at rest, as
individuals tend to maintain their positions and lean backward.
Velocity, a vector quantity, not only considers the rate of
motion but also incorporates direction. It provides information Shaking a Tree to Detach Leaves/Fruits: To dislodge
about both speed and the direction in which an object is fruits from a tree, vigorous shaking is employed. Despite
moving. Similar to speed, the unit of velocity is meters per the movement of the tree, the fruits strive to stay at rest due
second (m/s), but it also includes directional information. to inertia, resulting in their detachment from the tree.

Displacement Tablecloth Pull Without Disturbing Dishes: Pulling a

Velocity = tablecloth rapidly does not drag the dishes along with it.
Time The dishes persist in their initial positions on the table,
owing to the inertia at rest.
To calculate average velocity we simply divide total
displacement with total time taken. Opening a Jar Lid: When opening a tightly closed jar, the
initial resistance is due to the inertia at rest. The lid tends to
(v + u) stay in place until an external force is applied to overcome
Average Velocity =
2 this resistance.

where, v is final velocity and u is initial velocity. Inertia in Motion

Distance vs. Displacement: Inertia in Motion is the ability of a body to resist alterations
in motion when the object is already in motion. The body
Distance is the total path covered by an object, irrespective tends to persist in its motion direction and speed when
of direction, while displacement is the change in the position subjected to an external force.
of an object, considering both distance and direction. Thus
Distance is a scalar while displacement is a vector quantity. Examples of Inertia in Motion

Acceleration and Deceleration: Aircraft Landing: After landing, an aircraft does not
come to an instantaneous halt. If it were to stop abruptly,
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect passengers would be propelled forward due to the inertia in
to time. It indicates how quickly an object’s velocity motion at the high landing speed.
is increasing or decreasing. It is measured in meters per
second squared (m/s²) in the International System of Sudden Vehicle Brake Application: When a vehicle
Units (SI). Deceleration, often colloquially referred to as suddenly applies brakes, the car halts, but occupants

10 General Science (General Knowledge)

continue moving. The inertia in motion causes individuals force applied. F=ma, where F is the net force, m is the
to maintain their motion, and seat belts function to arrest mass, and a is the acceleration. For example, pushing a car
this motion, preventing forward falls. will make it accelerate, and the harder you push, the faster
it will accelerate.
Swirling of Coffee/Milk: Swirling a glass of milk does
not cease immediately; it continues for some time before Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Action and Reaction):
stopping. This persistence is a result of the inertia in the
This law states that for every action, there is an equal and
motion of the molecules.
opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted on
Continued Running After a Jump: Athletes in marathons a body will create a force of equal magnitude but in the
or sprints persist in running even after crossing the finish line. opposite direction on the object that exerted the first force.
For example, if you push a wall, the wall pushes back with
Sliding on an Icy Surface: When walking on an icy
an equal amount of force.
surface, it’s challenging to stop abruptly due to the inertia
in motion. The body tends to keep moving, requiring effort Impulse
to come to a complete halt.
Impulse is a term used to describe the impact of a force
Momentum acting over a specific with very short duration to alter the
momentum of an object. It resembles applying a substantial
Momentum is an amount of motion contained by a moving
push or pull to something for a brief period. For instance,
object. Objects at rest lack momentum, while those in
when you kick a soccer ball, you are imparting an impulse.
motion exhibit varying levels of momentum depending on
their mass and speed. The formula for impulse is expressed as :
p = mv J= F × ∆t
Where p is the momentum, m = mass and v = velocity/ where:
speed. Momentum is a vector quantity.
●● J represents the impulse,
The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
●● F denotes the applied force,
The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
asserts that in a collision between two objects, the total ●● Δt is the time interval over which the force is exerted.
momentum before and after the collision remains constant, The unit of impulse is the Newton-second (N·s), identical
provided there is no external force influencing the colliding to the unit of momentum, which is kilogram meter per
objects. This principle implies that the overall amount of second (kg·m/s).
motion within a system remains unchanged both before
and after the collision. Practical Applications of Impulse:

Practical applications that exemplify the Principle of Playing Sports: In cricket, when a player strikes a ball,
Conservation of Linear Momentum: the bat is in contact with the ball for a brief period but
significantly alters its trajectory.
Gun and Bullet Mechanism: Upon firing a bullet from
a gun, the gun experiences recoil, moving backward as a Kick Starting a Bike: The kick rod applies force for a
consequence of the conservation of linear momentum. short time, rotating a dynamo and generating a spark to
initiate the engine.
Inflated Balloon: Releasing an inflated balloon without
securing it causes the air to rush out, propelling the Airbags in Cars: In the event of a car crash, airbags rapidly
balloon in the opposite direction. This phenomenon is also inflate, supplying a cushioning force over a brief period to
attributed to the conservation of linear momentum. protect the passenger without causing harm.

Newton’s Cradle: This device showcases the conservation of Jumping off a Swing: By jumping off a swing at the right
momentum and energy using swinging spheres. When the end moment, you can provide yourself with an additional boost
sphere is lifted and released, it strikes the next sphere, and the (or impulse) to achieve greater height and distance.
motion is transmitted through the series to the last sphere. Breaking a Fall: When falling, extending your hands
Rocket Propulsion: Rockets ascend into the sky because a instinctively helps break the fall. Increasing the impact
substantial amount of gas is expelled from their bottom end. time reduces the experienced force, lowering the risk of
The downward motion of the gas (exhaust) corresponds to injury.
an upward motion of the rocket. Equations of uniformly accelerated motion (along a
Playing Pool: Striking a pool ball results in the movement straight line)
of another ball, serving as another illustration of the These equations are also known as the kinematic equations.
conservation of linear momentum. These equations assume that the motion is along a straight
Newton’s Second Law of Motion (F=ma): line (one dimension), the acceleration is constant, and the
effects of air resistance are negligible. They are fundamental
Newton's second law states that rate of change of in physics and are used to analyze the motion of objects.
momentum of an object is directly proportional to external These are as follows:

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 11
First Equation of Motion: The final velocity (v) of an Force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the
object can be calculated by: object’s interaction with another object. Whenever there is
an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon
v= u + at
each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two
Second Equation of Motion: The displacement (s) of an objects no longer experience the force.
object can be calculated by:
Units of Force
1
=
s ut + at 2 newton: The standard unit of force in the International
2
System of Units (SI) is the newton (N). One newton is
Third Equation of Motion: The relation between defined as the force needed to accelerate one kilogram of
displacement and velocity can be calculated by: mass at the rate of one meter per second squared.
v=
2
u 2 + 2as dyne (dyn): This is the unit of force in the centimeter-gram-
second (CGS) system. It is defined as the force required to
●● where u is the initial velocity accelerate a mass of one gram at a rate of one centimeter
●● v is the final velocity per second squared.

●● a is the acceleration pound-force (lbf): This is a unit of force commonly used

in the United States. It is defined as the force required to
●● s is the displacement accelerate a mass of one pound at a rate of 32.174 feet per
●● t is the time second squared.
poundal (pdl): This is another unit of force used in the
4. Projectile Motion
FPS (Foot-Pound-Second) system. It is defined as the force
Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object that is required to accelerate a mass of one pound at a rate of one
thrown or projected into the air, subject to the acceleration foot per second squared.
of gravity. The object is called a projectile, and its path is
kilogram-force (kgf): This is a gravitational unit of force.
called its trajectory.
It is the force exerted by one kilogram of mass in a 9.80665
The properties of projectile motion: m/s² gravitational field.
Parabolic Trajectory: The trajectory of a projectile is a The interconversion between these units can be done using
parabola. This is due to the constant acceleration due to specific conversion factors. For example,
gravity acting vertically downwards, while the horizontal
1 Newton = 105 dyne = 0.2248 pound-force = 7.233 poundal
velocity remains constant.
= 0.10197 kilogram-force
Time of Flight: The total time for which the projectile
Centripetal Force
remains in the air is called the time of flight. It depends on
the initial velocity and the angle of projection. Centripetal force is the force exerted on an object
undergoing curvilinear motion, directed toward the axis
Maximum Height: The maximum height is the highest
of rotation or the center of curvature. It is measured in
point that the projectile reaches. It also depends on the
newtons, and its direction is always perpendicular to the
initial velocity and the angle of projection.
object’s displacement.
Range: The range of the projectile is the horizontal distance
The formula for centripetal force (F) is expressed as
covered by the projectile. It depends on the initial velocity,
the product of mass (m in kilograms) and the square of
the angle of projection, and the height from which it was
tangential velocity (v in meters per second), divided by the
projected.
radius (r in meters). This implies that doubling the tangential
Examples of projectile motion: velocity results in a quadrupling of the centripetal force.
Mathematically, it is represented as:
Throwing a ball: When you throw a ball, it follows a
parabolic trajectory, and its motion is a perfect example of mv 2
F=
projectile motion. r
Jumping off a diving board: When a diver jumps off a Centripetal Acceleration
diving board, they become a projectile and their motion can
be predicted using the principles of projectile motion. Centripetal acceleration refers to the characteristic of the
motion exhibited by an object as it travels along a circular
Shooting a basketball: When shooting a basketball, the path. When an object is in circular motion and experiences
ball follows a parabolic path. The player must calculate the an acceleration vector directed toward the center of the
best angle and force to get the ball into the hoop. circle, it is identified as having centripetal acceleration.
In all these examples, the principles of projectile motion The formula for Centripetal Acceleration can be expressed
can be used to predict the trajectory of the object. as the multiplication of mass (measured in kilograms)
and the square of the tangential velocity (measured in
5. Force
meters per second), divided by the radius (measured

12 General Science (General Knowledge)

in meters). This implies that if the tangential velocity is
doubled, the centripetal acceleration will increase fourfold.
6. Friction
Mathematically, it can be represented as: Friction is characterized as the opposition encountered by
surfaces in contact as they slide past each other. It furnishes
v2 the necessary traction for walking without slipping, but at
ac =
r the same time, it poses a significant hindrance to motion.

Where: ●● There are primarily four types of Static Friction: This

type of friction arises between surfaces when they are
ac is the centripetal acceleration in meters per second stationary relative to each other.
squared (m.s₋2)
●● Sliding Friction: Occurring between two objects in motion
v is the velocity in meters per second (m.s⁻1) against each other, sliding friction creates resistance.
r is the radius in meters (m). ●● Rolling Friction: This form of friction manifests
Applications of Centripetal Force in Everyday Scenarios as resistance to motion when a rolling object moves
across a surface.
Roller Coaster Loop: As a roller coaster maneuvers
inside a loop, there’s a moment when it inverts, yet riders ●● Fluid Friction: The resistance encountered by an
remain securely in place, thanks to the centripetal force object moving through a fluid or by a fluid passing an
at play. object is known as fluid friction.

Planetary Orbits: Planets circling the Sun rely on gravity Advantages of Friction:
to provide the centripetal force essential for their orbital Walking: Friction between our feet and the ground
motion. prevents slipping, enabling us to walk securely.
Lasso Twirling: Whether spinning a ball on a string or Writing: The friction between the pen and the writing
twirling a lasso, the tension force in the rope directs the surface allows us to write on books and boards.
object towards the center.
Vehicle Motion: Friction between tires and the road
Driving on Curves: Negotiating curves while driving facilitates the motion of vehicles.
involves the frictional force between the tires and the road,
serving as the centripetal force. Igniting Matchsticks: The application of friction is
evident when matchsticks are ignited.
Washing Machine Dryer: The circular motion of clothes
inside a washing machine is orchestrated by the centripetal Motion of Pistons: Friction is integral to the motion of
force. pistons within a cylinder.

Centrifugal Force Drawbacks of Friction:

Centrifugal force is a fictitious force observed in Energy Loss: Frictional resistance within a pipe impedes
circular motion, acting along the radius and pointing the flow of fluid, resulting from viscous shear stresses and
away from the circle’s center. This force is nonexistent turbulence. The degree of turbulence depends on the pipe
when measurements are taken in an inertial frame of material’s roughness.
reference. Wear and Tear: Friction can cause wear and tear on
Practical Applications of Centrifugal Force clothing and equipment.

Banked Roads: Roads with an incline, commonly seen Heat Generation: Friction between moving machine parts
in hilly regions or areas with sharp turns, exhibit banking. generates heat, potentially causing damage and reducing
When vehicles navigate these curves at high speeds, efficiency.
centrifugal force pushes them outward. The Law of Limiting Friction
Drifting: During sharp turns, drivers experience centrifugal It establishes that the maximum frictional force (limiting
force, attempting to propel the vehicle outward. friction) when a body is on the verge of sliding over
Weight Variation at Poles and Equator: The strength of another body’s surface is proportional to the normal
centrifugal force is directly linked to the Earth’s tangential reaction and independent of the contact area. For instance,
rotation speed. Maximum centrifugal force is felt at the when attempting to push a heavy sofa, it remains stationary
equator. until a certain force is applied—the limiting friction. Once
in motion, the force required is usually less, as the static
Swinging a Stone on a Thread: A simple demonstration friction (limiting friction) is typically greater than the
of centrifugal force involves tying a stone to a thread and kinetic friction (friction during motion).
swirling it around.
7. Gravitation
Merry-Go-Round: Children on a merry-go-round
encounter an outward force, attempting to throw them Gravity is a force responsible for attracting objects toward
toward the outer edge. each other. Every entity possessing mass, such as toys,

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 13
books, and even individuals, experiences gravity. The the equator, causing ‘g’ to be slightly less compared to the
strength of gravity correlates with the mass of an object; the poles.
greater the mass, the stronger the gravitational force. For
Altitude above the Earth’s Surface: ‘g’ diminishes with
instance, Earth’s mass surpasses that of a book, resulting
increasing altitude, as the gravitational pull decreases with
in stronger gravity, which is why jumping brings one back
distance from the Earth’s surface.
down to the ground.
Depth below the Earth’s Surface: ‘g’ also diminishes
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, formulated by Sir Isaac
with depth below the Earth’s surface. This is attributed to
Newton, elucidates the mechanics of gravity. It posits that
the reduction in gravitational pull resulting from a decrease
every object in the universe exerts an attractive force on
in the amount of mass beneath the object.
every other object, determined by their masses and the
distance between them. The formula for this law is given These factors are critical considerations in various
by: scientific and engineering applications, including satellite
technology and geophysics.
m1m2
F =G Mass and Weight
r2
Mass: Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an
●● Where F represents the gravitational force between the object. It is an intrinsic property and is constant regardless
objects of the object’s location in the universe. An object’s mass
●● m1 , m2 denote the masses of the objects on Earth is the same as its mass on the moon or any other
celestial body. Weight varies with the strength of gravity at
●● r signifies the distance between the centers of the two different locations. An object will weigh less on the moon
objects, than it does on Earth because the moon has less gravity.
●● G is the universal gravitational constant. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g). Mass is
●● Value of G = 6.67×10-11 newton meter2/kg2 typically measured using a balance or a scale. The mass
of an object is a scalar quantity and is represented by the
This law holds paramount significance as it enhances our symbol m.
comprehension of the workings of the universe. It clarifies
why we remain grounded instead of floating into space, Weight: Weight is the force with which an object is pulled
why the moon orbits the Earth, and why planets orbit the toward the center of the Earth (or any other celestial body)
Sun. due to gravity. It is a force, and unlike mass, weight varies
with location in the universe.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation finds numerous practical
applications. Scientists utilize it to compute the gravitational Weight is measured in newtons (N). Weight is measured
force between planets, predict the trajectories of planets using a spring scale or a dynamometer. The weight of an
and moons, and devise spacecraft orbits5. Additionally, object is calculated using the formula W= m ⋅ g , where,
it provides insights into the reason objects descend when W is weight, m is mass, and g is the acceleration due to
dropped. gravity. Weight is a vector quantity, and its direction is
always toward the center of the celestial body.
Acceleration due to gravity
Center of Gravity:
The acceleration due to gravity refers to the acceleration
acquired by an object as a result of gravitational force. Its The Center of Gravity is a unique point within an object
unit in the International System of Units (SI) is m/s². As a where one can consider the total weight of the object to be
vector quantity, it possesses both magnitude and direction, concentrated. To illustrate, envision a see-saw that you aim
denoted by the symbol ‘g’. to balance perfectly. The point where you would position
the fulcrum (the support) to achieve this balance is referred
It is given by: to as the center of gravity.
GM In the case of simple shapes such as a ball or a ruler, the
g= (M= mass of the earth, R= Radius of the earth)
R2 center of gravity coincides with the middle of the object.
The standardized value of ‘g’ at sea level on the Earth’s However, for objects with irregular shapes or uneven
surface is 9.8 m/s². weight distribution, like a banana or a toy car, the center
of gravity may not align precisely with the middle. It
Several factors influence the acceleration due to gravity: resembles the “balance point” of an object.
Shape of the Earth: The Earth, being an oblate spheroid The Weight of a Body in a Lift
rather than a perfect sphere, exhibits slight flattening at
the poles and bulging at the equator. This shape variation ● The weight of an object inside an elevator can vary
results in ‘g’ having slight differences at various Earth based on the elevator’s motion.
locations. ● Elevator at rest: If the elevator is not moving, the
Rotational Motion of the Earth: The Earth’s rotation object’s weight remains its actual weight, calculated
introduces a centrifugal force that counteracts gravity at as its mass times the acceleration due to gravity.

14 General Science (General Knowledge)

● Elevator moving at a constant speed: Whether the =
W m( g − a )
elevator is moving up or down, if the speed is constant,
the object’s weight remains the same. ● Elevator in free fall: If the elevator is falling freely
● Elevator accelerating upwards: If the elevator is under the influence of gravity (like in a drop tower
speeding up while moving upwards, the object’s ride), the object’s weight will seem to be zero. This is
weight will seem to increase. This is because the because both the object and the elevator are falling at
object feels an extra force due to the elevator’s upward the same rate, so there’s no force between the object
acceleration. and the elevator.

=
W m( g + a ) W=
m( g − g ) ( a =
g)
● Elevator accelerating downwards: If the elevator is W =0
speeding up while moving downwards, the object’s
weight will seem to decrease. This is because part of These changes in weight occur because weight is a force,
the object’s weight is used to produce the downward and forces can be affected by the motion of the object (in
acceleration. this case, the elevator) that the weight is measured against.

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 15
 Exercise

1. Which type of motion involves an object moving 11. What principle asserts that the total momentum
along a straight line? before and after a collision remains constant?
(a) Linear motion (b) Circular motion (a) Principle of Conservation of Energy
(c) Periodic motion (d) Random motion (b) Principle of Inertia
2. What force keeps an object moving along a (c) Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
circular path? (d) Principle of Action and Reaction
(a) Gravitational force 12. According to Newton’s second law of motion,
(b) Centripetal force acceleration is:
(c) Frictional force (a) Directly proportional to force and inversely
(d) Inertial force proportional to mass
3. In uniform circular motion, what remains (b) Inversely proportional to force and mass
constant? (c) Inversely proportional to force and directly
proportional to mass
(a) Speed (b) Velocity
(d) Directly proportional to force and mass
(c) Acceleration (d) Momentum
13. Impulse is described as the impact of a force
4. What type of motion is repetitive and follows a
acting over a specific:
regular pattern?
(a) Distance (b) Mass
(a) Circular motion (b) Uniform motion
(c) Time duration (d) Velocity
(c) Periodic motion (d) Random motion
14. Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object
5. Speed is a _______ quantity.
subject to:
(a) Vector (b) Scalar
(a) Gravitational force
(c) Linear (d) Circular
(b) Frictional force
6. What quantity provides information about both (c) Centrifugal force
speed and direction?
(d) Tension force
(a) Speed (b) Velocity
15. Which property of projectile motion depends on
(c) Acceleration (d) Momentum the initial velocity and angle of projection?
7. According to Newton’s first law of motion, an (a) Parabolic trajectory
object at rest tends to:
(b) Gravity
(a) Move with constant velocity (c) Time of flight
(b) Change its mass (d) Range
(c) Stay at rest
16. Force is described as a push or pull resulting from:
(d) Move at increasing speed
(a) Friction
8. Inertia at rest is the property of a body to resist a
(b) Inertia
change in its state of:
(c) Interaction between objects
(a) Motion (b) Rest (d) Momentum
(c) Acceleration (d) Gravity
17. Which unit is the standard unit of force in the
9. Which law of motion states that for every action, International System of Units (SI)?
there is an equal and opposite reaction?
(a) Newton (b) Dyne
(a) Newton’s First Law (c) Pound-force (d) Kilogram-force
(b) Newton’s Second Law
18. Centripetal force is directed towards the:
(c) Newton’s Third Law
(d) Law of Inertia (a) Axis of rotation or the center of curvature
(b) Tangential velocity
10. Momentum is calculated as the product of:
(c) Surface of the object
(a) Mass and weight (d) Perpendicular axis
(b) Force and time
19. What is the formula for centripetal force?
(c) Mass and velocity
(d) Speed and time (a) F = mv (b) F = mv²/r

16 General Science (General Knowledge)

 (c) F = ma (d) F = m/a 23. What practical application demonstrates
20. Centripetal acceleration is directed towards the: centrifugal force?
(a) Axis of rotation (a) Banked roads
(b) Tangential direction (b) Writing with a pen
(c) Center of curvature (c) Walking securely
(d) Opposite direction of motion (d) Igniting matchsticks
21. Which of the following scenarios is an application 24. Friction arises between surfaces when they:
of centripetal force? (a) Move in the same direction
(a) Walking on a straight road (b) Are stationary relative to each other
(b) Driving on a straight highway (c) Have no contact
(c) Swinging a stone on a thread (d) Are lubricated
(d) Jumping off a diving board 25. Which type of friction occurs between two objects
22. Centrifugal force is observed in: in motion against each other?
(a) Circular motion (b) Linear motion (a) Static friction (b) Sliding friction
(c) Periodic motion (d) Random motion (c) Rolling friction (d) Fluid friction

ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (b)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 17
 STUDENT'S NOTES

18 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Work, Energy and

3 Power

Work ●●
1
KE =× 1000 × 400
2
Work is done when a force acting on an object causes it to ●● KE = 500 × 400
move through a distance in the direction of the force. Work
is a transfer of energy and is calculated by multiplying the ●● KE = 200,000
force applied to an object by the distance it moves in the So, the kinetic energy of the car travelling at 20 m/s with
direction of that force. a mass of 1000 kg is 200,000 Joules. All moving bodies
Work(W)= Force(F) ×displacement(d) have K.E.

When the displacement is in straight line the work Work done on a body = Increase in the kinetic energy of
the body.
●● W= F × d × cos θ
2. Potential Energy:
●● Work done, W = 0, if q = 90° between and
Potential energy (PE) is the stored energy an object
●● Work is a scalar quantity.
possesses due to its position or configuration. It is energy
●● SI unit of work is joule (J). that is associated with the relative position or state of an
object within a force field or due to its condition.
Energy Potential Energy: (PE) = mgh
Capacity of a body to do work is known as energy. Anything
where:
which is capable of doing work has energy.
●● m- is the mass of the object,
Energy gained or spent = work done.
●● g- is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately
There are two types of energy
9.81 m/s on the Earth’s surface).
1.Kinetic energy : ●● h- is the height or vertical distance relative to a
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue reference point.
of its motion. Example of Potential Energy: Consider a book with
Example of Kinetic Energy: Consider a car moving along a mass of 2 kilograms placed on a shelf at a height of 2
a straight road. The car has a mass of 1000 kilograms and is meters.
travelling at a velocity of 20 metres per second. Given:
Formula for Kinetic Energy: The formula to calculate ●● Mass (m) = 2 kg
kinetic energy (KE)) is given by:
●● Height ( h ) = 2 m
1
K.E = × m × v 2 ●● Acceleration due to Gravity ( g ) = (9.81m/s2)
2
Calculation:
Given:
●● PE = 2×2×9.81
●● Mass ( m ) = 1000 kg
●● =39.24 Joul
●● Velocity ( v ) = 20 m/s
Transformation of energy : The process of converting
Calculation:
one form of energy into another form of energy.
1
●● KE = × 1000 × (20 × 20) The Principle of Energy Conservation is a key tenet
2 in physics. It asserts that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but it can change from one type to another. This

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 19
implies that the total energy of a closed system always ●● Commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (k
stays the same. Wh).
Take, for instance, a fruit dropping from a tree. When the ●● 1 kW = 3.6 × 106 J.
fruit is at its highest point, it has maximum potential energy
●● Energy is the essential requirement for each and every
and no kinetic energy. As the fruit descends, its potential
activity in our life.
energy decreases, while its kinetic energy increases. When
the fruit hits the ground, it has maximum kinetic energy ●● The various sources of energy are the sun, the wind,
and minimum potential energy. The sum of kinetic and water, fossil fuels etc.
potential energy at any point during the fall is constant.
●● The sun is the ultimate source of all forms of energy.
Example of Law of energy conservation:
●● A good source of energy is one which supplies large
1. Pendulum Motion: A pendulum swinging back and amount of useful energy, easily available, economical
forth transforms potential energy into kinetic energy and cause minimum environmental pollution.
and vice versa.
●● Thermal power plants generate electricity by burning
2. Flashlight: A flashlight converts the battery’s chemical fossil fuel like coal and oil.
energy into electrical energy, which then transforms
●● LPG is a petroleum gas liquefied under pressure. Its
into light and heat energy.
full form is liquefied Petroleum Gas.
3. Hydroelectric Dams: Hydroelectric dams convert the
●● CNG is compressed Natural Gas.
potential energy of elevated water into kinetic energy
as it falls onto the turbines. ●● Main constituent of CNG is methane.
4. Incandescent Bulb: An incandescent bulb transforms ●● Electricity produced by flowing water is known as
electrical energy into light and heat energy. hydro - electric power.
5. Impact: During an impact, kinetic energy can be ●● A plant used to produce hydro -electric power is known
transferred from one object to another. as hydro -electric power plant.
6. Falling Object: An object falling from a height ●● Potential energy of water stored in a dam is converted
changes potential energy into kinetic energy. into kinetic energy of the falling water. This kinetic
energy of falling water is converted into the kinetic
7. Burning Logs: When logs are burned, the chemical
energy of the armature of the generator which in turn
energy stored in the logs is transformed into heat and
is converted into electric energy.
light energy.
●● Biomass is material which contains carbon and other
8. Drumming: When a drum is struck, the mechanical
combustible material.
energy from the strike is transformed into sound
energy. ●● Plants, wood animals and plants waster are the
examples of biomass.
9. Power Stations: Power stations convert various forms
of energy (like nuclear, thermal, or solar energy) into ●● Gobar gas or bio-gas is the example of a bio - mass
electrical energy. energy source.
10. Battery: A battery changes chemical energy into ●● Main constituent of a biogas or gobar gas is a methane
electrical energy. gas.
11. Loudspeaker: A loudspeaker transforms electrical ●● Biogas plant is of two types: (a) Fixed-dome type, (b)
energy into sound energy. Floating gas holder type.
12. Mastication: When we masticate food, mechanical ●● Kinetic energy of wind is known as wind energy.
energy (from the movement of our jaws and teeth) is ●● Wind energy is used to produce electricity.
used to break down the food into smaller pieces.
●● The region where a large number of wind mills are
13. Hand Rubbing: When we rub our hands together, the erected to produce electricity is called a wind energy
mechanical energy from the rubbing is transformed farm.
into heat energy.
●● The minimum speed of wind to operate a generator to
3. Power: produce electricity is about 15 km/h.
Rate of doing work is known as power. ●● Constant and rapid use of conventional sources of
●● Power = work/time energy would ultimately exhaust these sources and
hence a need for tapping energy from alternate or non-
●● SI unit of power is watt (W). conventional sources of energy is seriously felt.
●● Practical unit of power is horse power (h.p.) ●● Solar energy is the energy emitted by the sun in the
●● 1 h.p. = 746 W form of heat and light.

20 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● Solar constant is defined as the energy received ●● Nuclear Fission is the process of splitting a heavy
from the sun in one second by a unit square metre nucleus (say Uranium) into two comparatively lower
area of the outer edge of earth’s atmosphere exposed nuclei along with the release of large amount energy
perpendicular to the radiation of the sun at an average when bombarded with thermal neutrons.
distance between the sun and the earth.
●● Nuclear reactor is a device used to carry out a controlled
●● Value of solar constant = 1.366 k W/m2. chain reaction.
●● Solar devices like solar cooker, solar furnace, solar ●● Nuclear fusion is the process of fusing or combining
water heater, solar panels and solar cells are used to together two small nuclei to form a comparatively big
harness solar energy. nucleus with the release of large energy.
●● Water due to its high specific heat capacity (4200 J ●● Nuclear fusion reactions occur at very high
kg–1°C–1) is a store house of heat energy. temperatures (107K).
●● Energy from sea or ocean water is available in the ●● Nuclear fusion reactions occurring in the interior of the
form of (i) energy of sea waves (ii) Tidal energy and sun are responsible for the energy of the sun.
(iii) Ocean thermal energy (OTE).
In other words, nuclear fusion reactions are the sources of
●● The heat energy obtained from the conversion of energy of the sun.
nuclear mass is known as nuclear energy.
Sources of energy are classified into two categories:
●● Nuclear energy is obtained by two processes known as
(i) conventional or non-renewable sources of energy, and
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
(ii) Non-conventional or renewable sources of energy.
●● Nuclear energy is expressed in electron - volt(eV)
Extraction and transportation of energy from various
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19J
sources of energy cause environmental pollution.
1 MeV = 106 eV = 1.6–13J
The energy from various sources of energy must be used
effectively to conserve energy.

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 21
 Exercise

1. Work is calculated by multiplying force applied to (c) Force (d) Work

an object by the distance it moves in the direction 12. Which energy type does a flashlight primarily
of that force. What is the formula for work (W)? convert chemical energy into?
(a) W = F + d (b) W = F × d (a) Electrical energy
(c) W = F/d (d) W = F - d (b) Light energy
2. Work is zero when the angle (q) between force (c) Mechanical energy
and displacement is: (d) Thermal energy
(a) 0° (b) 45° 13. What type of energy is emitted by the sun in the
(c) 90° (d) 180° form of heat and light?
3. What is the SI unit of work? (a) Solar energy
(a) Joule (J) (b) Newton (N) (b) Nuclear energy
(c) Watt (W) (d) Kilogram (kg) (c) Wind energy
4. What type of energy does a body possess by virtue (d) Hydroelectric energy
of its motion? 14. What device is used to harness solar energy?
(a) Potential energy (a) Windmill
(b) Gravitational energy (b) Solar panel
(c) Kinetic energy (c) Geothermal plant
(d) Mechanical energy (d) Hydroelectric dam
5. The formula to calculate kinetic energy (KE) is: 15. What is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus
(a) KE = m × v (b) KE = m + v into two comparatively lower nuclei, releasing a
(c) KE = ½ m v² (d) KE = m² × v large amount of energy?
6. What is the formula for potential energy (PE) (a) Nuclear fusion (b) Nuclear fission
associated with height (h) and mass (m)? (c) Fusion reaction (d) Fission reaction
(a) PE = m + g + h (b) PE = m × h × g 16. What is the unit of nuclear energy expressed in
(c) PE = m - h - g (d) PE = m × g / h terms of electron-volt (eV)?
7. What is the principle that states energy cannot be (a) 1.6 × 10–19J
created or destroyed, but can only change form? (b) 1 MeV = 106 eV
(c) 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10–13J
(a) Law of Conservation of Matter
(d) 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19J
(b) Law of Conservation of Energy
(c) Law of Thermodynamics 17. What sources of energy are classified into two
(d) Law of Motion categories: conventional (non-renewable) and
non-conventional (renewable)?
8. What is the rate of doing work known as?
(a) 1.6 × 10–19J
(a) Energy (b) Force
(b) 1 MeV = 106 eV
(c) Power (d) Velocity
(c) 1 MeV = 1.6 ×10 –13J
9. What is the SI unit of power? (d) 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19J
(a) Newton (N) (b) Joule (J) 18. Which energy source is known for emitting the
(c) Watt (W) (d) Kilogram (kg) highest energy received from the sun at the outer
10. What is the practical unit of power equivalent to edge of Earth's atmosphere?
746 watts? (a) Solar energy
(a) Kilowatt-hour (kWh) (b) Wind energy
(b) Horsepower (hp) (c) Hydroelectric energy
(c) Watt-hour (Wh) (d) Nuclear energy
(d) Megawatt (MW) 19. What type of energy is transformed during a
11. What is the capacity of a body to do work known pendulum's motion?
as? (a) Kinetic energy to potential energy
(a) Energy (b) Power (b) Potential energy to kinetic energy

22 General Science (General Knowledge)

 (c) Electrical energy to mechanical energy (c) Watt (W)
(d) Heat energy to light energy (d) Megawatt (MW)
20. What device changes chemical energy into 23. Which energy form is stored due to relative
electrical energy? position or state of an object within a force field?
(a) Windmill (b) Solar panel (a) Kinetic energy (b) Nuclear energy
(c) Battery (d) Hydroelectric dam (c) Potential energy (d) Solar energy
21. Which energy type is the ultimate source for all 24. Which process involves fusing or combining two
forms of energy? small nuclei into a larger nucleus with the release
(a) Solar energy of a large amount of energy?
(b) Nuclear energy (a) Nuclear fusion (b) Nuclear fission
(c) Geothermal energy (c) Fusion reaction (d) Fission reaction
(d) Hydroelectric energy 25. What type of energy is primarily associated with
22. What is the SI unit of power equivalent to 3.6 × the stored energy due to position or configuration?
106 joules? (a) Kinetic energy (b) Nuclear energy
(a) Kilowatt-hour (kWh) (c) Potential energy (d) Solar energy
(b) Horsepower (hp)
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b)
16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 23
 STUDENT'S NOTES

24 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

4 Sound Wave

1. Sound Wave: Sound is a form of energy that we sound wave, it relates to the volume of the sound - the
can hear. It’s created when something vibrates and larger the amplitude, the louder the sound.
sends waves of energy (vibrations) into our ears. The
13. The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance
vibrations travel through the air or another medium
between two successive compressions or two
(like water or a wall) to our ears and when they reach
successive rarefactions.
our ears, they make our eardrums vibrate too, which
our brains interpret as sound. 14. The time period (T) is the time taken for one complete
cycle of vibration to pass a given point.
2. Vibrating bodies refer to anything that moves back
and forth rapidly. When an object vibrates, it sets the 15. The frequency (f) of a wave is the number of waves
surrounding air particles into vibrational motion, thus produced by a source each second. It is also the number
producing sound. of waves that pass a certain point each second.
3. A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one 16. The pitch or shrillness of a sound is determined by the
place to another without transferring matter. In the frequency of the sound wave. High-frequency sounds are
case of sound, the vibrating object creates a wave in high-pitched, and low-frequency sounds are low-pitched.
the medium around it (like air), and this wave travels 17. The loudness of a sound is determined by its amplitude.
outwards carrying the sound energy with it. Larger amplitudes are perceived as louder sounds.
4. A mechanical wave is a type of wave that requires a 18. Timbre is the characteristic of a sound that allows us
medium to travel through. These waves are caused by to distinguish between different sounds which might
a disturbance or vibration in a medium, like a rope or a have the same pitch and loudness. It’s why a violin
body of water or air. playing a note sounds different from a trumpet playing
5. A sound wave is a type of mechanical wave that results the same note at the same volume.
from a vibrating object. The vibrations of the object 19. The intensity of a sound wave is the amount of energy
set particles in the surrounding medium in vibrational it carries per second through a unit area.
motion, thus forming a sound wave.
20. An echo is a sound that is reflected off a surface and
6. Sound waves are longitudinal waves. This means the heard again. It’s the phenomenon you experience when
particles of the medium vibrate in a direction parallel you shout in a large empty room or between mountains
to the direction of energy transport. and hear your own sound repeated.
7. Sound needs a material medium for its propagation because 21. Reverberation is the persistence of sound in a
it travels by causing particles in the medium to vibrate. particular space after the original sound is removed.
8. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because there It’s what gives a room its characteristic sound.
are no particles to vibrate to carry the sound waves. 22. The audible range of sound for humans is typically
9. Sound travels through a medium in the form of between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Sounds with
compressions (where particles are close together) and frequencies below this range are called infrasound,
rarefactions (where particles are spread apart). and those above it are called ultrasound.
10. Compression is a region of a medium where the 23. Infrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies
particles are closest together, or a region of high below the human audible range (below 20 Hz).
pressure or high density. 24. Ultrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies
11. Rarefaction is a region of a medium where the above the human audible range (above 20,000 Hz).
particles are furthest apart, or a region of low pressure 25. The human ear is the organ that enables us to hear.
or low density. It consists of three parts: the external ear, the middle
12. The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement ear, and the inner ear. Each part plays a crucial role in
of a particle of the medium from its rest position. In a processing the sound waves that reach our ears.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 25
 Exercise

1. Sound is: (a) 2 Hz to 20,000 Hz

(a) Matter (b) Light (b) 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
(c) Energy (d) Heat (c) 20 Hz to 200,000 Hz
2. What causes sound to be created? (d) 20 Hz to 2,000 Hz
(a) Vibrations (b) Stillness 13. Sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz are
(c) Temperature (d) Pressure termed as:
3. Sound waves are best described as: (a) Infrasound (b) Ultrasonic
(a) Transferring matter (c) Audible (d) Supersonic
(b) Transferring energy without matter 14. What are ultrasonic waves?
(c) Transferring both matter and energy (a) Waves below human hearing range
(d) Transferring neither matter nor energy (b) Waves causing echoes
4. What kind of wave is sound? (c) Waves with high amplitudes
(a) Electromagnetic wave (b) Mechanical wave (d) Waves with frequencies above 20,000 Hz
(c) Transverse wave (d) Static wave 15. The human ear comprises:
5. Sound waves travel through: (a) Outer, middle, and inner lobes
(a) Solids only (b) Liquids only (b) Outer, middle, and inner ears
(c) Gases only (d) A medium (c) External, internal, and middle ears
6. Compression in a sound wave refers to: (d) Outer, internal, and middle lobes
(a) Regions of low pressure
16. Which part of the ear processes sound waves?
(b) Regions of high pressure
(a) Outer ear (b) Middle ear
(c) Areas of rarefaction
(c) Inner ear (d) All of the above
(d) Particles far apart
17. The intensity of a sound wave measures:
7. What does the amplitude of a sound wave relate to?
(a) The volume of the sound
(a) Pitch (b) Volume
(b) The pitch of the sound
(c) Timbre (d) Wavelength
(c) The frequency of the sound
8. The time taken for one complete cycle of vibration
(d) The quality of the sound
to pass a given point is known as:
(a) Wavelength (b) Frequency 18. What is the main reason sound cannot travel
(c) Time period (d) Amplitude through a vacuum?
(a) Lack of medium for propagation
9. Which characteristic determines the pitch of a sound?
(b) Low amplitude
(a) Amplitude (b) Intensity
(c) High frequency
(c) Frequency (d) Wavelength
(d) Long wavelength
10. The characteristic that allows us to distinguish between
different sounds of the same pitch and loudness is: 19. The characteristic that determines the loudness of
(a) Timbre (b) Intensity a sound is its:
(a) Frequency (b) Amplitude
(c) Frequency (d) Amplitude
(c) Wavelength (d) Pitch
11. What is reverberation?
(a) Reflection of sound 20. An echo is the result of:
(b) Persistence of sound after its removal (a) Refraction of sound waves
(c) Echoes between surfaces (b) Reflection of sound waves
(d) Decay of sound waves (c) Absorption of sound waves
12. The audible range of sound for humans typically (d) Diffraction of sound waves
lies between:
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c)
16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (b)

26 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

5 Properties of liquid

surface. As you go deeper into a liquid, the weight of the

Pressure liquid above exerts more force on the lower layers, causing
Pressure is a measure of force applied over a specific area. an increase in pressure.
Mathematically, it is calculated as the force exerted For example, in a water tank, the pressure at the bottom is
perpendicular to the surface divided by the area over which higher than at the top due to the weight of the water above
the force is distributed. it. This principle is fundamental in various applications,
such as hydrostatic pressure in fluids, hydraulic systems, and
In simpler terms, it describes how much force is applied to understanding the behavior of liquids in containers or pipelines.
a certain area, often measured in units such as pascals (Pa),
pounds per square inch (psi), or atmospheres (atm). Laws of Liquid Pressure :
For instance, when you press your hand against a surface, The laws governing liquid pressure are primarily based on
the pressure you exert is the force your hand applies divided Pascal’s Principle and hydrostatics.
by the area of contact with the surface.
1. Pascal’s Principle : This principle states that a change
Pressure =
Force in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
Area undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls
of its container. In simple terms, if you apply pressure
The unit of Pressure is Newton/meter which is also called to a confined fluid, that pressure gets transmitted
Pascals throughout the fluid in all directions.
For example, in the metric system, the unit of pressure, 2. Hydrostatic Pressure at Depth : The pressure in a
Pascal (Pa), is calculated as: liquid at a certain depth is directly proportional to the
These units help measure the amount of force applied over depth below the surface and the density of the liquid.
a given area, which determines the pressure exerted. The deeper you go in a liquid, the greater the pressure
due to the weight of the liquid above.
Pressure in Liquid :
3. Pressure is Same in All Directions : In a static
Pressure in liquids is determined by the depth of the liquid fluid, the pressure at a particular depth is the same in
and the density of the liquid itself. all directions. This is why liquids transmit pressure
equally in all directions, as stated in Pascal’s Principle.
The formula to calculate pressure in a liquid is:
4. Pressure Difference between Two Points in a Liquid
pf = pgh where, p is pressure, g is gravity and h is height.
: The pressure difference between two points in a
Where: liquid depends only on the difference in depth between
●● Pressure is measured in units like pascals (Pa) or the points and not on the shape of the container or the
atmospheres (atm). total mass of the liquid.

●● Density of the liquid is measured in kilograms per 5. Hydrostatic Paradox : The pressure at a given depth
cubic meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/ in a liquid depends only on the depth and not on the
cm³). shape or size of the container. Even if the container’s
shape changes, the pressure at a certain depth remains
●● Acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.81 m/s2 the same as long as the depth is the same.
on Earth’s surface.
These laws govern how pressure behaves in liquids,
●● Height or depth of the liquid is measured in meters (m) allowing engineers and scientists to understand and predict
or centimeters (cm). the behavior of fluids in various contexts, including
This formula arises from the fact that the weight of the hydraulic systems, water pressure in containers, and the
liquid column creates pressure at any point below the behavior of fluids in different environments.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 27
Flotation : Flotation refers to the phenomenon where an ●● Bubbles are formed when air is trapped inside a thin
object or substance is able to remain suspended or partially layer of liquid. The liquid layer tries to make its
submerged in a liquid or gas without sinking. This occurs surface area as small as possible by taking the shape
due to the balance between the gravitational force pulling of a sphere, which has the smallest surface area for a
the object downward and the upward force exerted by the given volume. The surface tension of the liquid layer
fluid, known as the buoyant force. provides the required tension for the bubble to exist.
Buoyant Force : When an object is immersed in a fluid ●● Capillary action is the movement of a liquid in a thin
(liquid), it displaces an amount of fluid equal to its own tube due to the balance of adhesive and cohesive forces.
volume. The weight of the fluid displaced by the object When a thin tube is dipped into water, the water rises
creates an upward force called the buoyant force. This in the tube due to the stronger attraction between water
force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid and acts molecules and the glass surface than between water
in the opposite direction to gravity. molecules themselves. This creates a curved surface of
water that is lower in the middle. On the other hand,
Archimedes’ Principle : This principle, formulated by
when a thin tube is dipped into mercury, the mercury
Archimedes, states that the buoyant force exerted on an
falls in the tube due to the stronger attraction between
object immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
mercury molecules than between mercury and glass
fluid displaced by the object. This principle explains why
molecules. This creates a curved surface of mercury
objects float or sink in a fluid based on their density and the
that is higher in the middle.
density of the fluid.
Cohesive force: Cohesive force is the attraction between
Floating and Sinking:
molecules that are of the same kind. Cohesive force is due
If the weight of the object is less than the weight of the fluid to the intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonds and
it displaces, the object will float because the buoyant force van der Waals forces, that keep the molecules together.
exceeds the object’s weight. Cohesive force affects some properties of liquids, such as
surface tension, viscosity, and capillarity.
If the weight of the object is greater than the weight of the
fluid it displaces, the object will sink as the gravitational Some examples of cohesive force are:
force exceeds the buoyant force.
●● Water molecules have a strong cohesive force, forming
Application: hydrogen bonds. This gives water a high surface
tension, which enables some insects, like water
Ships, boats, and other vessels float due to the buoyant
striders, to walk on water without breaking the surface.
force exerted by the water they displace.
●● Mercury molecules also have a strong cohesive force,
Life vests and buoys are designed to increase buoyancy to
forming metallic bonds. This gives mercury a high
keep individuals afloat in water.
surface tension and a low adhesion to glass. As a result,
Understanding buoyant force and flotation is crucial in mercury forms a curved surface that is higher in the
various fields, from designing ships and submarines to middle and does not wet the glass when poured into
understanding the behavior of objects in fluids. It’s a a tube.
fundamental principle utilized in engineering, physics, and
●● Honey molecules have a weak cohesive force, forming
even in everyday scenarios involving floating objects or
dipole-dipole interactions. This gives honey a low
buoyancy.
surface tension and a high viscosity. As a result, honey
Surface tension: Surface tension is the property of liquid flows slowly and sticks to the spoon when poured out.
surfaces at rest that makes them behave like a stretched
●● Oil molecules also have a weak cohesive force,
elastic membrane. This happens because the molecules
forming London dispersion forces. This gives oil a
on the surface are pulled inward by the rest of the liquid,
low surface tension and a low density. As a result, oil
which tries to make the surface area as small as possible.
forms a different layer on top of water and does not
The unit of surface tension is force per unit length, such as
mix with it…
N/m or dyn/cm.
Adhesive force: Adhesive force is the force that holds
Some examples of surface tension are:
different kinds of molecules or substances together.
●● Some small insects, like water striders, can walk on For example, adhesive force is behind the following
water without sinking. This is because water has a high phenomena:
surface tension due to the strong attraction between
●● Glue on sticky notes can stick to paper or other
water molecules by hydrogen bonds.
surfaces because of the adhesive force between the
●● When a glass is full of water, it is possible to add a glue molecules and the surface molecules.
few more drops of water before it overflows. This is
●● Gecko lizards can walk on walls and ceilings because
because the water surface acts like a flexible sheet that
of the adhesive force between the tiny hairs on their
can hold the water together due to surface tension.
feet and the surface molecules.

28 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● Butter can coat bread because of the adhesive force Some examples of capillarity in daily life are:
between the fat molecules in the butter and the starch ●● When you water a plant, the water travels from the soil
molecules in the bread. to the roots and then to the stem and leaves through the
●● Paint can adhere to a wall because of the adhesive force capillaries in the plant. This happens because the water
between the paint molecules and the wall molecules. molecules are pulled by the walls of the capillaries and
by each other by adhesive and cohesive forces.
Density: Density is the physical property that shows how
much mass is in a certain volume of a substance. In other ●● When you soak a paper towel in a spill, the liquid is
words, it tells how closely packed the matter in a substance drawn by the paper towel through the capillaries among
is. The symbol for density is ρ (rho) and the formula for the fibers. This happens because the liquid molecules
density is: are more pulled by the paper fibers than by each other
by adhesive forces.
ρ = m/V
●● When you sip a drink with a straw, the liquid goes up
where ρ is the density, m is the mass and V is the volume in the straw due to the capillary action between the
of the object. liquid and the straw. This happens because the liquid
Some examples of density are: molecules are pulled by the straw surface by adhesive
forces and by each other by cohesive forces.
●● When you prepare a salad dressing with oil and
vinegar, the oil stays on top of the vinegar because it Viscosity: Viscosity is a property of a fluid that shows how
is less dense than vinegar. The density of vinegar is much it resists flowing. It shows how much internal friction
about 1.05 g/mL, while the density of vegetable oil is there is between the molecules of the fluid. A fluid with
about 0.93 g/mL . high viscosity is thick and flows slowly, while a fluid with
low viscosity is thin and flows quickly. The unit of viscosity
●● When you make a soap bubble, the bubble floats in is pascal-second (Pa s) in SI units, or newton-second per
the air because it is less dense than the air. The density square meter (N s m -2). The formula for viscosity is:
of air is about 1.2 kg/m³, while the density of a soap
bubble is about 0.3 kg/m³ . U
F = µA
Y
●● When you place a piece of wood in water, the wood
stays on the water because it is less dense than water. Where
The density of water is about 1 g/mL, while the density F = force
of wood depends on the kind of wood. For example,
µ = viscosity of fluid
the density of pine wood is about 0.5 g/mL .
●● When you heat a pot of water on a stove, the water A = area
at the bottom of the pot becomes less dense than the U
water at the top of the pot because heat makes the water = rate of shear deformation
Y
molecules spread out and move apart. The less dense
water goes up to the top, while the denser water goes Some examples of viscosity in daily life are:
down to the bottom, creating a convection current . ●● Honey has a high viscosity and flows slowly from a
spoon. This is because the honey molecules are weakly
●● When you put a metal spoon in a cup of hot tea, the
pulled by each other by cohesive forces, and strongly
spoon becomes warmer because it is more dense than
pulled by the spoon by adhesive forces.
the tea. The density of tea is about 1 g/mL, while the
density of metal varies depending on the kind of metal. ●● Water has a low viscosity and flows quickly from a
For example, the density of stainless steel is about 8 g/ faucet. This is because the water molecules are strongly
mL … pulled by each other by cohesive forces, and weakly
pulled by the faucet by adhesive forces.
Capillarity: Capillarity is the movement of a liquid in
a thin tube or space due to the balance of adhesive and ●● Oil has a low viscosity and lubricates the moving parts
cohesive forces. Adhesive forces are the attraction between of a machine. This is because the oil molecules are
the liquid molecules and the tube or space surface, while weakly pulled by each other by cohesive forces, and
cohesive forces are the attraction between the liquid reduce the friction between the metal surfaces.
molecules themselves. Capillarity depends on the angle ●● Air has a very low viscosity and allows objects to move
of contact between the liquid and the surface, which through it easily. This is because the air molecules are
determines whether the liquid spreads or does not spread far apart and move freely, and have little interaction
on the surface. with each other or with the objects…

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 29
 Exercise

1. What is the mathematical formula for pressure? in a fluid according to Archimedes' Principle?
(a) Pressure = Volume / Force (a) Its density compared to the density of the fluid
(b) Pressure = Force / Area (b) Its weight
(c) Pressure = Density * Area (c) Its volume
(d) Pressure = Mass * Acceleration (d) Its shape
2. Which unit is commonly used to measure 10. What type of force keeps different molecules or
pressure? substances together?
(a) Grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) (a) Cohesive force (b) Adhesive force
(b) Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) (c) Buoyant force (d) Surface tension
(c) Newton/meter2 (N/m2) 11. What is the formula for density?
(d) Meters per second squared (m/s²) (a) Density = Volume / Mass
3. What determines the pressure in a liquid? (b) Density = Mass / Volume
(a) Surface tension (c) Density = Force / Area
(b) Density and depth of the liquid (d) Density = Pressure /Volume
(c) Viscosity 12. Which property determines whether an object will
(d) Adhesive force float or sink in a liquid?
4. Which principle explains the transmission of (a) Density of the object
pressure in a confined fluid? (b) Volume of the object
(a) Bernoulli's Principle (c) Surface tension
(b) Archimedes' Principle (d) Viscosity of the liquid
(c) Pascal's Principle 13. Capillarity depends on:
(d) Newton's Law of Motion (a) Adhesive forces between liquid and surface
5. The pressure difference between two points in a (b) Cohesive forces within the liquid
liquid depends on: (c) Both adhesive and cohesive forces
(a) Total mass of the liquid (d) Viscosity of the liquid
(b) Shape of the container 14. Viscosity is a property that measures:
(c) Difference in depth between the points
(a) How much a fluid resists flowing
(d) Density of the liquid
(b) The density of the fluid
6. What determines whether an object floats or sinks (c) The surface tension of the fluid
in a fluid?
(d) The volume of the fluid
(a) Its shape
15. What happens when an object's weight is less than
(b) Its size the weight of the fluid it displaces?
(c) The balance between gravitational force and
(a) The object sinks
buoyant force
(b) The object floats
(d) Its color
(c) The object stays suspended
7. Archimedes' Principle states that the buoyant
(d) The object breaks
force is equal to:
16. Which principle explains why an object floats or
(a) The weight of the object
sinks in a fluid?
(b) The weight of the fluid displaced by the object
(a) Newton's Third Law of Motion
(c) The volume of the object
(b) Bernoulli's Principle
(d) The volume of the fluid
(c) Archimedes' Principle
8. Which property of liquid surfaces at rest makes
(d) Pascal's Principle
them behave like an elastic membrane?
17. Which force is responsible for an object remaining
(a) Viscosity (b) Cohesive force
partially submerged in a liquid?
(c) Adhesive force (d) Surface tension
(a) Gravitational force
9. What determines whether an object floats or sinks
(b) Buoyant force

30 General Science (General Knowledge)

 (c) Adhesive force (b) Adhesive forces between the liquid and tube
(d) Cohesive force surface
18. What is the unit of surface tension? (c) Buoyant force
(d) Surface tension
(a) Newton/meter (N/m)
(b) Pascal (P(a) 20. What determines whether a liquid will flow
quickly or slowly?
(c) Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³)
(d) Meters per second squared (m/s²) (a) Buoyant force
(b) Density
19. What causes the movement of a liquid in a thin
tube in capillary action? (c) Viscosity
(d) Surface tension
(a) Cohesive forces within the liquid

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 31
 STUDENT'S NOTES

32 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Heat and
6 Thermodynamics

Thermal capacity depends on the property of material of

Heat and Thermodynamics the body and mass of the body.
Heat: SI Unit : cal/°C or cal/K, Dimension : ML2 T–2K–1
When a hot body is put in contact with a cold one, the former Latent heat or Hidden heat : When state of a body changes,
gets colder and the latter warmer. From this observation it change of state takes place at constant temperature [melting
is natural to conclude that a certain quantity of heat has point or boiling point] and heat released or absorbed is
passed from the hot body to the cold one. Heat is a form
Q = mL where L is latent heat.
of energy.
Heat is absorbed if solid converts into liquid (at melting
Note: A body does not contain heat, it contains internal
point) or liquid converts into vapours (at boiling point) and
energy.
is released if liquid converts into solid or vapours converts
Heat is felt by its effects. into liquid.
Some of the effects of heat are : Latent heat of fusion : The quantity of heat (in kilocalories)
required to change its 1 kg mass from solid to liquid state
(a) Change in the degree of hotness
at its melting point
(b) Expansion in length, surface area and volume
Latent heat of fusion for ice : 80 kcal/kg = 80 cal /g
(c) Change in state
Latent heat of vaporization : The quantity of heat
(d) Change in the resistance of a conductor required to change its 1 kg mass from liquid to vapour state
at its boiling point.
(e) Thermo e.m.f. effect
latent heat of evaporation for water : 536 kcal/kg = 536
SI Unit : J (joule) Also measured in the unit calorie
cal/g
Specific heat (s or c ): Amount of energy required to raise
Evaporation : Conversion of liquid into gaseous state at
the temperature of unit mass of that substance by 1°C (or
all the temperatures is called evaporation.
1K).
It is a phenomenon that occurs at the surface of liquids. The
●● The specific heat depends on the pressure, volume and
rate of evaporation increases with rise in temperature.
temperature of the substance.
Heat of evaporation : Heat required to change unit mass
SI unit : joule/kg-K
of liquid into vapour at a given temperature is called heat
CGS unit : cal/g -°C of evaporation at that temperature.
●● Specific heat of water: water = 1 cal/g-°C = 1 cal/g-K Sublimation : Sublimation is the conversion of a solid
= 1 kcal/kg-K = 4200 joule/kg-K directly into vapours.Sublimation takes place when boiling
point is less than the melting point.
●● When a substance does not undergo a change of state
(i.e., liquid remains liquid or solid remains solid), then Heat of sublimation : Heat required to change unit mass
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of of solid directly into vapours at a given temperature is
mass m of the substance by an amount Δq is called heat of sublimation at that temperature.
ΔQ = msΔq Camphor and ammonium chloride sublimates on heating in
normal conditions.
The temperature dependence of the specific heat of water.
A block of ice sublimates into vapours on the surface of
Thermal capacity: The quantity of heat required to raise
moon because of very-very low pressure on its surface
the temperature of the whole of that substance through 1°C.
Hoar frost : Direct conversion of vapours into solid is
Thermal capacity = mass × specific heat
called hoar frost. This process is just the reverse of the

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 33
process of sublimation. Melting of solids and boiling of liquids at atmospheric
pressure.
Formation of snow by freezing clouds.
Isothermal Process
Thermodynamic processes : In the thermodynamic
process pressure, volume, temperature and entropy of the ●● In this process pressure and volume of system change
system change with time. but temperature remains constant.
Thermodynamic process is said to take place if change ●● In an isothermal process, the exchange of heat
occurs in the state of a thermodynamic system. between the system and the surroundings is allowed.
Work Done by thermodynamic system : One of the ●● Isothermal process is carried out by either supplying
simple example of a thermodynamic system is a gas in a heat to the substance or by extracting heat from it.
cylinder with a movable piston.If the gas expands against
●● A process has to be extremely slow to be isothermal.
the piston Gas exerts a force on the piston and displace
it through a distance and does work on the piston. If the Adiabatic Process : ‘It is that thermodynamic process
piston compresses the gas When piston moved inward, in which pressure, volume and temperature of the system
work is done on the gas. change but there is no exchange of heat between the system
and the surroundings. i.e. DQ = 0
First Law of Thermodynamics
A sudden and quick process will be adiabatic since there is
Application of first law of thermodynamics : no sufficient time available for exchange of heat.
Melting Process : When a substance melts, the change in Examples of adiabatic process
volume (dV) is very small and can, therefore, be neglected.
The temperature of a substance remains unchanged during A gas enclosed in a thermally insulated cylinder fitted
the melting process. with a non-conducting piston. If the gas is compressed
suddenly by moving the piston downwards, some heat
Let us consider the melting of a mass m of the solid. Let L is produced. This heat cannot escape the cylinder.
be the latent heat of fusion i.e., the heat required to change a Consequently, there will be an increase in the
unit mass of a solid to liquid phase at constant temperature. temperature of the gas. If a gas is suddenly expanded
Heat absorbed during melting process, dQ = mL by moving the piston outwards, there will be a decrease
in the temperature of the gas.Bursting of a cycle tube.
So, the internal energy increases by mL during the melting Propagation of sound waves in a gas.
process.
In diesel engines burning of diesel without spark plug is
Boiling Process: When a liquid is heated, it changes into done due to adiabatic compression of diesel vapour and air
vapour at constant temperature (called boiling point) and mixture
pressure.
Free expansion : Take a thermally insulated bottle with
When water is heated at normal atmospheric pressure, it ideal gas at some temperature T1 and, by means of a pipe
boils at 100°C. The temperature remains unchanged during with a stopcock, connect this to another insulated bottle
the boiling process. which is evacuated.
Isometric or Isochoric Process : Isochoric process is a If we suddenly open the stopcock, the gas will rush from the
thermodynamic process that takes place at constant volume first bottle into the second until the pressures are equalized.
of the system, but pressure and temperature varies for
change in state of the system. Experimentally, we find that this process of free expansion
does not change the temperature of the gas - when the gas
A gas enclosed in a cylinder having rigid walls and a fixed attains equilibrium and stops flowing, the final temperature
piston. When heat is added to the gas, there would be no of both bottles are equal to the initial temperature T1. This
change in the volume of the gas. process is called a free expansion.
When a substance melts, the change in volume is negligibly The change in the internal energy of the gas can be
small. So, this may be regarded as a nearly isochoric calculated by applying the first law of thermodynamics to
process. the free-expansion process.
Heating process in a pressure cooker is an example of an The process is adiabatic because of the insulation, so Q = 0.
isometric process.
No part of the surroundings moves so the system does no
Isobaric Process : Isobaric process is a thermodynamic work on its surroundings.
process that takes place at constant pressure, but volume
and temperature varies for change in state of the system. Cyclic process : Cyclic process is that thermodynamic
process in which the system returns to its initial stage after
Equation of state V = constant × T undergoing a series of changes.
Examples include: Heating of water at atmospheric Non-cyclic process : Non-cyclic process is that process in
pressure. which the system does not return to its initial stage.

34 General Science (General Knowledge)

Quasi-static or equilibrium process : Quasi-static is a applied, deliberately promoting shrinkage, it is found that
thermodynamic process which proceeds extremely slowly melting is thereby assisted.
such that at every instant of time, the temperature and
In other words, melting of cold ice is ordinarily affected by
pressure are the same in all parts of the system.
raising the temperature, but if pressure is present to help with
Reversible and Irreversible processes : A reversible the shrinkage the temperature need not be raised so much.
process is one in which the changes in heat and work of
Ice heals up after being cut through by the wire. Melting
direct process from initial to a final state are exactly retraced
takes place under the wire because pressure lowers the
in opposite sense in the reverse process and the system and
melting temperature. Refreezing (regelation) occurs above
surroundings are left in their initial states. The reversibility
the wire when the water escapes to normal pressure again.
is an ideal concept and can not be realised in practice.
Increase of pressure lowers the melting (or freezing) point
Second law of Thermodynamics: The first law of of water. Conversely, if a substance expands on melting,
thermodynamics is a generalization of the law of the melting point is raised by pressure.
conservation of energy to include heat energy. It tells us that
Law of Mixtures :When two bodies (one being solid and
heat and mechanical work are mutually interconvertible.
other liquid or both being liquid) at different temperatures
Second law of thermodynamics tells us in what conditions are mixed, heat will be transferred from body at higher
heat can be converted into useful work. temperature to a body at lower temperature till both acquire
same temperature. The body at higher temperature released
The following three conditions must be fulfilled to
heat while body at lower temperature absorbs it, so that
utilize heat for useful work:
Heat lost = Heat gained
1. A device called an engine with a working substance is
essential. the principle of calorimetry represents the law of
conservation of heat energy.
2. The engine must work in a reversible cyclic process.
Temperature of mixture (T) is always greater than the lower
3. The engine must operate between two temperatures.
temperature (TL) and less than the higher temperature
It will absorb heat from a hot body (called source),
(TH).
convert a part of into useful work and reject the rest to
a cold body (called sink). The temperature of the mixture can never be less than
lower temperature (as a body cannot be cooled below
There are two conventional statements of second law :
the temperature of a cooling body) and greater than
Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible for an engine higher temperature (as a body cannot be heated above the
working between a cyclic process to extract heat from a temperature of a heating body). Furthermore, usually rise in
reservoir and convert completely into work. In other words, temperature of one body is not equal to the fall temperature
100% conversion of heat into work is impossible. of the other body though heat gained by one body is equal
to the heat lost by the other.
Clausius Statement: It is impossible for a self-acting
machine, unaided by any external agency to transfer heat Mode of Heat Transfer : Heat is a form of energy which
from a cold to hot reservoir. In other words heat can not in transfers from a body at higher temperature to a body at
itself flow from a colder to a hotter body. lower temperature.
Entropy: It is a measure of molecular disorder of a system. The transfer of heat from one body to another may take
Greater is disorder, greater is entropy. place by any one of the following modes :.
Effect of pressure on the boiling point: Conduction : The process in which the material takes
an active part by molecular action and energy is passed
Since the specific volume of a substance is always much
from one particle to another is called conduction. It is
larger in the vapour state than in the liquid state (V2 –
predominant in solids.
V1) is positive. As L and T also are positive, it is positive.
Hence the boiling point of a liquid is raised with increase There are thre types of objects on the ground of
of pressure. conduction :
Effect of pressure on the melting point Conductor: A conductor is a material that allows heat
to flow through it easily. This is because the atoms or
It depends upon the change in volume when unit mass of
molecules in a conductor are loosely bound and can
the substance changes from the liquid to the solid state.
vibrate or move freely, transferring heat energy from
If the volume decreases after melting of solid. In such a one part to another. Metals are good examples of
case the melting point decreases with increase of pressure. conductors of heat. The conductivity of a conductor
If the volume increases, as in the case of most substances decreases with the increase in temperature, as the
like wax, the melting point increases with pressure. atoms or molecules vibrate more and collide with each
Regelation : Regelation is the melting of ice caused by other, reducing the net heat flow.
pressure and its resolidification when the pressure is Samicondctor: A semiconductor is a material that
removed. Ice shrinks when it melts, and if pressure is has moderate conductivity of heat. This is because

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 35
 the atoms or molecules in a semiconductor are more ●● Heat radiation is always obtained in the infra–red
tightly bound than in a conductor, but not as much as region of the electromagnetic wave spectrum so they
in an insulator. The conductivity of a semiconductor are called Infra red rays.
depends on the impurities or defects in its structure,
●● Medium is not required for the propagation of thermal
which create free electrons or holes that can carry heat.
radiation and can travel in vacuum.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
the increase in temperature, as more electrons or holes ●● Radiation travels in a straight line and speed equal to
are generated by thermal energy. light radiation.
Insulator: An insulator is a material that does not ●● Thermal radiation is incident on a surface, it exerts
allow heat to flow through it easily. This is because pressure on the surface, which is known as Radiation
the atoms or molecules in an insulator are very tightly Pressure.
bound and cannot vibrate or move much, preventing
●● The wavelength range of thermal radiation is greater
heat transfer. Wood, plastic, and air are examples of
that light radiation (7800 Å to 4 × 106 Å )
insulators of heat. The conductivity of an insulator is
very low and almost negligible. The conductivity of an Pyrometer: It measures only high temperature. Spectrum
insulator may decrease or increase with the increase of electromagnetic wave’s (By Maxwell’s Concept)
in temperature, depending on the type of insulator and All radiations are electromagnetic waves and their
the temperature range. sources are vibrations of charged particles in atoms and
Convection : The transfer of energy by actual motion of molecules.
particles of medium from one place to another is called The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission
convection. It is predominant in fluids (liquids and gases). of radiation shifts from longer wavelength to shorter
Radiation : Quickest way of transmission of heat is known wavelength as the temperature increases. Due to this the
as radiation. In this mode of energy transmission, heat is colour of a body appears to be changing.
transferred from one place to another without effecting the Wavelength of heat radiations : 7800 Å to 4 × 106Å
intervening medium.
Width of visible region : 4000 Å (Approximately)
Conduction Convection Radiation
Ideal Black Body : For a body surface which absorbs all
Heat Transfer due Heat transfer Heat transfer
incident thermal radiations at low temperature irrespective
to temperature due to density without any
of their wavelength and emitted out all these absorbed
difference difference medium
radiations at high temperature assumed to be an ideal black
Due to free Actual motion Electromagnetic body surface.
electron or of particles radiation
vibration motion The nature of emitted radiations from surface of ideal black
of molecules body only depends on its temperature
Heat transfer Heat transfer in All The radiations emitted from the surface of ideal black body
in solid bodies fluids (liquids + are called either full or white radiations.
(including gases)
There are two experimentally ideal black body
mercury)
Slow process Slow process Fast process (a) Ferry’s ideal black body
(3 × 108 m/sec) (b) Wien’s ideal black body.
Irregular path Irregular path Straight line (like
light) At low temperature the surface of an ideal black body is a
perfect absorber and at a high temperature it proves to be
Special points about radiation : a good emitter.
●● When radiation passes through any medium then An ideal black body need not be black colour (eg. sun)
raditions slightly absorbed by medium according to its
absorptive power so temperature of medium slightly At absolute zero temperature (0 kelvin) all atoms of a given
increases. substance remains in ground state, so, at this temperature
emission of radiation from any substance is impossible.
●● Radiation shows all optical properties and radiation
intensity from a point source obey’s inverse square Kirchhoff’s Law : At a given temperature for all bodies
law. the ratio of their spectral emissive power (el) to spectral
absorptive power (al) is constant and this constant is equal
●● In order to obtain a spectrum of radiation, a special to spectral emissive power (El) of the ideal black body at
prism used like KCI prism, Rock salt prism,Fluorspar same temperature
prism. Normal glass prisms or Quartz prisms can not
be used (because they absorb some radiation). Good absorbers are good emitters and bad absorbers are
bad emitters.
●● Radiation intensity measured with a specific device
named as Bolometer. Note:

36 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● For a constant temperature the spectral emissive power Stefan’s Law:
of an ideal black body is a constant parameter.
The amount of radiation emitted per second per unit area
●● The practical confirmation of Kirchhoff’s law carried by a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power
out by Rishi apparatus and the main base of this of its absolute temperature.
apparatus is a Lessilie container.
E α T4 T = temperature of ideal black body (in K)
●● The main conclusion predicted from Kirchhof’s law
E= ∑ T 4 E = amount of radiation emitted
can be expressed as

Good absorber Good emitter This law is true for only ideal black body
Bad absorber Bad emitter ∑ = Stefen’s constant
(at Low temperature) (at high temperature) ∑ = 5.67 × 10–8 watt /m2 K4
Applications of Kirchoff Law Dimensions of ∑ : M1 L0 T–3 q–4
Fraunhoffer’s lines : Fraunhoffer lines are dark lines Newton’s Law Of Cooling : Rate of loss of heat (dQ/dt) is
in the spectrum of the sun. When white light emitted directly proportional to excess of temperature of the body
from the central core of the sun (Photosphere) passes. over that of surrounding. [when (q – q0)  35° C]
Through its atmosphere (chromosphere) radiations of Limitations of Newton’s Law
those wavelengths will be absorbed by the gases present,
resulting in dark lines in the spectrum of sun. ●● Temperature diffrence should not exceed 35° C, (q –
q0)  35° C
●● In deserts days are hot and nights cold
●● loss of heat should only be by radiation.
●● Sand is rough and black, so it is a good absorber and
hence in deserts, days (When radiation from sun is ●● This law is an extended form of Stefan–Boltzman’s
incident on sand) will be very hot. law.

●● Now in accordance with Kirchhoff’s Law, good Application of Newton’s law of cooling
absorber is a good emitter. ●● To find out specific heat of a given liquid
●● So nights (when send emits radiation) will be cold ●● If for the two given liquids their volume, radiating
Colour Triangle surface area, nature of surface, initial temperature are
allowed to cool down in a common environment then
Primary Colour rate of loss of heat of these liquids are equal.
The colour present in the spectrum which when passed Wien’s Law Displacement Law : The wavelength
through a prism do not get dispersed. corresponding to maximum emission of radiation decreases
Complementary Colour with increasing temperature. This is known as Wein’s
displacement law.
Those two colour present in the spectrum which when
mixed produce white light. λmT = b where b Wein’s constant,
b = 2.93 × 10-3 m kelvin,
Dimension of b : = M0 L1 T0 θ1
Applications of Wien’s Law
●● To compare the temperature of given stars by observing
their colour because the colour of star identify its
Green body appears green because it reflects or transmits temperature. TB > TW > TR
green and absorbs all colours.
●● To compare the temperature of the sun (chromosphere)
When a green body is heated in a dark room then it appears and moon.
red (or vice versa).
●● The temperature developed by the explosion of an
Red  Green Yellow  Blue atomic bomb can be worked out.
For a body, if it absorb specific colour radiations, if this Solar constant ‘S’: The sun emits radiant energy
radiations incident on given body in a dark room then it continuously in space of which an in significant part
appears to be black ( i.e. invisible ) reaches the earth. The solar radiant energy received per unit
area per unit time by a black surface held at right angles to
the sun’s rays and placed at the mean distance of the earth
(in the absence of atmosphere) is called solar constant.
The solar constant S is taken to be 1340 watts/m2 or 1.937
Cal/cm2-minute

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 37
Thermal conduction Application of Thermal Conduction
The process by which heat is transferred from the hot part ●● In winter, the iron chairs appear to be colder than the
to cold part of a body through the transfer of energy from wooden chairs.
one particle to another particle of the body without the
●● Cooking utensils are made of aluminium and brass
actual movement of the particles from their equilibrium
whereas their handles are made of wood.
positions is called conduction.
●● Ice is covered in gunny bags to prevent melting of ice.
●● The process of conduction only in solid body (except
Hg) ●● We feel warm in woollen clothes and fur coat.
●● Heat transfer by conduction from one part of the body to ●● Two thin blankets are warmer than a single blanket of
another continues till their temperatures become equal. double the thickness.
Variable state : It is the state in which temperature of each ●● Birds often swell their feathers in winter.
cross section of the rod increases with temperature but
●● A new quilt is warmer than old one.
temperature of any cross-section of the rod decreases with
increasing distance from hot end to cold end. Convections : The mode of heat transfer due to density
difference in fluids (liquid + gas) is known as convection.
Steady state : When temperature of each cross-section
of the bar becomes constant throughout different cross- In this process, transfer of heat by actual motion of particles
sections is called steady state. of medium from one place to another.
Thermal gradient : The decrease in temperature with distance Based on gravity when zero gravity region then No
from the hot end of the rod is known as temperature gradient. convection.
or e.g. Centre of earth, where g = 0, so No convection.
In the direction of heat energy flow, the rate of fall in Two types of Convection
temperature w.r.t. distance is called temperature gradient. (a) Natural convection
Thermal conductivity (K) (long – Muir and Lorentz Law)
It depends on the nature of the material. Earth air, Water air etc.
The order of thermal conductivity in- Ag > Cu > Au > Al The heat current due to convection is found to be
SI Unit : J s–1 m–1 K–1 approximately proportional to the 5/4 power of the
temperature difference between the surface and the main
Dimension : M1 L1 T–3 θ–1
body of fluid.
For an ideal or perfect conductor of heat the value of K = ∞
(b) Forced convection: forced convection arises when an
For an ideal or perfect bad conductor or insulator the value external force, such as a fan or a pump, propels the
of K = 0 fluid.

38 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. What is the predominant mode of heat transfer in (a) Conduction (b) Convection
solids? (c) Radiation (d) Thermal conduction
(a) Conduction (b) Convection 12. What type of process is the melting of ice caused
(c) Radiation (d) None of the above by pressure and its resolidification when the
2. Which of the following is NOT an effect of heat? pressure is removed?
(a) Change in the degree of hotness (a) Conduction (b) Convection
(b) Change in state (c) Sublimation (d) Regelation
(c) Change in color 13. Which law states that good absorbers are good
(d) Expansion in length, surface area, and volume emitters and vice versa?
3. What is the SI unit for specific heat? (a) Newton's Law of Cooling
(b) Kirchhoff’s Law
(a) Joule/kg (b) Calorie/g°C
(c) Stefan's Law
(c) Watt/m² (d) Kilogram/m³
(d) Wein's Law
4. Which substance has a specific heat of 1 cal/g-°C?
14. What is the SI unit of the solar constant?
(a) Mercury (b) Water
(a) Watt/m² (b) Cal/cm²-minute
(c) Ice (d) Ammonium chloride
(c) Joule/kg (d) Newton
5. What is the quantity of heat required to change 1
kg of ice from solid to liquid at its melting point? 15. What does Newton’s Law of Cooling primarily
concern?
(a) 80 kcal/kg (b) 536 kcal/kg
(a) Transfer of energy by radiation
(c) 1 cal/g-°C (d) 1 kcal/kg-K
(b) Rate of loss of heat
6. Evaporation is the conversion of liquid into a
(c) Thermal conduction
gaseous state at:
(d) Convection in fluids
(a) Any temperature
16. Which law explains the shift in the wavelength of
(b) Low temperatures only
maximum emission of radiation as the temperature
(c) High temperatures only increases?
(d) Below freezing point
(a) Stefan's Law
7. In which thermodynamic process does the (b) Kirchhoff’s Law
pressure and volume of a system change while the
(c) Wien's Displacement Law
temperature remains constant?
(d) Newton’s Law of Cooling
(a) Isothermal (b) Isobaric
17. Which process involves the transfer of energy
(c) Adiabatic (d) Isometric
by actual motion of particles due to density
8. What is a characteristic of an adiabatic process? differences in fluids?
(a) No change in temperature (a) Conduction (b) Convection
(b) Heat exchange with the surroundings (c) Radiation (d) Sublimation
(c) Quick and sudden changes 18. Which statement about convection is accurate?
(d) Constant pressure
(a) Convection occurs in zero gravity regions.
9. What is the process where a system returns (b) Forced convection is predominant in natural
to its initial stage after undergoing a series of environments.
changes?
(c) Convection primarily occurs in solids.
(a) Cyclic process (b) Non-cyclic process (d) Natural convection is proportional to the 5/4
(c) Isobaric process (d) Isothermal process power of temperature difference.
10. Which mode of heat transfer occurs without a 19. What is the order of thermal conductivity for
medium? silver, copper, gold, and aluminum?
(a) Conduction (b) Convection (a) Ag > Cu > Au > Al
(c) Radiation (d) None of the above (b) Cu > Ag > Al > Au
11. Which process involves the transfer of energy by (c) Au > Ag > Cu > Al
the actual motion of particles of a medium? (d) Al > Au > Ag > Cu

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 39
20. In what type of process is the value of thermal (b) Adiabatic process
conductivity infinite for an ideal conductor? (c) Thermal conduction process
(a) Isothermal process (d) Variable state process

ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

40 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

7 Light and Optics

Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of Focal Plane : A plane normal or perpendicular to the
sight. principal axis and passing through the principal focus
(F) of the spherical mirror is called the focal plane of the
Speed of light in vacuum / air = 3 × 108 ms–1
spherical mirror.
Ray of light : A line drawn in the direction of propagation
Focal length (f): The distance between the pole (P) and the
of light is called ray of light.
principal focus (F) of a spherical mirror is called the focal
Beam of light : A group of parallel rays emitted by a source length of the spherical mirror.
of light is called a beam of light.
●● f =, Where R is the radius of the curvature of the mirror.
Reflection of light: The phenomenon of returning of
●● Focal length and radius of curvature of a concave
light in the same medium after striking a surface is called
mirror are negative.
reflection of light.
●● Focal length and radius of curvature of a convex mirror
Laws of reflection : The reflection of light from a surface
are positive.
obeys certain laws called laws of reflection.
●● Sign Conventions for reflection by spherical mirrors
(i) incident angle is equal to reflected angle i.e. i = r.
(1) All distances are measured from the pole of a spherical
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting
mirror.
surface at the point on incident lie in the same plane.
(2) Distances measured in the direction of incident
Concave mirror: concave mirror is a part of a hollow
light are taken as positive. Distance measured in the
sphere whose outer part is silvered and the inner part is a
direction opposite to that of the incident light is taken
reflecting surface.
negative.
Convex mirror: convex mirror is a part of a hollow sphere
(3) The upward distance perpendicular to the principal
whose outer part is reflecting the surface and inner part is
axis is taken as positive, while the downward distance
silvered.
perpendicular to the principal axis is taken as negative.
Centre of curvature : The centre of a hollow sphere of
●● Radius of curvature plane mirror = ∞ (infinite)
which the spherical mirror forms a part is called centre of
curvature. It is denoted by C ●● Focal length of a plane mirror = 1 (finite)
Radius of curvature : The radius of a hollow sphere of Mirror Formula : The relation between u, v, and focal
which the spherical mirror forms a part is called radius of length (f) of a spherical mirror is known as mirror formula.
curvature. It is denoted by R
That is
Pole : The midpoint of a spherical mirror is called its pole.
Linear magnification : Linear magnification produced by
It is denoted by P
a mirror is defined as the ratio of the size ( or height) of the
Aperture: The part of the spherical mirror exposed to the image to the size of the object . It is denoted by m.
incident light is called the aperture of the mirror.
That is
Principal Axis: A line joining the centre of curvature (C)
Power of mirror (P) = Linear magnification produced by a
and pole (P) of a spherical mirror and extending on either
plane mirror = + 1.
side is called the principal axis of the spherical mirror.
Refraction of light: The bending of light rays when they
Principal Focus : A point on the principal axis of a
pass obsessively from one medium to the other medium is
spherical mirror where the rays of light parallel to the
called refraction of light .
principal axis meet or appear to meet after reflection from
the spherical mirror is called principal focus. It is denoted ●● A transparent medium through which light travels fast
by F. is known as optically rarer medium.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 41
●● A transparent medium through which light travels ●● Unit of power is diopter (D).
slowly is known as optically denser medium.
●● Power of a lens is 1 diopter if its focal length is 1 m
Laws of refraction or 100 cm.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to ●● Power of a convex lens is positive.
the surface separating two media all lie in the same
●● Power of the concave lens is negative.
plane.
●● Human Eye and Colourful World
(ii) The ratio of the sine of the incident angle (i) to the sine
of the refracted angle (r) is constant ●● Human eye is just like a camera.
sin i Parts of the human eye are: Cornea, Iris, Lens Ciliary
sin r = constant muscles Retina and Optic nerve.
This constant is known as the refractive index of the Cornea is the aperture or window of an eye. It allows light
second medium w.r.t the first medium. to enter in the eye
Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the Iris controls the amount of light entering the eye through
ratio of the speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of the pupil.
light in the medium (v)
Lens of the human eye focuses light on the retina of the eye
●● Relative refractive index of medium. 2 w.r.t. The to make the image of an object.
medium 1 is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in
Ciliary muscles increases or decreases the focal length of
medium 1 (v1) to the speed of light in medium 2 (v2).
the eye lens
●● A medium whose refractive index is large is known as
Retina acts as the screen or film to obtain the image of an
optically denser medium.
object
●● A medium whose refractive index is small is known as
Optic nerve carries signals to the brain from interpretation.
optically rarer medium.
●● Accommodation of an eye is the ability of eye lens to
Lateral shift (displacement) . The perpendicular distance
change its focal length to form sharp images of objects
between the original part of the incident ray and the emergent
at different positions from the eye on the retina of the
ray coming out of the glass slab is called lateral shift.
eye.
Lens is a transparent medium bounded by two spherical
●● Near point is the nearest position of an object from
refracting surfaces, one spherical and other plane refracting
the human eye so that its sharp image is formed on
surface.
the retina.
Lens are of two types :
●● Near point of a normal person is 25 cm.
(i) Convex lens or converging lens: it is thick in the
●● Far point is the farthest position of an object from a
middle and thin at the edge.
human eye so that the sharp image of the object is
(ii) Concave lens or diverging lens: it is thin in the formed on the retina.
middle and thick at the edge.
●● Range of vision is the distance between the near point
●● Convex lens converges the rays of light falling on it and the far point of an eye.
and acts as a magnifying glass.
●● Power of accommodation of a normal human eye is
●● Concave lens diverges the rays of light falling on it. about 4 dioptre.
●● Principal axis of a lens is a line joining the centres of Defective eye: The eye which is unable to see the objects
curvature of two spherical surfaces forming a lens. clearly is known as defective eye.
●● Optical centre of a lens is a point inside or outside a Common defects in a human eye are:
lens through which rays of light pass without deviation.
(i) Hypermetropia or long – sightedness or far –
●● Principal focus of a lens is a point on the principal axis sightedness.
where all the rays of light parallel to the principal axis
(ii) Myopia or short – sightedness or near – sightedness
meet or appear to meet after refracting through the lens.
(iii) Presbyopia, and
●● Focal length of a lens is the distance between the
optical centre and the principal focus of the lens. (iv) Astigmatism
●● Focal length of a convex lens is positive. Hypermetropia: A human eye which can see distant
objects clearly but cannot see clearly the nearby objects is
●● Focal length of a concave length is negative.
said to suffer from a defect called hypermetropia.
1
●● Power of lens P = Focal length Cause of hypermetropia: It is due to

42 General Science (General Knowledge)

(i) the increase of the focal length of the eye lens and. Spectrum: A band of seven colours of white light is called
spectrum.
(ii) the decrease in the size of eyeball.
●● Red colour deviates the least while passing through a
Hypermetropia can be corrected by using a convex lens of
glass prism.
suitable focal length.
●● Violet colour deviates the most while passing through
Myopia: A human eye which can see near objects clearly
a glass prism.
but cannot see clearly distant objects is said to suffer from
a defect called Myopia. ●● Glass prism splits the colours of white light passing
through it and does not produce any colour by itself
Cause of Myopia: It is due to
●● Rainbow is an example of dispersion of sunlight.
(i) the enlargement of the eyeball, and
●● Rainbow is formed by tiny drops of water suspended
(ii) the excessive curvature of the cornea.
in the atmosphere
Myopia can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable
Atmospheric refraction: The refraction of light taking
focal length.
place in the atmosphere is known as atmospheric refraction
Astigmatism: A human eye which cannot focus on both
●● Twinkling of stars takes place due to atmospheric
horizontal and vertical lines simultaneously suffers from
refraction of light emitted by the stars.
astigmatism.
●● The sun can be seen for few minutes even after it has
Astigmatism can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens.
actually set due to refraction of light
Cataract: A human eye in which a opaque membrane is
●● When light falls on tiny particles, this light is absorbed
formed over the eye lens suffers from cataract
by these particles. Then these particles emit light in all
●● Cataracts can be corrected by performing surgery. directions. This process is known as scattering of light.
●● Prism is a homogeneous transparent refracting medium ●● Intensity of scattered light, I µ, if the size of the scatterer
bounded by at least two non – parallel suffers inclined is small as compared to the wavelength of light.
at some angle.
●● In a clear atmosphere of the earth, colours of small
Angle of prism: The angle between two non parallel wavelength like violet, and blue are scattered more
refracting surfaces is called angle of prism. than red colour
Angle of deviation: The angle between the directions of ●● In a polluted atmosphere of the earth (containing
incident ray or light and the emergent ray of light is called dust and smoke particles), the scattering of colours of
angle of deviation of the ray of light passing through the higher wavelength is more than the scattering colours
prism. of smaller wavelengths.
Dispersion of white light: The phenomenon of splitting ●● Blue colour of sky, greenish – blue colour of sea water,
white light into seven colours when it passes through a red colour of sunset and sunrise and white colour of
glass prism is called dispersion of white light. clouds are due to scattering of light.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 43
 Exercise

1. What is the speed of light in a vacuum or air? 10. Which of the following statements about
(a) 3 ×10 m/s
8
(b) 3 ×10 m/s
7 atmospheric refraction is true?
(c) 3 ×106 m/s (d) 3 ×105 m/s (a) It causes stars to twinkle.
2. Which of the following statements about reflection (b) It doesn't affect the visibility of the sun after
is true? sunset.
(c) It leads to the formation of rainbows.
(a) Incident angle equals the refracted angle.
(d) It only occurs in polluted atmospheres.
(b) Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in
different planes. 11. What happens when light falls on tiny particles in
(c) Incident angle equals the reflected angle. the atmosphere?
(d) Reflected angle equals the refracted angle. (a) They absorb light and emit light of the same
wavelength.
3. What is the term for the perpendicular distance
between the original and emergent ray passing (b) They reflect light back in the same direction.
through a glass slab? (c) They absorb and emit light in all directions.
(a) Lateral shift (d) They do not interact with light.
(b) Linear shift 12. In a clear atmosphere, which color is scattered
(c) Displacement shift more than others?
(d) Angular shift (a) Red (b) Violet
4. Which part of the human eye controls the amount (c) Blue (d) Green
of light entering through the pupil? 13. Which optical phenomenon causes the colors in a
(a) Cornea (b) Retina rainbow?
(c) Iris (d) Lens (a) Reflection (b) Scattering
5. What is the range of vision for the human eye? (c) Dispersion (d) Refraction
(a) Distance between the near point and the far point 14. What is the part of a lens through which light
passes without deviation?
(b) Ability to see different colors
(c) Ability to see in low light (a) Principal axis (b) Optical center
(d) Distance between the eye and an object (c) Focal point (d) Lens aperture
6. Which defect of the eye involves difficulty in 15. What type of lens converges the rays of light
focusing on both horizontal and vertical lines? falling on it?
(a) Hypermetropia (b) Myopia (a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens
(c) Presbyopia (d) Astigmatism (c) Plane lens (d) Bifocal lens
7. What is the phenomenon of splitting white light 16. Which part of the eye acts as a screen to obtain the
into seven colors when it passes through a prism image of an object?
called? (a) Iris (b) Pupil
(a) Dispersion of light (c) Retina (d) Lens
(b) Scattering of light 17. What does the power of a lens measure?
(c) Refraction of light (a) Its ability to disperse light
(d) Spectrum formation (b) Its ability to focus light
8. Which color deviates the least while passing (c) Its ability to refract light
through a glass prism? (d) Its ability to absorb light
(a) Blue (b) Violet 18. What is the angle between two non-parallel
(c) Red (d) Green refracting surfaces of a prism called?
9. What causes the blue color of the sky? (a) Angle of deviation
(a) Dispersion of light (b) Angle of refraction
(b) Refraction of light (c) Angle of incidence
(c) Scattering of light (d) Angle of prism
(d) Reflection of light 19. Which type of lens diverges the rays of light?

44 General Science (General Knowledge)

 (a) Convex lens (b) Bifocal lens (a) 25 cm (b) 20 cm
(c) Concave lens (d) Plane lens (c) 30 cm (d) 35 cm
20. What is the range of the near point for a normal
human eye?

ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 45
 STUDENT'S NOTES

46 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

8 Electric current

Electric Current Ohm’s Law:

An electric current is defined as the amount of charge This law states that, “the electric current flowing in a
flowing through any cross-section of a conductor per unit conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
time, I = . Electric current is a scalar quantity. across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature
and other physical conditions of the conductor remain the
●● Electric current in terms of number of electrons (n) in same”.
a conductor, I = , e = charge on an electron = –1.6 ×
10–19 C. VΩ i
●● In a metallic wire or conductor, the flow of electric v = iR
current is due to the flow of electrons from one end to Where R is a constant which is called the Resistance
the other end of the wire.
Resistance (R) :
●● Charge carriers in a metallic wire are conduction
elements. Resistance of a conductor is the ability of the conductor to
oppose the flow of charge through it.
●● 6.25 × 1018 electrons make one coulomb of charge.
V
●● S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A). R=
I
Ampere (A) : Where R is resistance ,v is potential difference and i is
Electric current through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere electric current.
if one coulomb charge flows through any cross-section of Unit of resistance is ohm.
the conductor in one second. Ammeter is used to measure
electric current. Ammeter is always connected in series in 1. Ohm : Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm
an electric circuit. if a potential difference of 1 volt across the ends of the
conductor produces a current of 1 ampere through it.
Electric potential: Resistor is a component (say a metallic wire) in an
Electric potential is defined as work done per unit charge. electric circuit which offers resistance to the flow of
electrons constituting the electric current in the electric
w circuit.
V=
q Law of Resistance :
Where w is work and q is charge and v is potential. (i) Resistance of a conductor depends upon the nature of
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. the material of the conductor.

Electric potential difference: (ii) Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to

the length of the conductor.
Electric potential difference is defined as the work done in
moving a unit positive charge from one point to another (iii) Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to
point. the each cross-section of the conductor.
(iv) Resistance of metallic conductors increases with
w the increase of temperature and decreases with the
dV =
q0 decrease of the temperature.
SI unit of electric potential is volt (V). Voltmeter is used to Resistivity or Specific Resistance (r): Resistivity is
measure the potential difference between two points in an defined as the resistance of the conductor of unit length and
electric circuit. Voltmeter is always connected in parallel in unit area of cross-section.
an electric circuit.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 47
Unit of Resistivity: Electric power is defined as the amount of electric work
done in one second.
●● In the CGS system, the unit of resistivity is ohm-cm.
P = VI = I2 R
●● In the SI system, the unit of resistivity is ohm-meter.
●● The SI unit of power is watt.
●● Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series
if the same amount of current flows through these ●● Practical unit of power is horse power (h.p.)
resistors.
1 h.p. = 746 W
●● The effective resistance of a series combination
●● Electric energy = Electric power × time
of resistors is the algebraic sum of the individual
resistances of the resistors in the combination. ●● Commercial unit of Energy : kilowatt-hour (kWh)
●● An electric bulb or a heater or a metallic wire acts as 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
a resistor.
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
●● If one of the electric bulbs connected in a series is
fused, then no electric bulb will glow inspite of the Hans Christian Oersted discovered a relationship between
fact that the combination is connected with a source of electricity and magnetism.A current carrying wire behaves
electric current. as a magnet.When a current passes through a wire, a
magnetic field is set up around the wire. This effect of
●● Two or more resistors are said to be connected in current is called the magnetic effect of current.
parallel if the potential difference across each resistor
is equal to the applied potential difference across the Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike magnetic
combination of the resistors. poles attract each other.

●● The effective resistance of the resistors connected Magnetic field is the space or region around a current
in parallel is less than the minimum resistance of a carrying wire or a magnet within which its influence is felt
resistor in the combination. by another magnet.

●● Resistors are connected in series if the resistance of the Magnetic field line:
electric circuit is to be increased. The path along which a free unit north pole moves in a
●● Resistors are connected in parallel if the resistance of magnetic field is called magnetic field line. The tangent at
the electric circuit is to be decreased. any point on a magnetic field line gives the direction of the
magnetic field at that point.
Joule’s Law of Heating:
●● Two magnetic field lines can’t intersect or cross each
The amount of heat produced in a conductor is other.Magnetic field lines are crowded in a region of
strong magnetic field.
(i) Directly proportional to the square of the electric
current flowing through it. ●● Magnetic field lines are far apart in a region of weak
magnetic field.When current passes through a straight
(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
wire or conductor, a magnetic field is set up around the
(iii) Directly proportional to the time for which the electric wire or conductor.
current flows through the conductor.
●● Magnetic field around a current carrying wire or
H = I2 Rt (joule) conductor is represented by concentric circles centred
at the wire or the conductor.
●● Where His amount of heat,I is electric current,R is
Resistance and t is time ●● Magnetic field around a current carrying wire increases
with the increase in the current passing through the
●● Electric fuse is a safety device used to save the electric
wire.
appliances from burning.
●● Magnetic field around a current carrying wire or
●● Electric fuse is a wire made of a material having a low
conductor is represented by concentric circles centered
melting point.
at the wire or the conductor.
●● Electric fuse wire is made of copper or tin-lead alloy.
●● The direction of the magnetic field around the current
Electric energy : carrying conductor is determined by Right Hand
Thumb Rule.
The work done by a source of electricity to maintain a
current in an electric circuit is known as electric energy. ●● Magnetic field around a current carrying wire decreases
as we go away from the wire.
E = VIt
●● Magnetic field due to a very long wire like a power
Where V is volt, I electric current and t is time. transmission line carrying current I and at a distance r
from the wire is given by
Electric power:

48 General Science (General Knowledge)

 B = ; where, µ0 = 4p × 10–7 TmA–1 Principle of electric motor:
●● Two parallel wires or conductors carrying current in Electric motor works on the principle that a current
the same direction attract each other. carrying conductor placed perpendicular to a magnetic
field experiences a force.
●● Two parallel wires or conductors carrying current in
the opposite directions repel each other. ●● The phenomenon of producing induced current in a
closed circuit due to the change in magnetic field in
●● The magnetic field around a straight current carrying
the circuit is known as electromagnetic induction.
conductor or wire can be increased by bending it into
a circular loop. ●● More induced current flows through a closed coil if a
bar magnet is brought towards or away from the coil
●● The strength of magnetic field produced at the center
with large speed.
of a circular loop of a wire is
●● No induced current flows through a closed coil if the
(i) directly proportional to the amount of current
magnetic field linked with it does not change.
passing through the loop of the wire.
●● Direction of induced current in a conductor is
(ii) directly proportional to the number of turns of the
determined by Fleming’s Right hand rule.
circular loop of the wire.
Direct current:
(iii) inversely proportional to the radius of the circular
loop of the wire. Direct current is an electric current whose magnitude is
either constant or variable but the direction of flow in a
●● Magnetic field produced by a current carrying circular conductor remains the same.Frequency of direct current is
wire or loop decreases on both sides along the axis of zero.
the circular wire.
Alternating current:
●● A solenoid is a coil of many turns of an insulated copper
Alternating current is an electric current whose magnitude
wire closely wound in the shape of a tight spring.
changes with time and direction reverse periodically.
●● Magnetic field inside a current carrying solenoid is In India, the frequency of A.C. is 50 Hz.A.C. is more
uniform magnetic field. dangerous than D.C.
●● A solenoid carrying current behaves like a bar magnet. Electric generator:
●● A soft iron rod placed in a current carrying solenoid is Electric generator is a device used to convert mechanical
known as electromagnet. energy into electrical energy. Electric generator works on
●● A current carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the principle of electromagnetic induction.
the magnetic field experience a force. ●● To supply electric power from one place to another
●● The force acting on a current carrying conductor placed place, three wires known as phase wire (or live wire),
perpendicular to the magnetic field. neutral wire and earth wire are used.

●● Direction of force experienced by a current carrying ●● The potential difference between the live wire and
conductor placed in a magnetic field is determined by neutral wire in a household supply of electric power
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. is 220 V.

●● No Force acts on a current carrying conductor when ●● Current rating of a fuse is the maximum amount of
placed parallel to the magnetic field. electric current that can be passed through the fuse
wire without melting it.
●● SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T).
●● Current rating of a fuse wire in a circuit having bulbs
●● Force acts on a charge moving perpendicular to the and tubes is 5A.
magnetic field. This force is called the Lorentz force.
●● Current rating of a fuse wire in a circuit having heating
●● Force acting on a charge Q moving with velocity v appliances is 15A.
perpendicular to the magnetic field B is given by
●● Electric fuse is a safety device used to save the
F = BQV electrical appliances from burning when large current
●● Where B is magnetic field,Q is charge and V is volt. flows in the circuit. Electric fuse is made of a material
of low melting point.Material used for making a fuse
No force acts on a charge moving parallel to the wire is made of copper / aluminum / tin-lead alloy.
magnetic field B.
Short Circuiting:
●● Direction of force experienced by a moving charge in
a magnetic field is determined by the Right Hand Rule. When live wire and neutral wire come in direct contact,
the resistance of the circuit becomes very small. Hence
●● Electric motor is a device which converts electrical huge current flows through the circuit. This huge current
energy into mechanical energy. produces a large amount of heat in the circuit and the circuit
catches fire. This is known as short circuiting.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 49
 Exercise

1. What is the SI unit of electric current? 11. What discovery linked electricity and magnetism?
(a) Watt (b) Ohm (a) Faraday's Law (b) Coulomb's Law
(c) Ampere (d) Joule (c) Oersted's Discovery (d) Lenz's Law
2. What device is used to measure electric current? 12. What determines the direction of the magnetic
(a) Voltmeter (b) Ammeter field around a current-carrying wire?
(c) Fuse (d) Resistor (a) Right Hand Thumb Rule
3. Which law states that the electric current is (b) Fleming's Right Hand Rule
directly proportional to the potential difference? (c) Left Hand Thumb Rule
(a) Ohm's Law (b) Joule's Law (d) Fleming's Left Hand Rule
(c) Faraday's Law (d) Lenz's Law 13. Which unit measures the strength of a magnetic field?
4. What is the unit of resistance? (a) Ohm (b) Tesla
(a) Ampere (b) Joule (c) Ampere (d) Volt
(c) Ohm (d) Volt 14. What type of current changes direction periodically?
5. Which law describes the relationship between (a) Direct current (DC)
resistance, length, and cross-sectional area of a (b) Alternating current (AC)
conductor? (c) Static current
(a) Coulomb's Law (b) Lenz's Law (d) Continuous current
(c) Ohm's Law (d) Kirchhoff's Law 15. What does an electric generator convert into
6. What does an ammeter measure in an electrical electrical energy?
circuit? (a) Mechanical energy (b) Thermal energy
(a) Voltage (b) Resistance (c) Chemical energy (d) Nuclear energy
(c) Current (d) Power 16. What principle does an electric generator operate on?
7. Which component opposes the flow of electrons (a) Ohm's Law (b) Lenz's Law
in an electrical circuit? (c) Faraday's Law (d) Kirchhoff's Law
(a) Resistor (b) Capacitor 17. What is the frequency of alternating current in India?
(c) Inductor (d) Diode (a) 60 Hz (b) 50 Hz
8. What is the relationship between electric power, (c) 40 Hz (d) 30 Hz
current, and resistance in a circuit?
18. Which wire is used as a safety measure to prevent
(a) P = IV (b) P = I2R electric shocks in a household circuit?
(c) P = V/R (d) P = IR (a) Phase wire (b) Neutral wire
9. What happens when one bulb in a series circuit is fused? (c) Ground wire (d) Live wire
(a) Other bulbs become brighter 19. What is the unit of electrical energy?
(b) All bulbs stop glowing (a) Watt-hour (b) Joule
(c) Only the fused bulb goes off (c) Ampere-hour (d) Volt-ampere
(d) The rest of the bulbs get dimmer
20. What happens during short-circuiting in an
10. What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical circuit? electrical circuit?
(a) To increase current flow (a) Increase in resistance
(b) To decrease potential difference (b) Decrease in current
(c) To protect appliances from excessive current (c) Excessive current flow
(d) To increase resistance (d) Voltage drop
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c)

50 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

9 Radioactivity

●● It is stronger between nucleons having same sense of spin

About The Atom than between nucleons having opposite sense of spin.
●● Centre of an atom is called nucleus.
●● It is not a central force
●● The order of size of nucleus – 10–15 m. or fermi.
●● Electrostatic and gravitational forces are central forces.
●● The order of size of atom – 10 –10
m. or Å. But nuclear force depends on spin also therefore it is
not a central force.
●● Only protons and neutrons can exist inside the nucleus.
●● Electrons orbit around the nucleus in certain orbits and Radioactivity
are called atomic electron.
●● Spontaneous emission of radiations from the nucleus
●● Neutrons and protons are called nucleons. is known as radioactivity and substances showing this
property are called radioactive substances.
●● Number of protons in a nucleus is its atomic number
(Z). Number of nucleons in a nucleus is its mass ●● Only unstable nuclei exhibit this property.
number (A).
●● A particular nuclide (element) can radiate only a
Three forces are interacting between nucleons: particular type of radiations at a time, according to its
requirement of stability.
(i) Gravitational force which is negligible force.
●● This event (Radioactivity) discovered by Becquerel
(ii) Repulsive electrostatic (Coulomb) force between
therefore the radioactive radiations also called
proton – proton.
Becquerel radiations.
Due to small distance between protons this force is very
●● Later on Curie couple (Merie Curie and Pierre Curie)
strong. Due to this strong force on a very small particle,
discovered many other radioactive substances.
the proton would have been fly apart from the nucleus.
(iii) But there is another stronger force, called strong nuclear Nature of Radioactive Radiations
force (Fn) which is more strong than electrostatic force Rutherford’s Experiment
acts and holds nucleons (p – p, p – n, n – n) closely.
He put a sample of radioactive substance in a lead box and
Nuclear Force (Fn) allow the emission of radiations through a small hole only.
When the radiation enter into the external electric field,
●● It is the most strong force in the universe and it acts
they split into three parts.
only between the nucleons.
(a) Radiations which deflect towards negative plate are
●● Very short range
called α –rays.
●● Only upto size of nucleus (3 or 4 fermi). More than this
(b) Radiations which deflect towards positive plate are
distance, nuclear force is almost zero.
called β –rays.
●● Very much depends upon distance
(c) Radiations which are undeflected, called γ–rays.
●● Small variation in distance may cause of large change
(i) Alpha rays: These are stream of positive charged
in nuclear force while electrostatic force remains
particles i.e. particle nature.
almost unaffected.
(ii) Beta rays: These are stream of negative charged
●● Independent of charge
particles i.e. particle nature.
●● Interacts between n–n as well as between p–p and also
(iii) Gama rays: These are electromagnetic wave or
between n–p.
photons (electrically neutral) alike light rays.
●● Spin dependent

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 51
 (a) In medicine
(i) Testing of blood circulation – Cr57
(ii) Brain tumer detecting – Hg203
(iii) Thyroid testing (cancer) – I131
(iv) Cancer cure – Co60
(v) Blood cancer cure – Au189 /Na24
(b) In Archaeology
(i) For determining age of archaeological sample
(old) – C14 (carbon dating)
(ii) For determining age of earth or meteorites (very
old) – K40 and Uranium
(c) In Agriculture
(i) For protacting potato from earthworm – Co60
(ii) Artificial rains by – AgI
(iii) As fertilizers – P32

α–decay (Alpha-Decay) (vi) Geiger – Muller counter is used for detecting (or
counting) the α particles and β–particles.
Some nuclei emit α–particles (2He4). Inside them 2p and
2n combine to form an α–particle. In this process some (vii) The K-electron capture: In K-capture a nucleus
energy is being released and appears as kinetic energy of captures one of the inner orbital electrons and a
α–particle. On the behalf of this energy α–particle may proton transforms into a neutron. Hence K capture
leave the nucleus. is like positron decay, in both n/p ratio increases.
In this event a vacancy is created in K-shell to fill
After α–emission, obtained daughter nucleus have 2p and up the vacancy, electron transition takes place and
2n less than its parent nucleus. X-rays are emitted.
XA →
Z Z–2
YA–4 + 2He4 ZXA + –1e0 (K-capture) → YA + X-rays + ʋ
Z–1

β–decay
Einstein’s mass energy equivalence relation
(i) Negative beta (–β0) decay
According to Einstein, mass and matter are not two different
When in a nucleus neutron proton ratio is high, it quantities. Mass can be converted into energy and energy
becomes unstable and try to reduce ratio by converting into mass.
some of neutron into proton. E = mc2
(ii) Positive beta (+β , positron) decay
0
Here, E = total energy associated with mass m; c2 = used as
When nucleus neutron proton ratio is less than for required a conversion coefficent
stability, nucleus becomes unstable and try to increase
Mass defect
n/p ratio by converting some of p into n. As a result of
+beta decay, number of protons in nucleus decreases but Mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of
number of nucleons is unchanged and ratio increases. nucleons in it. The difference is called mass defect.
γ–decay NUCLEAR FISSION
Similar to an atom, nucleus also have certain energy levels ●● In 1938 by Hahn and Strassmann.
and nucleons occupy them. After α- decay (or β decay),
daughter nucleus may be in excited state and return to ●● By attack of a particle splitting of a heavy nucleus (A
ground state by emitting photons of high energy (MeV > 230) into two or more lighter nuclei.
order) called γ- photons. ●● In this process certain mass disapears which is obtained
in the form of energy (enormous amount)
Half life (Th)
●● A + p → excited nucleus → B+C+Q
It is the time during which number of active nuclei reduce
to half of initial value. ●● Hahn and Strassmann done the first fission (fission of
nucleus of U235).
Important facts on Radioactivity
●● When U235 is bombarded by a neutron it splits into two
(1) Radiation dozes is measured in sieverts (Sv) or Rontgen. fragments and 2 or 3 secondary neutrons and releases
(2) Uses of radioactive isotopes in human life about 190 MeV (200 MeV) energy per fission (or from
single nucleus)

52 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● Fragments are uncertain but each time energy released of protones. Neutrons collide with the protones and
is almost same. interchange their energy. Thus neutrons get slow down.
Possible reactions are - Control rods
● U235 + 0n1 → Ba + Kr + 30n1 + 200 MeV ●● They have the ability to capture the slow neutrons and
or can control the chain reaction at any stage.
● U 235
+ 0n1
→ Xe + Sr + 20n1 + 200 MeV ●● Boron and Cadmium are best absorber of neutrons.
and many other reactions are possible. Coolant
●● The average number of secondary neutrons is 2.5. A substance which absorb the produced heat and transfers
●● Nuclear fission can be explained by using “ liquid drop it to water for further use. Generaly coolant is water at high
model” also. pressure
●● The mass defect Δm is about 0.1% of mass of fissioned Fast Breader Reactors
nucleus The atomic reactor in which fresh fissionable fuel (Pu239) is
●● About 93% of released energy (Q) is appear in the produced along with energy.
form of kinetic energies of products and about 7% part
The amount of produced fuel (Pu239) is more than consumed
in the form of γ- rays.
fuel (U235)
Nuclear Chain Reaction Fuel : Natural Uranium.
The equation of fission of U 235
is Process
U 235
+ 0n1
→ Ba + Kr + 30n + Q 1
During fission of U235, energy and secondary neutrons are
These three secondary neutrons produced in the reaction produced. These secondary neutrons are absorbed by U238
may cause of fission of three more U235 and give 9 and U239 is formed. This U239 converts into Pu239 after two
neutrons, which in turn, may cause of nine more fission of beta decay. This Pu239 can be separated, its half life is 2400
U235 and so on. years.
Thus a continuous ‘Nuclear Chain reacion’ would start. This Pu239 can be used in nuclear weapons because of its
If there is no control on chain reaction then in a short time small critical size than U235.
(  10–6 sec.) a huge amount of energy will be released. Moderator : Are not used in these reactors.
(This is the principle of ‘Atom bomb’)
Coolant : Liquid sodium
If chain is controlled then produced energy can be used for
peaceful purposes. For example nuclear reactor (Based on Nuclear Fusion
fission) are generating electricity.
It is the phenomenon of fusing two or more lighter nuclei to
Critical Size (or mass) form a single heavy nucleus.
In order to sustain chain reaction in a sample of enriched A+B → C + Q (Fusion)
uranium, it is required that the number of lost neutrons should
be much smaller than the number of neutrons produced in a The product (C) is more stable then reactants (A and B).
fission process. For it the size of uranium block should be Required condition for nuclear fusion
equal or greater than a certain size called critical size.
High temperature
Nuclear Reactor (K = 1)
Which provide kinetic energy to nuclei to overcome the
Credit To Enricho Fermi repulsive electrostatic force between them.
Construction High Pressure (or density)
●● Nuclear Fuel : Commonly used are U , Pu . 235 239
Which ensure frequent collision and increases the
●● Pu is the best. Its critical size is less than critical size
239 probability of fusion.
of U235. The required temperature and pressure at earth (lab) are not
●● But Pu239 is not naturally available and U235 is used in possible. These condition exist in the sun and in many other
most of the reactors. stars. The source of energy in the sun is nuclear fusion,
where hydrogen is in plasma state and there protons fuse to
Moderator form helium nuclei.
Its function is to slow down the fast secondary neutrons.
Hydrogen Bomb
Because only slow neutrons can bring the fission of U235.
The moderator should be light and it shuold not absorb It is based on nuclear fusion and produces more energy
the neutrons. Commonely, Heavy water (D2O, molecular than an atom bomb.
weight 20 gm.) Graphite etc. are used. These are rich

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 53
 Exercise

1. What is the size of the nucleus? 11. What is used for detecting alpha and beta particles?
(a) 10 m
-10
(b) 10 m
-15
(a) Geiger-Muller counter
(c) 10-5 m (d) 10-20 m (b) Radioactive isotopes
2. What particles can exist inside the nucleus? (c) Electromagnetic waves
(a) Electrons only (d) Photomultiplier tube
(b) Protons and electrons 12. Which equation represents Einstein's mass-energy
(c) Protons and neutrons equivalence relation?
(d) Neutrons only (a) E = mc2 (b) F = ma
3. What holds nucleons closely inside the nucleus? (c) E = mv2 (d) E = hf
(a) Gravitational force 13. Who discovered nuclear fission?
(b) Electrostatic force (a) Marie Curie
(c) Strong nuclear force (b) Ernest Rutherford
(d) Weak nuclear force (c) Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann
4. What defines the atomic number of a nucleus? (d) Enrico Fermi
(a) Number of protons 14. What form does most of the released energy take
during nuclear fission?
(b) Number of neutrons
(c) Number of electrons (a) Heat
(d) Number of nucleons (b) Light
(c) Gamma rays
5. What force is stronger between nucleons having
the same spin? (d) Kinetic energy of products
(a) Electrostatic force 15. What principle is the basis of an atomic bomb?
(b) Gravitational force (a) Controlled chain reaction
(c) Weak nuclear force (b) Uncontrolled chain reaction
(d) Strong nuclear force (c) Controlled fusion
6. What is the term used for spontaneous emission of (d) Controlled fission
radiation from the nucleus? 16. What material is commonly used as a moderator
(a) Gamma emission (b) Alpha emission in nuclear reactors?
(c) Beta emission (d) Radioactivity (a) Heavy water (b) Graphite
7. Which radioactive radiation consists of positive (c) Cadmium (d) Boron
charged particles? 17. Which atomic reactor produces more fuel (Pu239)
(a) Alpha rays (b) Beta rays than it consumes (U235)?
(c) Gamma rays (d) Neutron rays (a) Nuclear fission reactor
8. What decay involves the emission of alpha (b) Fast breeder reactor
particles? (c) Nuclear fusion reactor
(a) Alpha decay (b) Beta decay (d) Uranium reactor
(c) Gamma decay (d) Neutron decay 18. What conditions are necessary for nuclear fusion
to occur?
9. What is the process called when a nucleus captures
an inner orbital electron, transforming a proton (a) Low temperature and low pressure
into a neutron? (b) High temperature and high pressure
(a) Electron capture (c) Low temperature and high pressure
(b) Beta-plus decay (d) High temperature and low pressure
(c) K-electron capture 19. What is the primary source of energy in the sun?
(d) Gamma capture (a) Nuclear fission
10. What is the unit used to measure radiation doses? (b) Nuclear fusion
(a) Rutherford (b) Sievert (c) Chemical reactions
(c) Becquerel (d) Faraday (d) Gravitational collapse

54 General Science (General Knowledge)

20. Which type of bomb is based on nuclear fusion? (c) Neutron bomb (d) Fission bomb
(a) Atomic bomb (b) Hydrogen bomb

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 55
 CHEMISTRY

56 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Matter, Atoms and

1 Molecules

(v) Bose Einstein condensate (BEC): In 1920 an Indian

Matter Scientist Satyendra Nath Bose did some calculation
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter. for the fifth state of matter. On the basis of these
Air and water, hydrogen and oxygen, sugar and sand, calculations, Albert Einstein predicted the existence of
silver and steel are all different kinds of matter. Matter is a new state of matter called Bose–Einstein condensate.
made up of small particles. It has three states which can It is achieved by cooling a gas of extremely low density
be interconverted into each other by applying pressure and (about one hundred thousandth the density of normal
change in temperature. Matter shows different properties air) to super low temperature.
such as evaporation, condensation, freezing, sublimation 1. Matter is classified into pure and impure matter on the
etc. basis of its constituents.
Matter is classified into two types on the basis of their 2. Matter is not continuous but rather consists of a large
properties. number of particles.
1. Physical Classification: 3. Characteristics of Particle
On the basis of physical properties, matter has been ●● Large number of particles constitutes matter.
classified as solids, liquids and gasses.
●● Particles of matter are very small in size.
2. Chemical Classification: On the basis of chemical
properties, matter has been classified as elements, ●● Particles of matter have spaces between them
compounds and mixture. ●● Particles of matter are continuously moving
Classification of Matter based on Physical State : 4. Solids have definite shape, distinct boundaries and
Under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, fixed volume
matter can exist in any one of the following three states: 5. Liquids have fixed volume but no fixed shape.
(i) Solids: A solid has a definite shape and definite 6. Gases neither have fixed shape nor volume.
volume. Examples are iron, copper, sugar, wood, rock,
ice, etc. 7. Solids possess least compressibility.

(ii) Liquid: A liquid has a definite volume but not no 8. Liquids possess higher compressibility than solids.
definite shape. Examples are milk, water, oil, petrol, 9. Gases possess the highest compressibility as compared
kerosene, alcohol etc. to solids and liquids.
(iii) Gasses: A gas has neither a definite shape nor a 10. The process in which a solid changes to liquid state by
definite volume. It takes the shape and volume of absorbing heat at constant temperature is called fusion.
the containing vessel. Examples are steam, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, chlorine etc. There are some forces of attraction between the particles
of matter which bind them together.
(iv) Plasma: Plasma is the fourth state of matter which
exists only at very high temperature about 107 K (a) Cohesive force : The force of attraction between the
which is found only in the interior of the star. At particles of the same substance is called Cohesive
this temperature basic units of the matter, atoms, are Force.
completely ionized. Such a state of matter consists of (b) Adhesive force : The force of attraction between the
base nuclei and electrons is called plasma. Its example particles of different substances is called Adhesive
can be found in a fluorescent light bulb. A gas is filled Force.
inside a long tube. The electricity charges up the
gas. This charging and exciting of the atoms creates 11. The temperature at which a solid melts to become a
glowing plasma inside the bulb. liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called as melting
point.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 57
12. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. T (K) = T (°C) ●● A pure substance is a single substance (or matter)
+273 which cannot be separated into other kinds of matter
by any physical process.
13. The hidden heat which breaks the force of attraction
between the molecules during change of state is called ●● Single elements and single compounds are regarded as
latent heat. pure substances.
14. Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy ●● A mixture is not a pure substance in terms of science.
required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at its
●● Hydrogen and helium are the major constituents of
melting point.
universe.
15. The melting point of a solid is an indication of the
●● Oxygen is the most abundant element is earth’s crust.
strength of the force of attraction between its particles.
●● No two elements can have the same symbols.
16. The temperature at which a liquid changes to solid
by giving out heat at atmospheric pressure is called ●● Chemical compounds are formed as a result of chemical
freezing point. combination between the atoms.
17. The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the ●● Purity of gold is expressed in terms of carats. Pure gold
atmospheric pressure is known as boiling point. is 24 carats.
18. Latent heat of evaporation is the heat energy required ●● In a homogeneous mixture, the combining substances
to change 1 kg of liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure or constituents are uniformly mixed throughout.
at its boiling point.
In a heterogeneous mixture, these are not.
19. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
●● Homogeneous mixtures are also regarded as solutions.
20. The phenomenon of change of a liquid into its gaseous
●● A binary solution consists of two components called
state at any temperature below its boiling point is
solute and solvent.
known as evaporation.
●● The solute particles in a solution cannot be seen
21. In evaporation, the conversion of liquid to gaseous
normally.
state occurs at a much slower rate, compared to boiling.
●● A solution having the maximum amount of solute
22. Evaporation takes place only at the surface of the
dissolved in it at a given temperature is known as
liquid while boiling can take place in all parts of the
saturated solution.
liquid.
●● A saturated solution generally becomes unsaturated
23. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon.
upon heating.
24. Boiling is a bulk phenomena.
●● Solubility of a solution is always expressed with
25. The amount of water vapour present in the air is called respect to a saturated solution.
humidity.
●● Solubility is the maximum amount of solute dissolved
26. Evaporation is a continuous or ongoing process. in 100 g of the solvent to form a saturated solution at a
given temperature.
27. Evaporation causes cooling.
●● Solubility of salts in water generally increases with rise
28. The process of evaporation of water from the
in temperature but in some cases, it decreases.
aerial parts of plants, especially leaves is known as
transpiration. ●● The concentration of a solution is expressed as mass
by mass percent or volume by volume percent or mass
29. The rate of evaporation is affected by the surface area
by volume percent.
exposed to atmosphere, temperature, humidity and
wind speed. ●● True solutions, colloidal solutions and suspensions
differ in particle size only.
30. Since evaporation is a surface phenomenon, therefore,
it increases with an increase in surface area. ●● Colloidal solutions and suspensions both represent
heterogeneous mixtures.
31. Evaporation increases with an increase in temperature.
●● Dispersed phase particles in a colloidal solution follow
32. Evaporation decreases with an increase in humidity.
zig-zig path known as Brownian Movement.
33. Evaporation increases with the increase in wind speed.
●● Tyndall effect is shown by colloidal solutions.
34. The process in which a gas changes into liquid state
●● The stability of the colloidal solutions is because of the
by giving out heat at constant temperature is called
charge on the colloidal particles.
condensation.
●● Colloidal particles get coagulated or precipitated when
charge on them is removed.

58 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● Separation of constituents from a heterogeneous ●● Rutherford’s model of atom was modified by Bohr in
mixture is easier as compared to homogeneous mixture. 1913.
●● Centrifugation helps in the formation of a precipitate ●● He postulated that so long as the electron is in a
or residue. particular orbit it neither absorb nor emit energy. In
other words no energy is required for the movement
●● Two immiscible liquids can be easily separated with
of the electrons in these orbits, on the other hand a
the help of separating funnel.
definite amount of energy is absorbed or emitted when
●● Two miscible liquids differing in their boiling points the electron moves from one orbit to the other.
by not more than 25° can be separated by fractional
Limitation of Bohr’s Model:
distillation.
(i) Bohr’s model could explain the line spectra of H atom
●● Simple distillation helps in purifying an impure liquid
and hydrogen line species but failed to explain the
containing non-volatile impurities.
spectra of multi electron atom .
●● Paper chromatography helps in separating components
(ii) It could not explain the splitting of spectral lines
present in homogeneous mixture even if available in
into finer lines under the influence of magnetic effect
small amount.
(Zeeman effect) and electric effect (Stark effect)
●● Physical change can be easily reversed while chemical
(iii) This is not in accordance with de Broglie concept
change cannot be.
of dual nature of matter and Heisenberg Uncertainty
●● Chemical reactions always occur in chemical changes. Principle.
Atom is the smallest particle consisting of three fundamental ●● Atomic number is the number of protons present in the
particles namely electron, proton and neutron. nucleus of an atom whereas Mass number is the sum
total of protons and neutrons. (may called nucleons)
●● Electron: Discovered by J.J. Thomson, negatively
charged particle carrying 1.60 × 10–19 C and has mass ●● Isotopes are different atoms of the same element having
of 1.60211 × 10–31 kg. same atomic number but different mass number. e.g.
[1H1; 1H2; 1H3 and 17Cl35;17Cl37]
●● Proton is a positively charged particle and has mass
equal to 1.672614 × 10–27 kg. ●● Isobars are Atoms of different elements having same
mass number but different atomic number. [18Ar40;
●● Proton was discovered by Goldstein and neutrons by
K40; 20Ca40 ]
Chadwick. 19

●● Isotones are Atoms of different elements having same

●● Neutron is a neutral particle and has a mass equal to
number of neutrons e.g .[6C14; 7N15; 8O16]
1.67492 × 10–27 kg.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 59
 Exercise

1. What chemical substance is kept to safeguard (b) Juice cans

clothes from insects and moths? (c) Air guns
(a) Sodium chloride (d) Balloons
(b) Naphthalene 12. Which substance sublimes upon heating?
(c) Iodine (a) Ice (b) Dry ice
(d) Ammonium chloride (c) Water (d) Water vapors
2. The fifth state of matter is achieved through: 13. What is the normal atmospheric pressure?
(a) Condensation of water vapors (a) 1 atmosphere (b) 1.01 × 10 Pa
(b) Evaporation of liquids (c) 1 bar (d) 1 torr
(c) Sublimation of substances
14. Which liquid has the highest rate of evaporation?
(d) Cooling of gas at super-low temperatures
(a) Petrol
3. At what temperature do Celsius and Fahrenheit
(b) Nail-polish remover
scales display the same reading?
(c) Water
(a) 40° K (b) 100° F
(d) Alcohol
(c) -40° C (d) -100° C
15. A gas that obeys gas laws is known as:
4. Which state of matter corresponds to super-
energetic particles? (a) An ideal gas (b) A heavier gas
(c) A lighter gas (d) A real gas
(a) Solid (b) Plasma
(c) Liquid (d) Gas 16. Diffusion, a property of matter, is based on:

5. What substance is most effective for cooling? (a) Motion of its particles
(b) Size of its particles
(a) Water at 0°C (b) Water at 100°C
(c) Pressure
(c) Ice at 0°C (d) Gas at 0°C
(d) Temperature
6. How does the mass and volume of a sponge
17. The process of changing liquid into solid is called:
compare to gold?
(a) Evaporation (b) Freezing
(a) Lesser mass than gold
(c) Condensation (d) Sublimation
(b) Lesser volume than gold
(c) Larger mass than gold 18. The tendency of non-reacting gasses to mix with
(d) Larger volume than gold each other is called:

7. Is plasticine a: (a) Chemical reaction

(b) Diffusion
(a) Solid
(c) Effusion
(b) Highly viscous solid
(d) Explosion
(c) Highly viscous liquid
(d) Gas 19. By which property are gases and liquids different
from solids?
8. Identify the liquid from the options:
(a) Volume (b) Mass
(a) Honey (b) Cotton wool
(c) Conductivity (d) Fluidity
(c) Flour (d) Plasticine
20. When ice, floating on water in a beaker, completely
9. Which type of clothing is comfortable in summer? melts, the water level:
(a) Silk clothes (b) Cotton clothes (a) Increases
(c) Leather clothes (d) Rayon clothes (b) Decreases
10. Which substance has both definite shape and (c) Remains the same
volume? (d) First increases, then decreases
(a) Water (b) Ice 21. The boiling point of a gas is –80°C. This
(c) Oxygen (d) Steam temperature is equivalent to:
11. Compressed air is used in which of the following? (a) –193 K (b) 193 K
(a) Tyres of a bullock cart (c) 353 K (d) –353 K

60 General Science (General Knowledge)

22. When a solid melts, its temperature: observe that:
(a) Increases (a) A white precipitate is formed
(b) Decreases (b) A yellow precipitate is formed
(c) Remains constant (c) A clear and colorless solution is formed
(d) First increases, then decreases (d) No reaction takes place
23. Which of the following compounds, when 25. What is observed when iron nails are added to
dissolved in water, gives a colored solution? copper sulphate solution?
(a) Barium chloride (a) The solution becomes pale green, and a reddish-
(b) Sugar brown deposit is seen on the nails
(c) Sodium chloride (b) The solution becomes colorless
(d) Copper sulphate (c) There is no reaction
24. On adding an aqueous solution of Barium Chloride (d) The solution becomes pale green, and no change
to that of sodium sulphate, we immediately is observed in sand and the iron nails

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (c)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 61
 STUDENT'S NOTES

62 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Metallurgy, Metals,
2 Non-Metals and Alloys

Occurence of Metals In Nature: Elements Ores

Iron Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (FeO. Fe2O3),
A metal is said to occur native or free when it is found Iron pyrites (FeS2)
in nature in the metallic state. Those metals which remain
Aluminium Bauxite (Al2O3 . 2H2O)
unaffected by moisture, oxygen and carbon dioxide of the
air can occur native or free. Calcium Limestone (CaCO3)
Magnesium Dolomite (MgCO3 . CaCO3)
The reactive metals, i.e., the metals which react with
Copper Copper pyrites (CuFeS2)
moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide or other chemical
reagents, are not found in nature in free state, but in Mercury Cinnabar (HgS)
combined state in the form of compounds. Zinc Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO3)
Occurrence of metals in nature Lead Lead glance (PbS)
Sodium Rock salt (NaCl)
●● In free state: (gold, platinum, silver, mercury, etc.)
Silver Horn silver (AgCl)
●● In combined state: (sodium, calcium, potassium,
aluminium, lead, copper, etc). Flux:
●● 3.3.1 Minerals and Ores A flux is a substance that is added to the furnace charge
(roasted or calcined ore and coke) during the process of
Minerals: smelting to remove the nonfusible impurities present in the
ore.
Metal-bearing substances, found in the earths crust, are
called minerals. In other words, the solid compounds of Slag:
metals occurring in nature are called minerals.
Flux combines with the nonfusible impurities to convert
Metals can also be classified in terms of their nature them into a fusible substance known as slag. Impurities
and behaviour. For example, metals resembling iron in present in metal oxides may be acidic or basic. For acidic
properties like manganese, chromium, nickel are ferrous impurities, such as SiO2 or P2O5, a basic flux (e.g., CaO) is
metals. They have a similar magnetic behaviour like iron added to the mixture during smelting. If basic impurities
and can be used for preparing magnets. such as MnO are present, silica is added to the flux.
Ores: Impurity Flux Slag
The minerals from which metals can be obtained on a SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3
commercial scale are called ores. In other words, the
P2O5 + 3CaO → Ca3(PO4)2
minerals from which metals can be extracted profitably are
called ores. MnO + SiO2 → MnSiO3.
For example, Earth’s crust contains aluminium in the form Gangue or Matrix:
of two well known minerals bauxite
The ore mined from the earth’s crust contains some
(Al2O3 . 2H2O) and china clay (Al2O3, 2SiO2 . 2H2O). But unwanted substances or impurities, such as sand, rocky or
the extraction of aluminium is cheaper and easier from clay materials. These substances are called gangue or matrix.
bauxite. Hence, ore of aluminium is bauxite.
Note:
Thus it can be concluded that –
(i) Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s
(i) All ores are minerals, but all minerals are not ores. crust.
(ii) An ore is rich in the amount of the metal. The (ii) All minerals of a metal cannot be used for extraction of
amount of foreign materials or impurities is low in an ore. the metal.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 63
 (ii) Cupellation: This method is used, when the
Metallurgy impure metal contain the impurities of other
The process of extracting metals from their ores and metals, which form volatile oxides. The crude
refining them for use is known as metallurgy. In other metal is taken in a boat shaped pan and a blast of
words, the process of obtaining a metal from its ores is air is blown into it. The impurities are converted
called metallurgy of the metal. into volatile oxides which escapes.
This process is used for removing the impurities
Metallurgical Operations
of lead from silver.
The various steps used in metallurgy are :
(iii) Poling: If crude metal contains impurties of the
(1) Enrichment or dressing of the ore. oxide of the metal itself. The crude metal is melted
in a big container and is stirred with green poles
(2) Conversion of the enriched ore into the oxide of metal.
of wood. Gaseous hydrocarbons (CH4, C2H6 etc.)
(3) Extraction of metal from the metal oxide. released from the green poles reduce the oxides of
(4) Refining or purification of the metal. the metal to the pure state by taking up oxygen.

Refining (or) purification of metals Crude copper (i.e. blister copper) having the
impurities
The process of purifying the crude metal is called refining
depends upon nature of the metal & nature of impurities 3Cu2O + CH4 → 6Cu + 2H2O + CO
following methods are used Stannic oxide is also purified by this method.
(a) Distillation (b) Liquation (d) Electro-refining: Used for Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn & Al.
(c) Oxidation (d) Electro-refining In this method

(e) Zone refining (f) Fractional crystallisation The impure metal act as Anode & pure metal strip
is taken as Cathode (both are same metals), these
(g) Vapour phase refining electrodes are suspended in an electrolyte, (soluble salt
(a) Distillation: Based upon boiling point difference of the same metal)

Distillation is a method of heating impure liquid to On passing electric current, metal ions from the
its boiling point & cooling the vapours to get the pure electrolyte are reduced to metal, which is deposited on
liquid. the cathode in the form of pure metal & an equivalent.
Amount of metal from the anode goes into the
Low boiling metal like, Zn, Hg, Cd etc can be refined electrolyte solution.
by this method. The impure metal is heated so it is
converted into liquid & the pure metal is converted At Anode: M(Impure) → Mn+ + ne–
into vapors, leaving the non-volatile impurities in At Cathode: Mn+ + ne– → M (pure)
the container, the pure metal vapours on cooling
condensed into pure metal. Ex: In the electrolysis of copper, metals like Zn
remains in the solution as cations. Where as metals
(b) Liquation process: Based upon melting point such as Au, Ag etc form the Anode mud because its lie
difference lower in activity series with respect to Zn.
When the M.P. of the metal is lower than the impurities, (e) Zone refining (or) Fractional distillation: The method
this technique is used. is based on the principle that when an impure metal
Low melting point metals such as Bi, Hg, Sn, Pb etc in the molten state is allowed to cool, only the metal
are refined by the process. crystallises, while the impurities remain in the molten
mass (or) melt (Impurities are more soluble).This
The crude metal is heated in an inert atmosphere of method gives high purity, metals like Ga, In, Si which
carbon monoxide on slopping hearth. The metal, melts are used in semi conductors are purified by this method.
& flows down the hearth, leaving behind the high
melting impuries. (f) Vapour phase refining: The crude metal is heated
with specific reagent at low temperature, so that it is
(c) Oxidation process: If impurities have greater affinity converted into unstable volatile compound, leaving
for oxygen (or) impurities are oxidised more readily behind the impurities. The unstable voltatile compound
than the metal. is decomposed at a high temperature to give the pure
Ex: Cu, Ag, Sn, etc. metal. Used for Ni, Mond Process and

(i) Bassemerisation: This is carried out in a specially Ti Van Arkel Method.

designed furnace called Bessemer converter.
The impure metal is melted & a hot blast of air Alloys
is passed through it. Impurities are removed as The homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a
volatile oxides which escapes out. metal and a nonmetal is called an alloy. For examples,

64 General Science (General Knowledge)

brass is an alloy of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). Similarly, Amalgams of sodium and aluminium are good reducing
steel is mainly an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C). An agents. Amalgam of silver, tin, Cadmium and copper have
alloys containing mercury as one of the metals is called an been utilized as dental fillings. Amalgams may be solid
amalgum. or liquid.

Preparation Alloy Steels

(i) Alloys are commonly prepared by melting the desired Steel: Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, the carbon
metals in proper proportions. The melt is allowed to content being 0.15–1.7%. Small quantities of other
cool and solidify. The solid substance formed is called elements such as manganese, silicon, chromium,
an alloy. Molybdenum, cobalt and nickel are added to impart
desirable mechanical and chemical properties that cannot
(ii) By compressing together the various constituents of
be obtained by using carbon alone. Such steels are known
the alloys under high pressure.
as alloy steels.
(iii) By simultaneous electro deposition of metals.
Stainless Steel: Steel that contains over 11–12% of
Properties of Alloys chromium is known as stainless steel. Stainless steel
does not rust or stain. It is, therefore, used to serve a
Alloys have certain characteristic properties: variety of purposes in industrial, chemical and domestic
(i) They are harder than their constituents but less ductile fields.
and malleable. A particularly useful alloy is the steel known as 18–8
(ii) They are resistant to corrosion. which contains Cr (18%), Ni (8%) and C (0.08%). It is
now apparent that the ingredient which is instrumental in
(iii) The melting point of an alloy may be higher or lower influencing the properties of steel is carbon.
than any of its constituents.
(iv) The properties of an alloy are much more improved
Alloys of Aluminium
and pronounced than those of its constituents. For Percentage Composition Uses
example, aluminium is a light metal and it is not very
Al = 95%, Mg = 5% Pressure cookers, balance
strong. But Duralumin, an alloy of Aluminium, is light
beams some light
and very strong.
instruments.
(v) The colour of an alloy is different from the metals from Al = 95%, Cu = 4%, Making parts of aeroplanes
which it is formed. For example, both Silver and zinc and automobiles, pressure
are almost white but the alloy formed from them are Mg = 0.5%, Mn = 0.5% cookers etc.
pink in colour
Alloys of Copper
Types of alloys:
Alloy Percentage Uses
There are two types of alloys : Composition
(i) Ferrous Alloys: These are the alloys which contain Bronze Cu = 90, Sn = 10 For making statues,
iron as one of the constituents, such as nickel steel, coins, utensils etc.
stainless steel etc. Brass Cu = 80, Zn = 20 For making utensils,
(ii) Non-ferrous Alloys: These are the alloys which do not parts of machinery,
contain iron as one of the constituents such as bronze, condenser tubes, wires
brass etc. etc.

Few Examples of Alloys Gun metal Cu = 90, Sn = 10 For making gun

Alloys of Gold : The purity of gold is expressed in carats. barrels.
24 carat gold is pure gold. But pure gold is very soft and, Bell metal Cu = 80, Sn = 20 For making bells and
therefore, cannot be used in making ornaments or coins. It gongs.
is generally alloyed with copper or silver to make it hard German Cu = 60, Zn = 20, For making silver
and useful. 22 carat gold means that the alloy contains 22 silver Ni = 20 wares, resistance
parts of gold in 24 parts of the alloy. wires.
Amalgam : An amalgam is an alloy of mercury and one Phosphor Cu = 95, Sn = 4.8, For making springs,
or more metals. Most of the metals form amalgam with bronze P = 0.2 electric switches.
mercury. But iron and Platinum are noticable exceptions. Monel Cu = 30, Ni = 67 For making corrosion
Therefore, amalgams can be stored in iron bottles. metal resistant pumps and
Fe and Mn = 3
Some of the amalgams are definite intermetallic
containers for storing
compounds, such as sodium amalgam (NaHg), magnesium
acids.
amalgam (MgHg), silver amalgam (Ag5Hg8), etc.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 65
 (c) Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time acquires
Alloys of Silver a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust.
Alloy Percentage Uses Preventive measures
Composition
●● The metallic surface can be coated with appropriate
Coinage silver Ag = 90, Cu = 10 For making silver
chemicals (ex: bisphenol, oxides etc.)
coins.
Silver solder Ag = 63, Cu = For soldering. ●● Paints are very good corrosion-inhibitors. If they
30, Zn = 7 contain red lead zinc chromate or lead chromate. Since
Dental alloy Ag = 33, Hg = For filling teeth. these forms the protective coatings.
52, Sn = 12.5 ●● Concrete coating & phosphate coating (Fe & Mn-
Cu = 2, Zn = 0.5 phophates) are very effective against atmospheric
corrosion.
Alloys of Tin and Lead ●● Steel plants & nuclear plants etc are protected by the
method of Anodic potential.
Alloy Percentage Uses
Composition ●● Anodised ‘Al’ is resistant to corrosion. It is the reason that
Solder Pb = 50, Sn = 50 For soldering broken the bodies of the buses & cars have ‘Al’ strips around it.
pieces. ●● Glycol in coolant for automobiles is good corrosion
Type metal Pb = 70, Sb = 20, For making printing inhibitor addition of small quantity of cyanovanador to
Sn = 10 type. the thermostats (or) radiators of cars can protect them
from corrosion.
Alloys of Iron or Alloy Steels ●● Copper & Brass items can be protected by covering
them with p-chlorobenzohydroxamic Acid.
Alloy Percentage Uses
Composition Comparirsion of Wrought Iron, Pig Iron and Steel:

Stainless Fe = 73, Cr = 18, Utensile, cycle and Pig Iron Wrought Iron Steel
steel Ni = 8 automobile parts Composition
shaving
and C = 1 1. Iron : upto 94 % Almost pure iron Less pure than
blades, watch cases. 2. Carbon : 2.5– Carbon : 0.1 – wrought iron
Nickel steel Fe = 96 – 98, Ni = Cables, automobile 4.0% .25% Carbon : 0.1–
2–4 and aeroplane parts, 1.7%
3.Impurities : Less Impurities :
armour plates,
Than 2% (Si, P, negligible Impurities :
gears and drilling
S, Mg) negligible
machines.
Alnico Fe = 60, Ni = 20, Permanent magnets. Properties
Al = 12, 1. Hard, brittle, Soft, tough, Hardness
Co = 8 non-malleable, malleable, depends on the
non-ductile. ductile, does carbon content,
Chrome steel Fe = 98, Cr = 2 Axels, ball
2. Lacks tensile not crack under malleable and
bearings, files and
strength strain. ductile.
cutting tools.
Cannot be welded, Can be welded, Can be welded,
Corrosion of metals : forged,
forged, tempered forged,
Slow destruction of metals due to chemical reactions on or tempered and by tempered and
their surface by oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, sulphur
shaped by hammering while shaped by
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc., of the atmosphere, is hot but has hammering
known as corrosion of metals. hammering
even while hot. less strength than while hot. Has
Due to corrosion, small holes appear on the surface of the steel. maximum
metal and the strength of the metal goes on decreasing. 3. Does not rust
easily. Resists corrosion tensile strength.
Examples of Corrosion: better than pig Ordinary steel
4. Has a low iron. rusts. Hence
(a) Silver articles become black after some time when
melting alloyed.
exposed to air. This is because it reacts with sulphur in Melting point
the air to form a coating of silver sulphide. point (1200°C) around 1500°C. Melting point
(b) Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and ranges between
slowly loses its shiny brown surface and gains a green 1200 – 1500°C.
coat. This green substance is basic copper carbonate.

66 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Titanium:
Rusting
Titanium is a light metal. It has a high melting point and
When iron is exposed to moist air, a reddish-brown coating boiling point. It is highly resistant to corrosion and has a
of a mixture of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and ferric hydroxide high tensile strength, even higher than that of steel. Due to
(Fe(OH)3) is deposited on the surface of the metal. The slow these properties, it has the following uses:
conversion of iron into a mixture of Fe2O3 and Fe(OH)3 by
water and atmospheric oxygen is known as rusting. Both (i) Preparing steel for defence installations (military
water and oxygen are essential for rusting. hardware) marine instruments, aircraft frames. Hence
referred to as a ‘strategic element’.
Prevention of Rusting
(ii) Titanium is used in nuclear reaction.
Iron can be prevented from rusting by the following
ways: (iii) Titanium is used for making strong structures for
construction of buildings.
1. Rusting of iron can be prevented by covering its
surface with paint, grease, enamel, that does not allow Some important metals compounds used in daily life:
air and moisture to come in contact with it and no
Silver Nitrate ( AgNO3): It is also known as lunar caustic
rusting occurs. This is known as barrier protection.
It is colourless, transparent, crystalline solid and soluble
2. Rusting of iron can be prevented by galvanization. in water.
Zinc metal does not corrode on exposure to air. So zinc
Uses:
coating protect iron from rusting. Zinc itself forms a
protective coating of basic zinc carbonate [Zn(OH)2. (i) As laboratory reagent,
ZnCO3].
(ii) In preparation of marking inks,
3. Rusting can be prevented by coating the surface of
iron object with chromium, tin, nickel or aluminium (iii) In photography
by electroplating.
(iv) In silvering of mirror,
4. Rusting can also be prevented by converting it into an
alloy with chromium and nickel. This alloy is called (v) In manufacturing of other salts of silver.
stainless steel. Silver Bromide (AgBr): It is pale yellow coloured
5. Rusting of iron can be prevented by coating it surface crystalline compound, insoluble in water.
with iron (II, III) oxide, Fe3O4. Uses:
6. Rusting is prevented by sacrificial protection. Iron
In photography
pipes beneath the soil are protected by connecting
them to rolls of magnesium (Mg) or Zinc sheets by Potash Alum: (K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3 24H2O)
Sacrificial Protection.
Potash alum is a double salt of aluminum sulphate and
Use of Pure Metals potassium sulphate. It is soluble in water. In potash alum
Zinc: crystalline water is found in large amount, so on heating it
expands in volume.
(i) It is used to galvanise iron to prevent it from rusting.
Uses:
(ii) It is used in making alloys such as brass and bronze.
●● In softening of water.
Iron:
●● Blue Vitrol or copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O) :
It is used as a catalyst in the manufacture of ammonia by
the Haber’s Process. ●● Copper sulphate is also known as blue vitrol. It is blue
Mercury: coloured, crystalline substance. On heating it gradually
releases the crystalline water
It is used in preparing amalgams.
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4.H2O CuSO4 CuO + SO2
Silver and Gold:
Uses:
(i) Both are used in making ornaments and jewellary.
(i) In electroplating
(ii) Both are used in making coins.
Chromium and Nickel: (ii) In electric batteries.

(i) Both these metals are used in electroplating, cycle, (iii) The mixture of CuSO4 and lime is known as bordeaux
motorcycle and other automobile parts. mixture, it is used as fungicide,

(ii) They are mixed with other metals to prepare useful (iv) In dyeing of clothes,
alloys.
(v) In preservation of wood

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 67
 as allotropes of the element This property of elements is
Non-Metals: known as allotropy .
Important properties of Non-metals
Sulphur has two allotropes the crystalline and non
1. Physical State: Either gases or solids at room crystalline.
temperature. (A) Crystalline allotropes: Crystalline sulphur is found in
Exception : Bromine (liquid at room temperature). two allotropic forms.
2. Surface: Non-metals vary in colour with generally dull (i) Rhombic sulphur (insoluble in water but soluble
surfaces. in carbon disulphide) When it is heated at 368.6
K (95.6° C), it is converted into other allotrope,
Exception: Diamond, Crystals of iodine have bright monoclinic sulphur.
lustre.
(ii) Monoclinic sulphur: It is also known as b
3. Conduction: Mostly Poor conductors of heat and (beta) sulphur. Thus it is also known as prismatic
electricity. sulphur. (insoluble in water and soluble in carbon
Exception : Graphite disulphide)
(B) Non crystalline sulphur: This sulphur is found in
4. Hardness: Quite Soft.
three allotropic forms
Exception: Diamond
(i) Plastic sulphur : When boiling sulphur is poured
5. Malleable: Non-malleable and non-ductile. in cold water a soft rubber like substance is
obtained which is known as plastic sulphur.
6. Not Sonorous.
(ii) d (delta) sulphur or milk of sulphur: It is white
7. Very low melting and boiling point as compare to coloured non crystalline sulphur It is used for
metals. preparing medicines.
Exception : Diamond. (iii) Colloidal sulphur: This allotrope of sulphur is
8. Reactivity: They generally form acidic or neutral obtained by passing H2S gas in dilute nitric acid
oxides with oxygen. solution.

Non-Metals: Only 22 nonmetallic elements, of which 11 Use of sulphur:

are gases, one is a liquid and the rest 10 are solids. Non- (i) Sulphur is extensively used for industrial production
mentals are placed on the right-hand side of the periodic of sulphuric acid.
table. (ii) It is used in gun powder and in manufacturing of match
At room temperature, non-metals are either solids or gases, sticks.
except bromine, which is a liquid. Hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (iii) It is used as powerful insecticide.
(N2), oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2) etc., are example of some
gaseous non-metals. Carbon, sulphur (S8), phosphorus (P4), (iv) Sulphur is used in preparation of medicines, sulphur
etc., are solids. They play an important role in our daily containing medicines are useful for skin diseases and
life. blood purification,
(v) It is used in vulcanization of rubber.
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Sulphur is known to man since ancient time. In Sanskrit,
sulphur is known as ‘sulvari’ which means ‘destroyer of Phosphrous is a Greek work meaning phos = light and phero
copper’. This is because it destroys the metallic properties = carry. This implies that phosphorus is an element that
of copper. glows in darkness. Phosphrous was discovered by Brand a
German scientist in 1669. He obtained this element for first
Combined State time by distillation of a mixture of urine, sand and coal.
(a) Sulphates: Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), Epsom salt It is not found in free state in nature because it is highly
(MgSO4.7H2O), Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4.10H2O) reactive. In combined state, it is found in the form of
(b) Sulphides: Cinnabar (HgS), Galena (PbS), Iron pyrites phosphate compounds.
(FeS2), Copper pyrites (CuFeS2), Zinc blend (ZnS). The principal minerals of phosphrous are:
(c) Organic matter: In insulin, glucosionates of plants (i) Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)2
and animals, nature, gas petroleum, crude oil, coal gas,
water springs. (ii) Flourapatite 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2
(iii) Chlorapatite 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaCl2
Allotropes of sulphur
Allotropes of phosphorus:
Allotropes and allotropy: Two or more forms of an
element which have different structure and other physical There are many allotropes of phosphorus, they are as
properties but have same chemical properties are known follows.

68 General Science (General Knowledge)

(i) White or yellow phosphorus, (iii) It is used as freezing agent thus it is also used in
ice factories
(ii) Red phosphorus,
(iv) Used in synthesis of artificial silk.
(iii) Black phosphorus,
(v) Used for producing explosives.
(iv) Violet / purple phosphorus,
(vi) It is useful in removing stains of fats, oils, grease
(v) Dark red phosphorus.
etc. from clothes.
Out of these white, red and black phosphorus are more
(vii) Dilute ammonia is used in medicines and
common.
cosmetics.
Uses of phosphorus:
4. Nitric acid (HNO3):
(i) White phosphorus is used to prepare smoke clouds,
Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent Its main
fire balls, presentation of fire game and to manufacture
industrial applications are as follows.
coloured match sticks.
(i) Nitric acid is used for preparation of ammonium
(ii) Red phosphorus is used to prepare match sticks,
nitrate which is used as fertilizer,
(iii) Red Phosphorus is used to prepare phosphorus bronze
(ii) It is also useful for preparation of other
alloy. This alloy contains copper, tin and phosphorus.
nitrates which are used in explosives and fire
(iv) Compounds of phosphorus like zinc phosphide and crackers. For example - potassium nitrate
calcium phosphide are used to kill rats. (KNO 3), nitroglycerine, trinitrotoluene etc are
explosive.
Some Important Compounds of Non-Metals
(iii) Used for oxidation of rocket fuels.
1. Ozone(O3): Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. A ayer
of ozone is also found in the atmosphere. This layer (iv) Used for manufacturing of dyes, medicines,
prevents the harmful U.V. radiations coming from sun. artificial silk etc.
Thus act as a protective layer. Following are important (v) In purification of gold and silver.
industrial uses of ozone gas.
(vi) Used for manufacturing of sulphuric acid.
(i) In production of artificial silk,
5. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4):
(ii) As bleaching agent.
Main industrial uses are -
(iii) As disinfectant.
(i) manufacturing of hydrochloric acid, nitric acid
(iv) For purifying drinking water. and fertilizers,
(v) Ozone used as disinfectant and also for purifying (ii) purification of petrol,
air.
(iii) In dye industry
(vi) Used for preparation of potassium permangnate.
(iv) In metallurgy for the extraction of metals,
2. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
(v) In batteries.
Its important uses are as follows :
(vi) In electroplating
(i) The oxidizing property is employed in rejuveniling
(re-brightening) of old paintings whose original (vii) In detergent industry
lead coating has turned dirty. Infact sulphuric acid is used in the synthesis of
(ii) Dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide is used as a hundreads of industrial products, thus it is also known
disinfectant for wounds. as king of acids.

(iii) Concentrated H2O2 is used as rocket fuel oxidant. 6. Hydrochloric acid (HCl):

(iv) The main industrial application of it is the Also known as acid of common salt. Its important uses
bleaching of silk, hair, ivory, wool, wood etc are as follows-

(v) It is used in medicine, cosmetics etc. (i) As an important reagent in laboratory

3. Ammonia (NH3): (ii) A Mixture of three part of HCI and one part of
HNO3 is called aquaregia in which metals are
(i) Ammonia is used for manufacturing of nitrogen soluble,
containing fertilizers (like ammonium nitrate,
urea, ammonium phosphate and ammonium (iii) In iron and steel industry.
sulphate) (iv) In textile industry,
(ii) Ammonia is used for manufacturing of nitric acid. (v) In manufacture of gum and dyes,

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 69
 (vi) Manufacturing of chlorine gas which in turn used 8. Silica (SiO2) : [O = Si = O]
to prepare bleaching powder. It is used for the
In nature, silica is found in different forms Sand is
purification of drinking water.
present in nature in abundance which is a form of
(vii) For synthesis of metal and non metal chlorides. silica. It is more useful because of its hardness. Its
main uses are as follows-
7. Ammonium chloride ( NH4Cl):
(i) Silica is used in the manufacturing of glass,
It is commonly known as ‘Nausadar’ Its main uses are
as follows- (ii) Jasper a semi precious stone, a form of silica
(i) Soldering material is prepared by ammonium (iii) Silica form other silicates which arc used in
chloride, it is used for polishing utensils, electrical appliances, chemical laboratory
equipment, optical lenses, prism etc.
(ii) It is used in electric battery,
(iv) Silicon is prepared from silica, which is used in
(iii) Used in colouring clothes,
semi conductor, transistor and alloys,
(iv) Also used as medicine
(v) Kieselguir is an allotrope of silica, is used for
(v) As reagent in laboratory. manufacturing dynamite.

STUDENT'S NOTES

70 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. When a non-metal reacts with chlorine, it forms: 12. SO2 reacts with Cl2 in the presence of sunlight to
(a) an ionic chloride form:
(b) a covalent chloride (a) Sulphuryl chloride
(c) a tetrachloride (b) Sulphonyl chloride
(d) a dichloride (c) Sulphur dioxide
2. Which of the following metals will displace (d) None of these
hydrogen from steam, dilute acids, and alkalies? 13. Sulphur readily dissolves in:
(a) Iron (b) Mercury (a) Water
(c) Zinc (d) Calcium (b) Sodium hydroxide
3. The final acid obtained during the manufacture of (c) Hydrochloric acid
H2SO4 by the contact process is: (d) Carbon disulphide
(a) H2SO4 (conc.) (b) H2SO4 (dil.) 14. In the preparation of vanaspati ghee from an
(c) H2SO4 (aq) (d) H2S2O7 edible oil, the chemical reaction taking place in
the presence of Ni catalyst is called:
4. Cu2S + 2 Cu2O → 6 Cu + SO2 reaction occurs in:
(a) Oxidation (b) Dehydration
(a) Calcination of copper
(c) Hydrogenation (d) Dehydrogenation
(b) Roasting of copper
(c) Smelting of copper 15. Sugar reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to
give the smell of burning sugar. It is due to the
(d) Bessemerisation of copper
formation of:
5. The process employed for the concentration of
(a) CO2 (b) SO2
sulphide ore is:
(c) C (d) Both CO2 and SO2
(a) Froth floatation (b) Roasting
16. When concentrated H2SO4 comes in contact with
(c) Electrolysis (d) Bessemerisation
sugar, it becomes black due to:
6. Zone refining is used for:
(a) Hydrolysis (b) Hydration
(a) Concentration of an ore (c) Decolorization (d) Dehydration
(b) Reduction of metal oxide
17. The important ore of iron is:
(c) Purification of metal
(d) Purification of an ore (a) Siderite (b) Haematite
(c) Pyrites (d) Bauxite
7. Which of the following processes is used for the
concentration of Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O)? 18. Which of the following processes is used in the
extractive metallurgy of magnesium?
(a) Froth floatation (b) Leaching
(c) Liquation (d) Magnetic separation (a) Fused salt electrolysis
(b) Self-reduction
8. In the thermite process, the reducing agent is:
(c) Aqueous solution electrolysis
(a) Nickel (b) Zinc (d) Thermite reduction
(c) Sodium (d) Aluminium
19. The process of electrolysis is used for obtaining
9. The metal always found in the Free State is: such metals that are:
(a) Gold (b) Silver (a) Highly reactive
(c) Copper (d) Sodium (b) Moderately reactive
10. Chemically rust is: (c) Highly unreactive
(a) Hydrated ferrous oxide (d) All types of metals
(b) Hydrated ferric oxide 20. An alloy of zinc and copper is dissolved in dilute
(c) Only ferric oxide hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen as is evolved. In this
(d) None of these evolution of gas:
11. Which is used as a catalyst in Haber’s process? (a) Only zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid
(a) Cr (b) Al (b) Only copper reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid
(c) Ni (d) Fe (c) Both zinc and copper react with dilute

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 71
 (d) Only copper reacts with water (b) Zn > Na > Mg > Fe
21. An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound (c) Na > Mg > Zn > Fe
with a high melting point. This compound is also (d) Mg > Na > Fe > Zn
soluble in water. The element is likely to be: 24. In the laboratory process of hydrogen production,
(a) Calcium (b) Carbon we use impure zinc because:
(c) Silicon (d) Iron (a) Pure zinc is very costly
22. 'Duralumin' is an alloy of aluminum with: (b) There is a risk of explosion with pure
(a) Iron, manganese, and magnesium (c) Impurity in zinc acts as a catalyst
(b) Copper, manganese, and magnesium (d) Pure zinc is not easily available
(c) Copper, chromium, and magnesium 25. The metal that can be obtained by the electrolysis
(d) Iron, nickel, and magnesium of an aqueous solution of its salts is:
23. The reactivities of iron, magnesium, sodium, and (a) Zn (b) Cr
zinc towards water are in the following order: (c) Mg (d) Ca
(a) Fe > Mg > Na > Zn
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c)
16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

72 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

3 Acids, Bases and Salts

Substances with sour taste are regarded as acids. Lemon (ii) Dibasic acids: One molecule of acid gives two
juice, vinegar, grape fruit juice and spoilt milk etc. taste hydronium ions. Examples: H2SO4, H2CO3 etc.
sour since they are acidic. Similarly, substances with bitter
(iii) Tribasic acid: One molecule of acid produces
taste and soapy touch are regarded as bases. Familiar
three hydronium ions. Examples: H3PO4, citric acid
examples of the bases are caustic soda, caustic potash,
(C6H8O7) etc.
slaked lime etc.
(iv) Tetrabasic acid: One molecule of acid produces four
Acids hydronium ions. Example, H4SiO4 , Silicic acid.
The word acid was applied to the substances with ‘sour Some importants Acids:
taste’. Many substances can be identified as acids based on
their taste. But this cannot be the sole criteria for the acidic Acid Formula Uses Sources
character. Name
An acid may be defined as a substance which releases one Lactic C₃H₆O₃ Food Sour milk,
or more H+ ions in aqueous Acid preservation, yogurt,
flavoring, fermented
solution. Acids are mostly obtained from natural sources. skincare foods
Those obtained from rocks and minerals are called mineral
Malic C₄H₆O₅ Flavor enhancer, Apples,
acids while the acids present in animal and plant materials
Acid acidity regulator cherries,
are known as organic acids.
Butyric C₄H₈O₂ Flavoring, Butter, animal
Classification of acids: Acid perfume, fats
On the basis of their source, acids are of two types. pharmaceuticals
Citric C₆H₈O₇ Food additive, Citrus fruits
(i) Mineral acids/inorganic acids: They are generally Acid pH adjustment like lemons,
obtained from minerals or rocks. Examples, oranges, limes
Carbonic H₂CO₃ Blood pH Exists in
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Acid regulation, solution when
Sulphuric acid H2SO4) carbonation CO₂ dissolves
Nitric acid (HNO3) in water
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Tartaric C₄H₆O₆ Food additive, Grapes,
Acid antioxidant certain fruits
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Acetic CH₃COOH Vinegar Vinegar,
(ii) Organic acids: They are generally obtained from
Acid production, food various fruits
plants and animals.
preservation and plants
Examples, Oxalic (COOH)₂ Rust removal, Leafy greens
Acid or C₂H₂O₄ bleaching like spinach,
Formic acid (HCOOH) rhubarb,
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) tomatoes
Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) Formic HCOOH Livestock feed Ant venom,
Citric acid (C6H8O7) Acid preservative, secretions of
pesticide some insects
On the basis of the number of hydronium ions (H3O+)
produced (Basicity) acids can be 3 types. Bases
(i) Monobasic acids: One molecule of acid gives one They can be identified by their bitter taste and soapy touch.
hydronium ion. Examples: HCl, HBr, etc. However, this cannot be the sole criteria in order to identify

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 73
bases. Since many of them like sodium hydroxide and ●● Neutral solutions (e.g., water) have pH of 7
potassium hydroxide have corrosive action on the skin and
●● Alkalis have pH more than 7
can even harm the body.
●● The more alkaline a solution is, higher will be its pH.
A base may be defined as a substance capable of releasing
one or more OH– ions in aqueous solution. Some bases Some flowering plants carry their own built-in pH
like sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are water ‘indicators’. For example, the flowers of a hydrangea bush
soluble. These are known as alkalies. are blue in colour when grown in an acidic soil. If it is
alkaline in nature, the flowers become pink.
Classification of bases:
Importance of pH in everyday life: In general, less the
(a) On the basis of the number of hydroxylions (OH–) pH of a solution, more will be its acidic strength.
produced (acidity) bases are of three types.
Similarly, higher the pH of a solution, more will be its
(i) Mono acidic bases: Produce one hydroxyl (OH–) basic strength.
ion per molecule. Examples: NaOH, KOH, LiOH,
Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living
etc.
organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change.
(ii) Diacidic bases: Examples: Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
Ba(OH)2 etc When acid rain flows into the rivers it lowers the pH of
(iii) Triacidic bases: Example: Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3 etc. the river water. The survival of aquatic life in such a river
becomes difficult.
(b) One the basis of strength, bases are of two types.
The saliva produced in the mouth by salivary glands is of
(i) Strong bases: They undergo complete ionisation alkaline nature. It also partially neutralises the acid present
in aqueous solution. in the mouth.
Examples: NaOH, KOH etc. Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the
digestion of food without harming the stomach. During
(ii) Weak bases: They undergo incomplete ionisation
indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this
in aqueous solution.
causes pain and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people
Examples, Ca(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2 etc. use bases called antacids. These antacids neutralise the
excess acid. A combination of Aluminium Hydroxide and
(c) On the basis of concentration
Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), is often used
(i) Concentrated bases : They contain less water. for this purpose.
(ii) Dilute bases : They contain excess water. The pH of human blood varies between 7.36 to 7.42. It
is maintained by the soluble hydrogen carbonates and
Dilution of acid and base with water: Acids and bases
carbonic acid present in the blood. These are known as
are mostly water soluble and can be diluted by adding
‘buffers’.
the required amount of water. In fact, with the addition of
water, the amount of acid or base per unit volume decreases pH change as the cause of tooth decay
and dilution occurs. The process is generally exothermic
Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than
in nature.
5.5. Tooth enamel, made up of calcium phosphate is the
Whenever a concentrated acid like sulphuric acid or nitric hardest substance in the body. It does not dissolve in water,
acid is to be diluted with water, care must be taken that acid but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
should be added dropwise to water taken in the container Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation
with constant stirring. Heat evolved in this case will be of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth after
quite slow. If water is added to the acid, it will have affinity eating.
for the entire quantity of the acid present. So much heat
The best way to prevent this is to clean the mouth after
will be evolved that the glass container in which dilution
eating food. Using toothpastes, which are generally basic,
is carried will crack. Moreover, the vapours released in the
for cleaning the teeth, can neutralise the excess acid and
atmosphere as fog will cause pollution problems.
prevent tooth decay.
The pH SCALE: An easier way to measure the strength
Ph value of Some common substance:
of an acid or base solution was worked out by the Danish
biochemist S. Sorensen. He was interested in checking the Substance Approximate pH Value
acidity of beer and introduced a scale known as pH scale
HCl (Hydrochloric Acid) <1
(In German ‘p’ stands for ‘potenz’ meaning power). The
scale runs from 0 to 14 and the characteristics of the scale Lemon 2
are: Wine 3–4
●● Acids have pH less than 7 Vinegar 2–3
Beer 4-5
●● The more acidic is a solution, lesser will be its pH
Coffee 5-6

74 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Carbonated Drinks 2-4 represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is
complex.
Milk 6.5 - 6.8
Pure Water 7 (neutral) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
Seawater 8 - 8.3 Uses of Bleaching Powder.
Saliva 6.2 - 7.6 1. Bleaching powder is chiefly used for bleaching cotton
Blood 7.35 - 7.45 and linen textiles, wood and paper pulp. Delicate
Eggs 7-8 articles like silk, wool, straw etc are not bleached by it,
as these are likely to be damaged.
Human Urine 4.5 - 8
Tears 7.4 - 7.6 2. It is a strong disinfectant and is therefore used for
sterilization of water.
Self defence by animals and plants through chemical
3. It is employed for making wool unshrinkable.
warfare
4. It is also used as an oxidizing agent in the manufacture
Bee-sting leaves an acid (methanoic acid also known as
of many chemicals.
formic acid) which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild
base like baking soda on the stung area gives relief. Stinging Bleaching of Cloth with bleaching powder:
hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning The cloth to be bleached is initially treated with a very
pain. You will be surprised to note that the remedy for the dilute solution of sodium hydroxide which removes
same is provided by nature itself. The stung area is rubbed any greasy matter. It is then dipped in bleaching powder
by the leaves of ‘dock plants’ which often grow beside nettle solution followed by dilute hydrochloric solution taken in
plants. Most probably, these plants inject some base or alkali a separate tank. The acid also reacts with bleaching powder
which neutralises the effect of acid and has a soothing effect. to evolve chlorine which bleaches the cloth. In order to
remove the unreacted chlorine, it is then dipped in a dilute
Salts solution of sodium thiosulphate called antichlor.
Salts are the ionic compounds consisting of two parts, An antichlor is a substance which removes the unreacted
one part carrying a positive charge called positive ion or chlorine. The cloth is thoroughly washed with water and
is then dried.
cation and the other part carrying a negative charge called
a negative ion or anion. Baking Soda (NaHCO3):

Some common Salts The soda commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty
crispy pakoras is baking soda. Sometimes it is added for
S.No. Salt Formula Acid Base faster cooking. The chemical name of the compound is
1 Potassium K2SO4 H2SO4 KOH sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3). It is produced using
Sulphate sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
2 Sodium Na2SO4 H2SO4 NaOH Uses:
Sulphate
(i) For making baking powder, which is a mixture of
3 Calcium CaSO4 H2SO4 Ca(OH)2
baking soda (sodium hydrogencarbonate) and a mild
Sulphate
edible acid such as tartaric acid. When baking powder
4 Magnesium MgSO4 H2SO4 Mg(OH)2 is heated or mixed in water, the following reaction
Sulphate takes place
5 Copper CuSO4 H2SO4 Cu(OH)2
Sulphate Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction causes
bread or cake to rise making them soft and spongy.
6 Sodium NaCl HCl NaOH
Chloride (ii) Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also an ingredient in
7 Sodium NaNO3 HNO3 NaOH antacids. Being alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in
Nitrate the stomach and provides relief.
8 Sodium Na2CO3 H2CO3 NaOH (iii) It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
Carbonate
(iv) It is used in medicines. It acts as mild antiseptic for
9 Ammonium NH4Cl HCl NH4OH infections. It is also present as an ingredient in ant-
Chloride acids. Being alkaline it neutralises excess acid in the
Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2): stomach.
It is a calcium salt of hypochlorous acid. It may be Baking Soda as Antacid
represented by CaOCl2 (Calcium Chloro Hypochlorite,
Chloride of lime). The acidity in the stomach is caused due to the formation
of excess hydrochloric acid (HCl). Sodium hydrogen
Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine carbonate (baking soda) reacts with the acid because of its
on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is alkaline nature and neutralises this effect.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 75
Baking soda in fire extinguishers:
Efflorescence
Sodium hydrogen carbonate or baking soda is used in soda
acid fire extinguishers. It is in the form of a conical metallic Certain hydrated crystalline salts when exposed to the
vessel. A strong solution of NaHCO3 is taken in a container. atmosphere lose their water of crystallisation spontaneously
A glass ampoule containing H2SO4 and provided with a and change into amorphous powder.
knob is placed inside the container. When required, the The spontaneous loss of water of crystallisation, wholly
ampoule can be broken by hitting the knob. As a result, the or partly, when crystals with water of crystallisation are
acid will come in contact with sodium hydrogen carbonate. exposed to air is called efflorescence and the substances
The two will react to evolve CO2 gas. When enough exhibiting efflorescence are called efflorescent substances.
pressure gets generated inside the container, the gas pushes
For example:
the water solution which escapes out of the nozzle with
force and extinguishes fire. Washing Soda [Na2CO3 · 10H2O];
(v) Washing Soda (Na2CO3.10H2O): The chemical Glauber’s salt [Na2SO4 · 10H2O]
formula of washing soda is Na2CO3.10H2O.
Blue Vitriol [CuSO4 · 5H2O] and
Anhydrous sodium carbonate is generally called soda
ash. (Na2CO3). Sodium Carbonate is obtained on a Epsom Salt [MgSO4 · 7H2O]
commercial scale by Solvay’s process.
Deliquescence
Uses :
Certain crystalline substances when exposed to atmosphere
(i) Used for washing clothes. absorb moisture and change into solution. The absorption
(ii) Used for softening hard water. of moisture from air by crystals to form a solution is called
deliquescence. Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide,
(iii) Sodium carbonate is used for the manufacture of Calcium chloride etc. are delinquent substances.
detergents.
(iv) Sodium Carbonate is used in paper and paint industry. Hygroscopic substances.
Certain substances absorb water from the atmosphere
Preparation of Plaster of Paris without undergoing change in physical state. Such
Plaster of Paris is obtained by heating gypsum (CaSO4 · substances are known as hygroscopic substances.
2H2O) in a kiln at 373 K (or 100°C). Anhydrous sodium carbonate, anhydrous copper sulphate,
Uses of Plaster of Paris concentrated sulphuric acid are examples of hygroscopic
substances.
It is used for producing moulds for industries such as
pottery, ceramics. On mixing with water it changes into 1. An acid may be defined as a substance which releases
plastic mass and solidifies due to rehydration. This is called H+ ions in an aqueous solution.
the setting of Plaster of Paris. 2. A base may be defined as a substance which releases
1 1 OH– ions in aqueous solution.
CaSO 4 ⋅ H 2 O + H2O → CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2 O
(Plaster of paris) 2 2 (gypsum hard mass) 3. The nature of a solution, whether acidic or basic, can
(water)
be determined with the help of indicators.
1. During the process of setting, it undergoes slight 4. Indicators are organic dyes which may be natural or
expansion (about 1%). Consequently, it produces a synthesised in the laboratory.
very sharp impression of the mould into which it is
put. 5. The common acid-base indicators are phenolphthalein,
methyl orange and litmus.
2. It is used for setting fractured bones in the right
position in the body. 6. The colour of litmus in neutral solution is purple, red
in the acidic solution and blue in the basic solution.
or
7. Phenolphthalein is colourless in neutral and acidic
It is used in hospitals for immobilising the affected solutions and pink in alkaline solution.
part in case of bone fracture or strain.
8. Methyl orange is the neutral solution, red in acidic
3. It is used for making statues, models and other solution and yellow in basic solution.
decorative material.
9. Litmus is extracted from ‘lichen’ , a plant belonging to
4. It is used as a fire proofing material and for making a variety Thallophyta. It is a natural indicator.
chalks.
10. Methyl orange and phenolphthalein indicators are
5. It is used in laboratories for sealing the air gaps in synthesised in the laboratory.
apparatus to make it airtight. It is also used to fill small
gaps on walks & roofs. 11. Onion, Vanilla and clove oil are olfactory indicators.
They give different smells in acidic and basic solutions.

76 General Science (General Knowledge)

12. Dilute acids react with active metals to form metal 25. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. The pH of neutral
salts and evolve hydrogen gas. solution is 7, that of acidic solution is less than this
value and of basic solution is more.
13. Metal oxides react with dilute acids to form salt and
water. 26. Lesser the pH of a solution, more will be its acidic
strength. Similarly, higher the pH of a solution, more
14. Both metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates
will be its basic strength.
evolve carbon-dioxide gas on reacting with dilute
acids. 27. Antacids help in neutralizing acidity caused in the
stomach due to the formation of excessive hydrochloric
15. Basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable H
acid.
atoms present in the acid.
28. Normal salt is formed by the complete neutralization
16. Acidity of a base is the number of replaceable OH
of an acid by a base.
groups present in the base.
29. Acidic salts contain some replaceable hydrogen atoms
17. Metals like zinc, tin and aluminum react with caustic
while basic salts contain some replaceable hydroxyl
alkalies like NaOH or KOH to form metal salts and
groups.
evolve hydrogen gas.
30. Washing soda is chemically hydrated sodium carbonate
18. Upon passing carbon dioxide gas through lime water
(Na2CO3.10H2O)
solution, it initially becomes milky and milkiness
disappears after sometime. 31. Baking powder consists of a mixture of baking soda
(NaHCO3) and tartaric acid (C4H6O6).
19. Relative strengths of acids and bases can be compared
in terms of their degree of dissociation. 32. Bleaching powder is chemically calcium oxychloride
(CaOCl2) and is formed by passing chlorine gas
20. Aqueous solutions of both acid and base conduct
through dry slaked lime.
electricity due to the presence of ions.
33. Chlorine released by bleaching powder helps in
21. Water helps in the dissociation of both acid and base
bleaching clothes.
into ions.
34. The chemical formula of Plaster of Paris is
22. Acid and base react in aqueous solution to form salt and
CaSO4.½H2O.
water. The reaction is known as the neutralisation reaction.
35. Plaster of Paris is used for setting fractured bones.
23. An indicator helps in checking the completion of the
neutralization reaction. 36. Upon heating, hydrated salts lose the molecules of
water of crystallisation either partially or completely
24. The nature of solutions whether neutral, acidic or basic
and may also undergo a change in colour.
are expressed in terms of pH values.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 77
 Exercise

1. What type of acid is H2SO4? (c) Acetic acid (d) Oxalic acid
(a) Monoprotic acid 12. The salt whose aqueous solution turns
(b) Monobasic acid phenolphthalein indicator pink is?
(c) Polyprotic acid (a) KCl (b) K2SO4
(d) Both (a) and (b) are correct (c) K2CO3 (d) KNO3
2. If the pH of a solution is zero, what is the nature 13. LimeStone + Chlorine gas → ?
of the solution? (a) Slaked Lime
(a) Acidic (b) Basic (b) Bleached lime
(c) Neutral (d) Amphoteric (c) Bleaching Powder
3. In which compound does oxygen exhibit a (-1) (d) Gypsum
oxidation state? 14. A colorless gas B is produced when eggshell is
(a) OF2 (b) H2O treated with a solution. The gas B turns lime water
(c) H2O2 (d) HClO milky. What are A and B?
4. What is the nature of methyl oranges? (a) A = NaCl & B = CO2
(a) Acidic (b) Basic (b) A = HCl & B = CO2
(c) Neutral (d) None of these (c) A = NaCl & B = Cl2
(d) A = H2SO4 & B = O2
5. When the pH of the environment of a protein
is changed, causing denaturation, what is the 15. What is the chemical composition of plaster of
primary reason? Paris?
(a) Breakage of peptide bond (a) CaSO4.2H2O
(b) Breakage of disulfide links (b) CaSO4.H2O
(c) Loss of tertiary structure (c) CaSO4½H2O
(d) Breakdown of re-groups (d) CaSO4.3H2O
6. What is aqua regia? 16. An element X reacts with dil H2SO4 as well as
with NaOH to produce salt and H2 (g). Hence it
(a) 1:2 mixture of chromic acid and sulfuric acid
may be concluded that
(b) 1:3 Mixture of conc. HCl and conc. HNO3
(c) 1:3 mixture of conc. HNO3 and conc. HCl (I) X is an electropositive element
(d) 1:1 mixture of conc. H2SO4 and conc. HCl (II) Oxide of X is basic in nature
7. Which gas evolves when metal carbonates and (III) Oxide of X is acidic in nature (IV) X is an
bicarbonates react with acids? electronegative element
(a) O2 (b) CO2 (a) I, II, III (b) IV, I, II
(c) H2 (d) N2 (c) III, IV, I (d) I & II only
8. What is boric acid? 17. Which of the following is not the raw material for
(a) Monobasic and weak Lewis acid manufacturing baking soda?
(b) Monobasic and weak Bronsted acid (a) Common salt (b) Ammonia
(c) Monobasic acid and strong Lewis acid (c) Limestone (d) Slaked lime
(d) Tribasic and weak Bronsted acid 18. The pH of 0.001 N NaOH solution at 25ºC is
9. In I3–, the Lewis base is (a) 3 (b) 4
(a) I2 (b) I2+ (c) 11 (d) 12
(c) I2– (d) I– 19. The pH of blood is
10. Which of the following is not a Lewis acid? (a) 6.4 (b) 7.4
(a) CO (b) SiCl4 (c) 4.7 (d) 6.4
(c) SO3 (d) Zn2+ 20. What is the molecular formula of gypsum?
11. The acid produced in our stomach is (a) CaCO3 (b) CaSO4.2H2O
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Hydrochloric acid (c) CaO (d) Ca (OH) 2

78 General Science (General Knowledge)

21. If the strength of caustic soda solution is 2g/liter, (c) Yellow (d) Colorless
the pH of this solution will be (log2 = 0.30) 24. The toothpaste has ______ medium.
(a) 11.9 (b) 9.7 (a) Acidic medium
(c) 10.8 (d) 12.7 (b) Basic medium
22. The bleaching action of chlorine is due to its (c) Neutral medium
(a) Oxidizing nature (b) Reducing nature (d) May be acidic or basic
(c) Acidic nature (d) All of these 25. If the pH of a solution changes from 4 to 5, the
23. One drop of methyl orange solution when added change in H+ will be
to the solution obtained after electrolysis of a (a) 5 times (b) 10 times
concentrated solution of NaCl with Pt electrodes, (c) 10^(-1) times (d) No change
the color of the solution will turn.
(a) Orange (b) Pink

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 79
 STUDENT'S NOTES

80 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

4 Organic Chemistry

(G) Diamonds are not attacked by acids, alkalis and solvents

Organic Chemistry like water, ether, benzene or carbon tetrachloride.
Carbon is a versatile element that is found in many But diamond is attacked by fluorine when heated to
materials, such as food, cosmetics, furniture, clothes, 750°C. The reaction results in the formation of carbon
medicines, books and more. Moreover, carbon compounds tetrafluoride.
(like fats, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, hormones, C (diamond) + 2F2 → CF4
etc.) form the basis of life for all living beings (such as
humans, animals, birds, insects, plants and so on). Carbon is Carbon Fluorine Carbon tetrafluoride
not very abundant in the earth’s crust or in the atmosphere. Uses of Diamond :
The earth’s crust contains only 0.02% of carbon in the form
of various salts, such as carbonates, bicarbonates, metallic (A) They are used in jewellery because of their ability to
cyanides, as well as coal, petroleum, graphite and others. reflect and refract light.
The earth’s atmosphere has only 0.03% of carbon dioxide. (B) Diamonds are used in cutting glass and drilling rocks.
Allotropy: (C) Diamond has an extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays
and due to this reason, it is used for making high
The property of an element as a result of which it exists
precision thermometers.
in more than one form having different physical but same
chemical properties is called Allotropy. Carbon, Sulphur, (D) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations
phosphorus etc show allotropy. Carbon exists in two and due to this reason it is used for making protective
different allotropic forms: windows for space probes.
(i) Crystalline form. Graphite:
Examples : diamond, graphite and fullerene. Graphite is the other crystalline allotropic form of carbon
(ii) Non - crystalline or Amorphous form. and occurs in a free state in nature. It can also be prepared
artificially by heating a mixture of sand and coke in an
Examples : coal, lampblack and charcoal. electric furnance at about 3300 K.
Diamond: Occurence of graphite:
Diamond is a stunning crystalline form of carbon. It has the Graphite occurs in a free state in nature. It can be prepared
atomic symbol C. The word ‘diamond’ comes from Greek artificially by heating a mixture of sand and coke in an
words diaphanes (meaning clear) and adamas (meaning electric furnance at about 3300 K temperature.
unbreakable or unbeatable) because of its extreme hardness.
The Structure of Graphite:
Properties of Diamond:
Structure: In graphite each carbon atom is linked to three
(A) Diamond is a transparent and colourless solid. other carbon atoms by a single covalent bond resulting in
hexagonal rings which are arranged in a layer. The C-C
(B) Suitably cut and polished diamond sparkles brightly
bond length is 1.42 Å. C-C bond angle is 120°. These
because it reflects most of the light (Refractive index
layers are bonded together by weak Vander Waals force of
of diamond is 2.45).
attraction shown in figure by dotted lines. Distance between
(C) The density of diamond is 3.51 g per cm3 at 20°C. two layers is 3.35 Å.
(D) Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. Only Properties of Graphite :
a diamond can cut another diamond.
(i) Relatively soft and is greasy because of its hexagonal
(E) It is a bad conductor of electricity. layer structure.
(F) Melting point of diamond is 3550 ºC. (ii) Has metallic luster.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 81
(iii) Colour varies from grey to black depending upon the (iv) Fullerenes in small amounts can catalyse the
origin. photochemical refining in industry.
(iv) Is opaque. NOTE:
(v) Density varies from 2.0 to 2.25 gms/cm3. (i) There is another form of crystalline carbon known
as “white” carbon, but not much is known about it.
(vi) Melting point 3730ºC.
Conditions such as temperature and pressure determine
Uses of Graphite : which allotrope of carbon occurs.
(i) Graphite is used to make electrodes for electrolytic (ii) Though non-metallic, graphite possesses a metallic
cells. luster. It is insoluble in ordinary solvent. Graphite is
used in making electrodes in electric furnaces and
(ii) Being soft and greasy, it is used to lubricate the parts
electric ores. It is also used in lead pencils.
of machines.
(iii) Graphite is also used as an industrial lubricant because
(iii) Graphite crucibles can withstand very high
it possesses high melting point. Thus, no change is
temperatures and can be used for melting substances
structure occurs even in if machineries are working
with high melting points.
at high temperatures and graphite there also serves as
(iv) Graphite is also used to moderate the speed of the fast good lubricant.
moving neutrons in nuclear reactors.
(iv) C-60 molecule is a fused-ring of aromatic system
(v) Mixture with wax and clay, graphite is used for making containing
cores of lead pencils as it can mark paper black. It is
20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of C atoms. The five
therefore often called black lead or plumbago.
membered rings are connected to six membered rings
Fullerene: while the six membered rings are fused to both five and six
membered rings.
Fullerenes from another class of carbon allotropes. The
first one to be identified was C-60 which has carbon atoms Versatile Nature of Carbon
arranged in the shape of a football. Since this looked
The number of carbon compounds which are known today
like the geodesic dome designed by the US architect
is approximately three million. This number exceeds the
Buckminster Fuller, the molecule was named fullerene.
total number of compounds formed by all other elements.
Buckminster fullerenes contain 60 carbon atoms arranged
The five main reasons for this are as discussed below:
in round molecules resembling a soccer ball C-60 molecule
has marvelously symmetrical structure. (i) Catenation: The property of self linking of carbon
atoms through covalent bonds from long straight and
●● It has a spherical tomb-like structure.
branched chains and rings of different sizes is called
●● The fullerene was named after the famous American catenation.
architect Buckminster Fuller.
The property of catenation is probably due to:
●● In one molecule of fullerene there are 60, 70 or more
(a) Small size
carbon atoms present.
(b) Great strength of carbon-carbon bonds.
●● C-60 is the most stable fullerene which is also known
as Buckminsterfullerene. Organic Compounds
●● The structure of C-60 has 32 faces in which 20 faces are Compounds like urea, sugar, oils, fats, dyes, proteins,
hexagonal and 12 faces are pentagonal. Its structure is vitamins, hormones etc, which were isolated directly or
similar to football, therefore it is also known as bucky indirectly from living organisms such as animals and plants
ball. are called Organic compounds and the branch of chemistry
●● C-60 is a poor conductor of electricity. The C–C bond which deals with the study of these compounds is called
length is 1.40A. Organic chemistry.
Uses of Fullerene: Compounds like common salt (NaCl) blue vitriol , green
vitriol (FeSO4.7H2O) white vitriol (ZnSO4.7H2O), CaO,
(i) Fullerenes in pure state act as insulators but can be Ca(OH)2 etc. which were isolated from non-living sources
converted to semi-conductors and super conductors such as rocks and minerals are called Inorganic compound
under suitable conditions. and the branch of chemistry which study about those
(ii) Bucky ball’s ability of fullerenes to trap different compounds is called Inorganic chemistry.
atoms or molecules make them useful in the medical Vital Force Theory:
field. For example, radioactive C-60 can be used in
cancer as well as AIDS therapy. According to this theory organic compounds are produced
only under the influence of some mysterious force existing
(iii) Fullerenes help in improving antiwear and antifriction in the living organisms. This mysterious force was called
properties of lubricating oils.

82 General Science (General Knowledge)

the vital force. This theory was proposed by Berzelius in (b) Aromatic Compounds: Aromatic compounds are the
1815.Since such vital force can not be created artificially, cyclic compounds which contain in them one or more
organic compounds cannot be prepared artificially in the hexagonal rings of carbon atoms with three double
laboratory. bonds in the alternate positions. This is known as the
benzene ring.
Rejection of Vital force Theory:
(c) Heterocyclic compounds: Both alicyclic and aromatic
In 1828 Wholer accidentally prepared urea by heating
compounds have rings of carbon atoms only. These
Potassium cyanate and Ammonium sulphate
are therefore, homocyclic in nature. In heterocyclic
Definition of organic compound: compounds, the ring may contain one or more atoms
of either N, O or S etc. as its constituent. These are
All covalent bonded carbon compounds (except oxides
called heteroatoms.
of carbon (CO, CO2), carbonates, bicarbonates, (Metal
Cyanides & carbides) are called organic compounds. Names of some common Organic Compounds:

Hydrocarbons S.No. Organic Trivial Source

Compound Name
Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons and all other compounds may be regarded 1. Methyl Wood spirit Obtained by
to have been derived from them by replacement of one or Alcohol or Methyl destructive
more of their hydrogen atoms by other atom or group of spirit distillation of
atoms. These can be divided into two parts: wood
(a) Saturated Hydrocarbon: Compounds of carbon 2. Urea Urea Obtained from
which have only single bonds between carbon atoms urine
are called saturated compounds. These are also known 3. Methane Marsh gas Produced in
as alkanes. Example- ethane, propane, methane etc. (Fire damp) marshy places
General formula for alkane is CnH2n + 2. 4. Acetic Acid Vinegar Obtained from
Acetum (Vinegar)
(b) Unsaturated Hydrocarbon: Compounds of carbon
which contain one or more double or triple bonds 5. Oxalic Acid Oxalic acid Obtained from
between C-C atoms are called unsaturated compounds. oxalis plant
These compounds can be further divide into two parts: 6. Methanoic Formic acid Found in formicus
Acid (Red ant)
(i) Alkene: If there is at least one double bond
7. Lactic Acid Lactic acid Obtained from
between (C = C) such hydrocarbons are known
sour milk
as alkenes. Examples of alkenes are Ethene
(ethylene), Butene, Propene etc. General formula 8. Malic Acid Malic acid Obtained from
of alkene is CnH2n apples
9. Butyric Acid Butyric acid Obtained from
(ii) Alkyne: If there is at least one triple bond between butter
(CC) such hydrocarbons are known as alkynes.
Examples of alkynes are Ethyne (acetylene), 10. Caproic Acid Caproic Obtained from
Butyne, Propyne etc. Alkynes are represented as acid goats
CnH2n–2 Isomerism:
Open Chain Compound (Acyclic Compounds) and Compounds having the same molecular formula show
closed Chain (Cyclic Compounds) : different physical and chemical properties are called
Open Chain Compounds: The organic compounds in isomers and the phenomenon is called isomerism. The
which the carbon atoms are linked to each other in such a difference in properties of isomers is due to the difference
manner that the molecules having an open chain structure in the relative arrangements of various atoms present in
are called open chain or acyclic or aliphatic compounds. their molecules.
This may be of two types: straight chain and Branched Why Do Substances Burn With Or Without A Flame?
chain compound. We have seen above that a candle or the LPG in the gas
Closed Chain or Cyclic Compounds: Compounds of stove burns with a flame. However, we will observe that the
carbon in, which carbon atoms are arranged in a ring are coal or charcoal in an ‘angithi’ sometimes just glows red
called cyclic compounds. and gives out heat without a flame. This is because a flame
is only produced when gaseous substances burn. When
(a) Alicyclic Compounds : These compounds contain
wood or charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present
rings of three or more carbon atoms and resemble
vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning.
aliphatic compounds in characteristics. For example,
cyclopropane (C3H6) can have the following ring A luminous flame is seen when the atoms of the gaseous
structures which are all basically the same but differ in substance are heated and start to glow. The colour produced
presentation. by each element is a characteristic property of element.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 83
When we heat a copper wire in the flame of a gas stove and prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial
observe its colour. We can see that incomplete combustion use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous
gives soot which is carbon. substances like methanol dyes are also added to colour
the alcohol blue so that it can be identified easily. This
Formation of Coal: is called denatured alcohol.
Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which (v) Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol
has been subjected to various biological and geological causes drunkenness. Even though this practice is
processes. Coal is the remains of trees, ferns, or other condemned, it is a socially widespread practice.
plants that lived millions of years ago. These were crushed However, intake of even a small quantity of pure
into the earth perhaps by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also,
They were pressed down by layers of earth and rock. They long-term consumption of alcohol leads to many
slowly decayed into coal. The process of coal formation is health problems.
known as carbonisation.
Ethanol is a good solvent. It is also used in medicines
Formation of Petroleum: such as tincture of iodine, cough syrups, and many
tonics.
Oil and gasses are the remains of millions of tiny plants and
animals that lived in the sea. When they died, their bodies Alcohol As A Fuel:
sank in the sea bed and were covered by silt. Bacteria Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of
attacked the dead remains, forming them into oil and gas sunlight into chemical energy. Sugarcane juice can be used
under the high pressures they were being subjected to. to prepare molasses which is fermented to give alcohol
Meanwhile, the silt was slowly compressed into rock. The (ethanol). Some countries now use alcohol as an additive
oil and gas seeped into the porous parts of the rock, and got in petrol.
trapped like water in a sponge.
It is a cleaner fuel which gives rise to only carbon dioxide
Ethanol preparation from fermentation of sugar: and water on burning in sufficient air (oxygen). It is known
as Power alcohol.
Fermentation is a process whereby an organic compound is
broken into smaller molecules by enzymes such as yeast. Uses of Ethanol:
Ethanol is prepared by fermentation of molasses. Molasses,
a by product of the sugar industry, has traces of sugar, (i) Ethanol is used for manufacturing of paints, dyes,
which gets broken down into ethanol. The fermentation varnishes.
is initiated by yeast, which secretes two enzymes called (ii) Ethanol is used in medicines especially for disinfecting
invertase and zymase. These enzymes act as catalysts for areas on the skin before giving an injection.It is used
converting sugar into ethanol. The reaction is exothermic for sterilization of syringes in hospitals.
and carbon dioxide is released in the process.
(iii) Ethanol is used for preparation of compounds such as
Molasses is heated to about 20 to 30°C in an airtight chloroform and ether.
container. Yeast is mixed in the molasses. The airtight
container has outlets for removal of carbon dioxide (iv) Ethanol is used for making thermometers that are used
released during the fermentation process. Ethanol and for measuring low temperature.
water vapours that are formed are collected and separated (v) Ethanol is used in spirit lamps.
by fractional distillation.
(vi) Ethanol blended fuel called rectified spirit is used as a
Effect of Alcohol On Living Beings: substitute for fuels in vehicles that are environmental
pollutants. They give off low emissions of carbon
(i) When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends
monoxide gas that is harmful to the environment.
to slow metabolic processes and to depress the central
Ethanol is the main component of alcoholic beverages
nervous system. This results in lack of coordination,
such as rum, whisky and beer.
mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of the normal
inhibitions, and finally stupor. Ethanoic Acid or Acitic Acid or Vinegar:
(ii) The individual may feel relaxed but does not realise 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and
that his sense of judgement, sense of timing, and is used widely as a preservative in pickles. The melting
muscular coordination have been seriously impaired. point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often
freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its
(iii) Intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause
name glacial acetic acid.
death. Methanol is oxidized to methanal in the liver.
Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of cells. Uses : Ethanoic acid or acetic acid is used:
It causes the protoplasm to get coagulated, in much the
(i) as a solvent in industry as well as in laboratory.
same way an egg is coagulated by cooking.
(ii) for making dyes, perfumes and medicines.
(iv) Methanol also affects the optic nerve, causing
blindness. Ethanol is an important industrial solvent. To (iii) for making synthetic vinegar.

84 General Science (General Knowledge)

(iv) for making basic copper acetate [Cu(CH3COO)2 . repulsion. Thus, the dirt suspended in the micelles is also
Cu(OH)2] which is used in green paints. easily rinsed away. The soap micelles are large enough to
scatter light. Hence a soap solution appears cloudy.
(v) for making aluminum acetate [(CH3COO)3 Al] used in
preparing waterproof fabrics. Detergent
(vi) as a laboratory reagent for carrying chemical reactions. Have you ever observed while bathing that foam is formed
with difficulty and an insoluble substance (scum) remains
It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical
after washing with water? This is caused by the reaction
that is used in the production of polyethylene terephthalate
of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts, which
mainly used in soft drink bottles; cellulose acetate, mainly
cause the hardness of water. Hence you need to use a
for photographic film; and polyvinyl acetate for wood
larger amount of soap. This problem is overcome by using
glue, as well as synthetic fibres and fabrics. In households
another class of compounds called detergents as cleansing
diluted acetic acid is often used in descaling agents. In the
agents. Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate
food industry acetic acid is used under the food additive
salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The charged ends of
code E260 as an acidity regulator.
these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with
Soaps and Detergents: the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they
remain effective in hard water. Detergents are usually used
Soaps are sodium or potassium fatty acid salts, produced to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
from the alkaline hydrolysis of fats (higher fatty acids)
in a chemical reaction called saponification. They are Some Important Organic Compounds
of biological origin. Each soap molecule has a long 1. Chloro - Fluoro Carbon Or Freons
hydrocarbon chain, sometimes called its ‘tail’, with a
carboxylate ‘head’. In water, the sodium or potassium ions When a carbon atom forms a compound with chlorine
float free, leaving a negatively-charged head. and fluorine, to complete its valencies, then it is known
as chloro-fluoro carbon or freons.
Use of sodium salt of long chain carboxylic acids (Soap)
as cleaning agent: OR

This Activity demonstrates the effect of soap in cleaning. Polychloro-Fluoro derivatives of alkanes are known as
Most dirt is oily in nature and as we know, oil does not chloro-Fluoro carbon or freons.
dissolve in water. The molecules of soap are sodium or For nomenclature of freons the number of carbon,
potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids. The ionic- hydrogen and fluorine atoms are considered.
end of soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain
dissolves in oil. The soap molecules, thus form structures Example - Freon XYZ
called micelles where one end of the molecules is towards where X = No. of carbon atom present in freon
the oil droplet while the ionic-end faces outside. This forms molecule-1
an emulsion in water. When we rub the cloth dirt particles
with micelle leave the surface of cloth and it becomes clean Y = No. of hydrogen atoms + 1
thus the soap micelle thus helps in dissolving the dirt in Z = No. of fluorine atoms.
water and we can wash our clothes clean.
Molecular X Y Z Name
Micelles: formula
Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have differing CFCl3 0 1 1 Freon – 11
properties, one is hydrophilic, that is, it dissolves in water,
while the other end is hydrophobic, that is, it dissolves in CF2Cl2 0 1 2 Freon – 12
hydrocarbons. C2F2Cl4 1 1 2 Freon – 112
When soap is at the surface of water, the hydrophobic ‘tail’ Freon – 113
C2F3Cl3 1 1 3
of soap will not be soluble in water and the soap will align
Freon – 114
along the surface of water with the ionic end in water and C2F4Cl2 1 1 4
the hydrocarbon ‘tail’ protruding out of water.
Uses:
Effect of soap in cleaning:
(i) Used as refrigerant in refrigerators, air conditioners
Inside water, these molecules have a unique orientation and cold storage.
that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out of the water. This
is achieved by forming clusters of molecules in which the (ii) Used as inert solvent.
hydrophobic tails are in the interior of the cluster and the Note:
ionic ends are on the surface of the cluster. This formation
is called a micelle. Soap in the form of a micelle is able CFC’s are harmful for the ozone layer so now many
to clean, since the oily dirt will be collected in the center countries have banned its use as a freezing agent.
of the micelle. The micelles stay in solution as a colloid 2. Polymers:
and will not come together to precipitate because of ion-ion
Polymers are compounds of high molecular weight

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 85
 which are formed by combination of one or more Uses:
molecules of lower molecular weight. In nature many
It is used in manufacturing of woolen sweaters, bathing
polymer compounds like rubber. starch, cellulose
suits,wool like fibre which forms beds and pillows.
are found which are very important in our daily life
. In addition to these many; polymers are formed (iv) Polymethyl methacrylate: It is prepared by the
artificially, they are known as synthetic polymers i.e. polymerisation of methyl methacrylate.
synthetic fibres, artificial rubber plastic, resin etc.
It is hard and transparent, it is used for making covers
3. Artificial Fibers: of car lights and attractive sign boards.
(A) Nylon 66: It is formed by condensation of units of Uses:
adipic acid (6 carbon atoms) and hexamethylenediamine
Used as lenses, ventilators and glasses for aircraft windows.
(6 carbon atoms) so it is known as Nylon 66.
Polystyrene:
Due to the presence of amide bond this polymer is
known as polyamide polymer. It is obtained by the polymerisation of styrene.
Melting point of nylon is high therefore its fibres Uses:
have high tensile strength, they are insoluble in many Used for making bottle corks, small radio cabinets, spare
solvents. parts of refrigerators, combs, toys, ceramic tiles, cups and
Uses: packing materials.
(i) Used for manufacturing of tyres, clothes fibres, ropes Synthetic Rubber:
brushes etc. Natural rubber is obtained as a liquid form which is known
(ii) For manufacturing of gears and bearings in machines. as rubber latex. It is a polymer of isoprene.
Rayon: In latex acetic acid is mixed to convert it into solid thus
the rubber obtained, is not used to form refined products
It is regenerated cellulose, to manufacture rough paper
because it is high elastic and it has low tensile strength.
(cellulose) is washed with sodium hydroxide, after that it
is dissolved in carbon disulphide (CS2) to obtain solution To increase the efficiency and tensile strength, it is
of cellulose. The solution is passed through fine holes in mixed and heated with sulfur. This process is known as
dilute sulphuric acid by which fine shiny rayon fibres are Vulcanisation. The rubber so obtained, is hard, not elastic
formed and resistant to abrasion.
Uses: Uses:
Used for manufacturing of clothes, threads and carpets etc. Rubber is used in manufacturing of tyres and tubes.
Plastics: During the first world war when supply of natural rubber to
Germany was banned then scientists tried to discover new
Generally plastic are those substances which can be
sources of rubber and they obtained rubber like substance
remolded into various desired shapes. Some important
by the polymerisation of 2, 3 dimethyl 1, 3- butadiene.
plastic polymers are as follows.
For this, 2. 3 dimethyl 1,3 butadiene is exposed to the
(i) Polyethene: Ethene, in the presence of a catalyst, at
atmosphere of CO2 and catalyzed by sodium to form a
high temperature and pressure polymerize to form
rubber like substance which is named as BUNA.
polyethylene.
which indicates Bu = Butadiene
This is flexible and hard plastic.
Na = sodium catalyst
Uses:
From industrial point of view many synthetic rubber are
Used in manufacture of polyethylene bags, mould material,
formed such as
pipes, tubes, bottles etc.
(i) BUNA - S (formed from polymerisation of butadiene
(ii) Polyvinyl chloride ( PVC ): It is obtained by the
and ethylene or styrene)
polymerisation of vinyl chloride.
(ii) BUNA - N (formed from polymerisation of butadiene
Uses:
and nitrile)
P.V.C. is used in the manufacturing of rain coats, bags,
Uses:
shoes, sleepers, hospital bed sheets, toys pipes, insulation
layers, phonogram records etc. Synthetic rubber is used for the manufacturing of house
pipes, oil canes, tyres, tubes, medical equipment, shoe soal
(iii) Orlon: It is prepared from vinyl cyanide. It is also
etc Neoprene rubber is hard so it is used to manufacture
known as polyvinyl cyanide or poly acrylonitrile
gaskets.
(PAN.) or orlon

86 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. What is the property of an element that allows it to (b) Organic chemistry

exist in more than one form with different physical (c) Biochemistry
properties but the same chemical properties? (d) Physical chemistry
(a) Isomerism (b) Allotropy 11. Which of the following is an example of a
(c) Polymerization (d) Catenation saturated hydrocarbon?
2. Which of the following is a crystalline form of (a) Accitline (b) Ethyne
carbon known for its extreme hardness? (c) Ethane (d) Ethanol
(a) Coal (b) Lampblack 12. What is the general formula for alkynes?
(c) Diamond (d) Charcoal
(a) CnH2n (b) CnH2n+2
3. What is the refractive index of diamond that (c) CnH2n–2 (d) CnHn
makes it sparkle brightly when cut and polished?
13. Which of the following is a property of detergents
(a) 1.42 (b) 2.45 that distinguishes them from soap?
(c) 3.51 (d) 3550 ºC
(a) Form insoluble precipitates in hard water
4. Which of the following is a property of graphite? (b) Are ammonium or sulphonate salts
(a) Transparent and colorless (c) Form micelles in water
(b) Excellent conductor of electricity (d) Made from fatty acids
(c) Melting point of 3550 ºC 14. What is the purpose of vulcanization in the rubber
(d) Forms a hexagonal ring structure industry?
5. What is the structure of graphite characterized by? (a) To increase elasticity
(a) Hexagonal rings arranged in layers (b) To decrease tensile strength
(b) Cubic lattice structure (c) To decrease hardness
(c) Linear chain structure (d) To increase hardness and resistance to abrasion
(d) Amorphous arrangement 15. Which synthetic rubber is formed from the
6. Which class of carbon allotropes does fullerene polymerization of butadiene and styrene or
belong to? ethylene?
(a) Crystalline form (a) Neoprene (b) Buna-S
(b) Non-crystalline form (c) Buna-N (d) Butyl rubber
(c) Amorphous form 16. What is the main component of alcoholic
(d) Aromatic compounds beverages such as rum, whisky, and beer?
7. What is the structure of C-60 fullerene often (a) Ethylene (b) Methanol
compared to? (c) Ethanol (d) Butanol
(a) Hexagonal rings (b) Cubic lattice 17. Which of the following is an application of
(c) Football (d) Spherical tomb ethanoic acid (acetic acid)?
8. Which of the following is a use of fullerene? (a) Manufacturing of tires
(a) Used in cutting glass (b) Making dyes and perfumes
(b) Acts as a catalyst in industry (c) Producing synthetic vinegar
(c) Forms the basis of jewelry (d) Water-proofing fabrics
(d) Used for making high precision thermometers 18. What is the process by which milk changes into
curd?
9. What is the main reason for the versatile nature of
carbon? (a) Fermentation (b) Crystallization
(a) Catenation (b) Isomerism (c) Saponification (d) Vulcanization
(c) Allotropy (d) Hydrocarbons 19. Which of the following is not a property of carbon
dioxide?
10. Which branch of chemistry deals with the study of
compounds obtained from living organisms, such (a) Non-flammable
as animals and plants? (b) Supports combustion
(a) Inorganic chemistry (c) Turns lime water milky

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 87
 (d) Odorless and colorless (d) Combustion reactions
20. What is the chemical formula of baking soda? 23. Which of the following is a renewable source of
(a) NaOH (b) Na2CO3 energy?
(c) NaHCO3 (d) NaCl (a) Natural gas (b) Coal
21. Which of the following is a greenhouse gas? (c) Wind (d) Nuclear energy
(a) Oxygen (O2) 24. What is the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
(b) Nitrogen (N2) (a) Absorption of light energy
(c) Carbon dioxide (CO2) (b) Absorption of carbon dioxide
(d) Hydrogen (H2) (c) Release of oxygen
22. What is the primary source of energy in the sun? (d) Breakdown of glucose
(a) Nuclear fusion 25. What is the chemical formula of ozone?
(b) Fission reactions (a) O2 (b) O3
(c) Chemical reactions (c) CO2 (d) N2O

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b)
16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (b)

STUDENT'S NOTES

88 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Periodic
5 Classification

(a) It was based on atomic weight.

Periodic Classification
(b) 63 elements were known at that time.
Before the begining of eighteenth century, only a very
few elements were known and it was quite easy to study (c) Noble gases were not discovered.
and remember their individual properties. However, the (d) He was the first scientist to classify the elements in
situation became difficult with the discovery of large a systematic manner i.e. in horizontal rows and in
number of elements in the later years. At this stage the vertical columns.
scientists felt the need of some simple method to facilitate
the study of the properties of various elements and their (e) Horizontal rows are called periods and there were 7
compounds. After numerous attempts the scientists were periods in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
ultimately successful in arranging the elements in such a (f) Vertical columns are called groups and there were 8
way so that similar elements were grouped together and groups in Mendeleev’s Periodic table.
different elements were separated.
(g) Each group upto VII is divided into A & B subgroups,
In 1817, J.W. Dobereiner, a german scientist made groups ‘A’ sub groups elements are called normal elements
of three elements having similar chemical properties called and ‘B’ subgroups elements are called transition
TRIAD. However Dobereiner could identify only three elements.
triads from the elements known at that time. hence this
system of classification into triads was unsccessful. (h) The VIII group contains 9 elements in three rows
(Transitional metals group)
In 1864, John Alexander Newland, an English chemist
noticed that “when elements are arranged in the increasing (i) The elements belonging to same group exhibit similar
order of their atomic masses every eighth element had properties.
properties similar to first element”. Limitations of Mendeleev’s Classification
It was found that the law of octaves was applicable only 1. Anomalous pairs of elements: While developing
upto calcium, as after calcium every eighth element did not the Periodic Table, there were a few instances where
possess properties similar to that of the first. Mendeleev had to place an element with a slightly
Another attempt was made by Lother Meyer in 1869. greater atomic mass before an element with a slightly
He plotted a curve between Atomic and Atomic Volume lower atomic mass. The sequence was inverted so that
of elements and tried to Group the elements on the basis elements with similar properties could be grouped
of this curve. On the basis of the curve Lother Meyer together. For example, cobalt (atomic mass 58.9)
proposed that the physical properties of the elements are appeared before nickel (atomic mass 58.7).
periodic function of their atomic wt. and this become the 2. Position of Hydrogen: Electronic configuration of
base of Mendeleev’s periodic table. hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals. Like alkali
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was published in a German metals, hydrogen combines with halogens, oxygen and
journal in 1872. In the formula for oxides and hydrides at sulphur to form compounds having similar formulae.
the top of the columns, the letter R is used to represent any On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen also
of the elements in the group. Note the way formulae are exists as diatomic molecules and it combines with
written. For example, the hydride of carbon, CH4 is written metals and non-metals to form covalent compounds.
as RH4 and the oxide CO2 as RO2.
3. Position of Isotopes: Isotopes of elements were placed
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: in the same position in the table though according to
their atomic weights, they should have been placed in
The physical and chemical properties of elements are the different position.
periodic function of their atomic weight.
4. Separation of similar but grouping of certain dissimilar
Characteristic of Mendeleev’s periodic table. elements

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 89
The modern periodic table: 6. Mercury (Atomic number: 80) Mercury is the
only metal that is liquid at room temperature. It is
In 1913, the English Physicist Henry Moseley studied the
used in thermometers because it has a large thermal
X-ray spectra of many elements. He observed that a plot
expansion which is constant over a large temperature
(where v is the frequency of the X-rays emitted) against
range.
atomic number (Z) gave a straight line. He proposed that
atomic number is a more fundamental property of an 7. Density: The element with the lowest density is
element than its atomic weight. This observation led to Hydrogen with a density of 0.09 g/cm³. The element
the development of modern periodic law and the modern with the highest density is Osmium with a density of
periodic law can be stated as follows: 22.61 g/cm³.
Properties of elements are a periodic function of their 8. Hardness: The hardest pure element is Carbon in the
atomic number. form of a diamond. Boron has a hard allotrope with
a Mohs hardness of 9.53. Chromium has a Mohs
What is Periodicity
hardness of 8.53.
The recurrence of properties of the elements, after a certain
9. Melting Point: The element with the lowest melting
regular intervals, when they are arranged in the increasing
point is Helium4. The element with the highest melting
order of their atomic numbers, is called periodicity.
point is Tungsten.
Long form of periodic table :
10. Boiling Point: The element with the lowest boiling
Groups: The 18 vertical columns are called groups. The point is Helium. The elements with the highest boiling
elements belonging to a particular group is known as a points are Rhenium and Tungsten.
family and is usually named after the first number. Apart
from this some of the groups are given typical name. Unique uses and properties of Group-I elements:

(i) Elements of group 1 are called ALKALI METALS. 1. Lithium (Li)Distinctive Property: Lithium is
recognized for being the lightest metal and the least
(ii) Elements of group 2 are called ALKALINE EARTH dense solid element, which has about half the density
metals. of water.
(iii) Elements of group 15 are called PNICTOGENS.
● Applications: Lithium finds its use in the creation
Means choking to system due to toxicity.
of anodes in many non-rechargeable batteries.
(iv) Elements of group 16 are called CHALCOGENS. The lightweight lithium-magnesium alloys are
(v) Elements of group 17 are called HALOGENS. utilized in the production of armor platings and
lithium-aluminum alloys are employed in the
(vi) Elements of group 18 are called NOBLE GASES OR manufacturing of airplane parts, high-speed
AEROGENS. train components, and also in the construction of
Some elements with unique properties in the periodic bicycle frames.
table:
2. Sodium (Na)
1. Krypton (Atomic number: 36) Krypton derives from
the Greek ‘kryptos’, which means ‘hidden’. During ● Distinctive Property: Sodium is a soft, silvery-
the Cold War, its radioactive isotope Kr-85 was used white, metal that leads group 1, the alkali metals
to estimate how quickly the Russian government was group, of the periodic table of the elements. It
building nuclear weapons. reacts vigorously with water.

2. Curium (Atomic number: 96) Curium, named after ● Applications: Sodium is employed in heat transfer
the double Nobel laureate Marie Curie and her husband applications. It serves as an alloying agent, is
Pierre, was discovered in 1944. Curium is made by used in the synthesis of organic compounds,
bombarding plutonium with helium ions and makes and is added to glasses and ceramics. Its high
this list because its compounds glow in the dark. electrochemical potential makes it useful for
battery anodes.
3. Antimony (Atomic number: 51) Antimony has been
used for thousands of years and is even mentioned in 3. Potassium (K)
the Qur’an. Its first known use was quite glamorous, as ● Distinctive Property: Potassium is the second
it was used by the Ancient Egyptians in their eyeliner most reactive metal and is very soft, with a
and mascara, in order to make it black. silvery-white lustre.
4. Copernicium (Atomic number: 112) Copernicium
● Applications: Potassium is used to create purple
was discovered fairly recently, in 1996. The thing that
colored fireworks. It is employed in the creation
makes this metal so ‘metal’ though, is that it turns into
of thermoelectric generators. Potassium is used
a gas at room temperature.
in the production of photocells, oscillators and
5. Bismuth (Atomic number: 83) Its compound bismuth vacuum tubes.
subsalicylate is also the main active ingredient in
4. Rubidium (Rb)
Pepto-Bismol.

90 General Science (General Knowledge)

 ● Distinctive Property: Rubidium is one of the to remove oxygen, sulfur, and carbon from alloys.
alkali metals and it can combine with anions Calcium from limestone is a vital component of
to from salts. It is very reactive and is rapidly Portland cement.
oxidized when exposed to air forming rubidium
4. Strontium (Sr)
peroxide.
● Special Property: Strontium is used in fireworks
● Applications: Rubidium salts are used to impart a
and flares for its ability to burn with a bright red
purple hue to glassware, ceramics, and fireworks.
light.
Potential applications include ion engines for
space vehicles, vapor turbine working fluid, and ● Applications: Strontium chloride hexahydrate is
vacuum tube getters. used in toothpaste for sensitive teeth. Strontium
titanate is used in gemstones due to its high
5. Cesium (Cs)
refractive index. Strontium aluminate is used in
● Distinctive Property: Cesium is the most toys that glow in the dark.
electropositive and most alkaline element, and
5. Barium (Ba)
thus, reacts explosively with water.
● Special Property: Barium is used in metallurgy.
● Applications: Cesium is used in photoelectric
cells as well as photomultiplier tubes. The ● Applications: Its compounds are used in
compounds of cesium are used as drilling fluids in pyrotechnics, petroleum production, and
petroleum industries. Cesium compounds are also radiology. It’s used as a ‘getter’ in vacuum tubes.
used in making special optical glasses. Its compounds are used in pigments, paints,
glassmaking, as weighting compounds, in the
6. Francium (Fr)
manufacture of rubber, in rat poison, and in
● Distinctive Property: Francium is the second pyrotechnics.
rarest naturally occurring element (after astatine),
6. Radium (Ra)
and is the heaviest known alkali metal.
● Special Property: Radium is used in self-
● Applications: Francium is utilized in the synthesis
luminous paints for watches, nuclear panels,
of superheavy elements in particle accelerators. It
aircraft switches, clocks, and instrument dials.
serves as a precursor to create heavier elements
through nuclear reactions, expanding our ● Applications: It’s used as an additive in products
knowledge of the periodic table. like toothpaste, hair cream, and even food items.
It’s used in medicine to produce radon gas, which
Unique uses of Group-II elements.
is used as a cancer treatment. Radium aluminate is
1. Beryllium (Be) used in toys that glow in the dark.
● Special Property: Beryllium is known for its use Group-III Elements:
in the creation of semiconductor devices.
1. Scandium (Sc)
● Applications: It’s used in the production of
● Unique Property: Scandium is known for its use
radio equipment and engines. It’s also used in the
in high-intensity lamps.
creation of windows for X-ray tubes and in the
fabrication of gyroscopes, computer parts, and ● Applications: It’s used in the production of
accelerometers. radio equipment and engines. It’s also used in the
creation of windows for X-ray tubes and in the
2. Magnesium (Mg)
fabrication of gyroscopes, computer parts, and
● Special Property: Magnesium is used in accelerometers.
medicine to treat various conditions including
2. Yttrium (Y)
skin problems, anxiety, and recovery after surgery.
● Unique Property: Yttrium is used in the
● Applications: It’s used in the production of other
production of synthetic garments and yttrium iron
metals such as uranium and thorium. It’s also used
garments.
in the creation of alloys with aluminum, beryllium,
copper, lead, and magnesium. It’s used in some ● Applications: It acts as a solid electrolyte and as an
firestarters to produce sparks when rubbed with oxygen sensor in automobile exhaust systems. It’s
steel. also used in the manufacture of superconductors.
3. Calcium (Ca) 3. Lanthanum (La)
● Special Property: Calcium is used in metallurgy ● Unique Property: Lanthanum is used in
as a hardening agent. alloys such as zircaloy which is used in nuclear
applications since it does not readily absorb
● Applications: It’s used in the production of other
neutrons.
metals such as uranium and thorium. It’s also used

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 91
 ● Applications: It’s used in high-performance 4. Dubnium (Db)
pumps and valves.
● Unique Property: Due to its scarcity and very
4. Actinium (Ac) short half-life, it has no significant practical
applications. However, scientists continue to
● Unique Property: Actinium is used in the
study it to gain a better understanding of the
production of neutrons.
behavior of heavy elements and nuclear physics.
● Applications: It’s used in treatment of cancer.
Group-6 Elements:
Group-IV Elements:
1. Chromium (Cr)
1. Titanium (Ti)
● Unique Property: Chromium is used to harden
● Unique Property: Titanium is used in alloys in steel, to manufacture stainless steel, and to form
filaments and electrodes. alloys used in plating to produce a hard, beautiful
surface and to prevent corrosion.
● Applications: It’s used in high-performance
pumps and valves. It’s also used in different ● Applications: It’s used in high-performance
medical applications including surgical pumps and valves. It’s also used in different
implements and implants. medical applications including surgical
implements and implants.
2. Zirconium (Zr)
2. Molybdenum (Mo)
● Unique Property: Zirconium is used in alloys such
as zircaloy which is used in nuclear applications ● Unique Property: Molybdenum is one of the
since it does not readily absorb neutrons. greatest alloying agents as it improves the strength
of steel at high temperatures and is applied for use
● Applications: It’s used in high-performance
in engines.
pumps and valves.
● Applications: It is even used as a fertilizer for
3. Hafnium (Hf)
some plants like cauliflower which is known to
● Unique Property: Hafnium is used in reactor have Molybdenum deficiency.
control rods because of its ability to absorb neutrons.
3. Tungsten (W)
● Applications: It’s used as an alloying element
● Unique Property: Tungsten is used in
with other metals like iron, titanium, niobium, etc
superconducting magnets and since tungsten
to get the improved properties.
alloys are heat-resistant, they are used in space
Group-5 Elements: rocket nozzels.
1. Vanadium (V) ● Applications: It is also used in electronics, optics,
● Unique Property: Vanadium is known for its and welding.
use in vanadium steel for tools, armor, nuclear Group-7 Elements:
reactors, and springs.
1. Manganese (Mn)
● Applications: Vanadium oxide colors ceramics
● Unique Property: Manganese is primarily
golden. Some vanadium compounds are important
utilized as a catalyst in the creation of fertilizers,
catalysts.
pharmaceuticals, and petrochemicals. It also finds
2. Niobium (Nb) its use in the fabrication of electrical contacts due
● Unique Property: Niobium is added to stainless to its low electrical resistance and high corrosion
steel. Its alloys exhibit high corrosion resistance. resistance.

● Applications: Niobium is used to increase the 2. Technetium (Tc)

refractive index of glass. This allows optical ● Unique Property: Technetium’s radioactive
corrective glasses to be made with lighter and properties make it an invaluable instrument for
thinner lenses. studying nuclear reactions and atomic structures.
3. Tantalum (Ta) It can be employed in medical imaging and cancer
treatment.
● Unique Property: Tantalum is used to make high
power resistors in electrical devices. 3. Rhenium (Re)

● Applications: Tantalum is used to make various ● Unique Property: Rhenium is utilized as an

alloys to enhance strength, melting points, boiling alloying metal which enhances the corrosion
point and ductility of the metals. Super alloys resistance property. It is added to platinum and
of tantalum are used to make nuclear reactors, palladium to harden them. Rhenium-molybdenum
components of jet engine and missile parts. alloy behaves as a superconductor at a temperature
of 10.6 K.

92 General Science (General Knowledge)

4. Bohrium (Bh) ● Applications: It’s used in high-performance
pumps and valves. It’s also used in different
● Unique Property: Bohrium is primarily
medical applications including surgical
employed for scientific research. Its radioactive
implements and implants.
properties make it an invaluable instrument for
studying nuclear reactions and atomic structures. 3. Platinum (Pt)
Group-8 Elements: ● Unique Property: Platinum is used for electrical
contacts and sparking points because it resists
1. Iron (Fe)
both the high temperatures and chemical attack of
● Unique Property: Iron is the most-used and electric arcs.
cheapest metal. It is employed in the production
● Applications: Jewelry and dental alloys account
of steel, which is used in buildings, vehicles, and
for much of its use; platinum-iridium is used for
various types of machinery.
surgical pins.
2. Ruthenium (Ru)
4. Darmstadtium (Ds)
● Unique Property: Ruthenium is used as an
● Unique Property: Darmstadtium is a synthetic
alloying element with other metals to harden them.
element that is mainly used for research purposes.
It is also employed in the production of electrical
contacts and in making fountain pen tips. Group-11 Elements:
3. Osmium (Os) 1. Copper (Cu)
● Unique Property: Osmium is used as an alloying ● Unique Property: Copper is used as a conductor
element with other metals to harden them. Alloys of heat and electricity, as a building material, and
of osmium are also used for electrical contacts as as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as
well as in making fountain pen tips. sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to
make marine hardware and coins, and constantan
Group-9 Elements:
used in strain gauges and thermocouples for
1. Cobalt (Co) temperature measurement.
● Unique Property: Cobalt is employed in the ● Applications: It’s used in high-performance
production of superalloys that are used in jet pumps and valves. It’s also used in different
engines and gas turbines. It is also used in the medical applications including surgical
fabrication of magnetic alloys. implements and implants.
2. Rhodium (Rh) 2. Silver (Ag)
● Unique Property: Rhodium is used as a catalyst ● Unique Property: Silver is used to make mirrors,
in the automotive industry for the reduction batteries, and electronics, among other things.
of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and
● Applications: It is also woven into fabrics to
hydrocarbons in exhaust gases.
prevent bacteria from building up.
3. Iridium (Ir)
3. Gold (Au)
● Unique Property: Iridium is employed in making
● Unique Property: Gold is used in jewelry,
crucibles and other equipment that is used at high
coinage, and as a standard for monetary exchange
temperatures. It is also used in electrical contacts.
in many countries.
Group-10 Elements:
● Applications: It is also used in the manufacture of
1. Nickel (Ni) jewelry and in electronics because of its excellent
conductivity.
● Unique Property: Nickel is recognized for its
excellent conductivity of heat and electricity. It Group-12 Elements:
is employed in the creation of strong permanent
1. Zinc (Zn)
magnets.
● Unique Property: Zinc is used for galvanizing
● Applications: It is also highly resistant to alkalis
iron, as an anti-corrosion agent.
and is utilized to store and transport concentrated
sodium and potassium hydroxide. ● Applications: It is also used in batteries, and as an
alloy with copper to create brass.
2. Palladium (Pd)
2. Cadmium (Cd)
● Unique Property: Palladium is used in catalytic
converters, laboratory equipment, electrical ● Unique Property: Cadmium is used in batteries,
contacts and electrodes, platinum resistance pigments, coatings and platings, stabilizers for
thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. plastics, and nonferrous alloys.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 93
 ● Applications: It’s used in high-performance 5. Thallium (Tl)
pumps and valves. It’s also used in different
● Distinctive Property: Thallium is used in
medical applications including surgical
fireworks and flares for its ability to burn with a
implements and implants.
bright red light.
3. Mercury (Hg)
● Applications: Strontium chloride hexahydrate is
● Unique Property: Mercury is used in used in toothpaste for sensitive teeth. Strontium
thermometers, barometers, manometers, titanate is used in gemstones due to its high
sphygmomanometers, float valves, mercury refractive index. Strontium aluminate is used in
switches, and other devices. toys that glow in the dark.
● Applications: It is also used in lighting: electricity Group-14 Elements:
passed through mercury vapor in a phosphor tube
produces short-wave ultraviolet light, which then 1. Carbon (C)
causes the phosphor to fluoresce, making visible ● Distinctive Property: Carbon is unique among
light. the elements in its ability to form strongly bonded
Group-13 Elements: chains sealed off by hydrogen atoms.

1. Boron (B) ● Applications: These hydrocarbons are mostly

used as fuels and feedstock for producing
● Distinctive Property: Boron has the ability polymers, fibers, paints, solvents, plastics, etc.
to form a variety of complexes like [BF4]–. It Impure carbon in the form of charcoal (from
possesses sp3 hybridized orbitals and exhibits wood) and coke (from coal) is used in metal
tetrahedral geometry. smelting.
● Applications: It’s employed in the creation of
2. Silicon (Si)
other metals such as uranium and thorium. It’s also
utilized in the formation of alloys with aluminum, ● Distinctive Property: Silicon is used in the
beryllium, copper, lead, and magnesium. It’s production of synthetic garments and silicon iron
used in some firestarters to produce sparks when garments.
rubbed with steel.
● Applications: It acts as a solid electrolyte and as an
2. Aluminium (Al) oxygen sensor in automobile exhaust systems. It’s
also used in the manufacture of superconductors.
● Distinctive Property: Aluminium is recognized
for its use in the creation of semiconductor 3. Germanium (Ge)
devices.
● Distinctive Property: Germanium is used as
● Applications: It’s employed in the production of an alloying metal which improves the corrosion
radio equipment and engines. It’s also utilized in resistance property. It is added to platinum and
the creation of windows for X-ray tubes and in palladium to make them hard.
the fabrication of gyroscopes, computer parts, and
accelerometers. ● Applications: Germanium-molybdenum alloy
behaves as a superconductor at a temperature of
3. Gallium (Ga) 10.6 K.
● Distinctive Property: Gallium is used in 4. Tin (Sn)
medicine to treat various conditions including
skin problems, anxiety, and recovery after surgery. ● Distinctive Property: Tin is used in the production
of neutrons.
● Applications: It’s employed in the production of
other metals such as uranium and thorium. It’s also ● Applications: It’s used in treatment of cancer.
utilized in the creation of alloys with aluminum, 5. Lead (Pb)
beryllium, copper, lead, and magnesium. It’s
used in some firestarters to produce sparks when ● Distinctive Property: Lead is used in the
rubbed with steel. production of superalloys that are used in jet
engines and gas turbines.
4. Indium (In)
● Applications: It is also used in the manufacture of
● Distinctive Property: Indium is used in
magnetic alloys.
metallurgy as a hardening agent.
Group-15 Elements:
● Applications: It’s employed in the production of
other metals such as uranium and thorium. It’s 1. Nitrogen (N)
also used to remove oxygen, sulfur, and carbon
from alloys. Calcium from limestone is a vital ● Distinctive Property: Nitrogen is important to
component of Portland cement. the chemical industry.

94 General Science (General Knowledge)

 ● Applications: It is used to make fertilizers, nitric temperature plastics. It’s essential for combustion
acid, nylon, dyes and explosives. To make these and is used in metallurgy. It’s used in making
products, nitrogen must first be reacted with oxyacetylene for welding and as an oxidant
hydrogen to produce ammonia. in rocket propellant. It’s used in purification
processes of various metals. At high levels, it acts
Phosphorus (P)
as a toxic gas.
● Unique Property: Phosphorus is capable of
Sulfur (S):
forming a wide range of complexes. It has a
structure that is similar to black phosphorus and ● Distinctive Property: Sulfur is used in
its electronegativity and ionization energies are making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water
comparable to those of arsenic. purification compounds, dyes, medicines,
sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography,
● Applications: Phosphorus is primarily utilized in
etc.
the formation of bones and teeth. It is also found
in a variety of products such as baking powder, ● Applications: Sulfur is used in the glassmaking
fertilizers, and fireworks. It plays a crucial role in the industry. It’s used in the rubber industry to make
production of steel. Phosphates are also used in the rubber resistant to abrasion. It’s used in the
production of fine chinaware and special glasses. stainless steel industry. It’s used in many heat-
stable pigments. It’s used in the production of
2. Arsenic (As)
hydrogen selenide.
● Unique Property: Arsenic is used as an alloying
Selenium (Se):
metal which enhances the corrosion resistance
property. It is added to platinum and palladium to ● Distinctive Property: Selenium is used in
harden them. photocopiers and laser printers. It’s used for
improving the qualities of copper and steel.
● Applications: Arsenic is used in the production of
other metals such as uranium and thorium. It’s also ● Applications: Selenium is used in the
utilized in the creation of alloys with aluminum, manufacturing of solar batteries and quantum dots.
beryllium, copper, lead, and magnesium. It’s It’s used for the generation of Cadmium red, a dye
used in some firestarters to produce sparks when for glass and plastics. It’s used in the glassmaking
rubbed with steel. industry. It’s used in the rubber industry. It’s used
in the stainless steel industry. It’s used in many
3. Antimony (Sb)
heat-stable pigments.
● Unique Property: Antimony is used as an
Tellurium (Te):
alloying metal with lead to form a harder and
more durable metal. ● Distinctive Property: Tellurium is used in
making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water
● Applications: Antimony is used in producing
purification compounds, dyes, medicines,
malleable irons and is finding use as a catalyst for
sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography,
making acrylic fibers.
etc. It improves the machinability of copper and
4. Bismuth (Bi) stainless steel.
● Unique Property: Bismuth is used in the ● Applications: Tellurium is used as a basic
production of superalloys that are used in jet ingredient in blasting caps. It’s added to cast iron
engines and gas turbines. for chill control. It’s used in ceramics.
● Applications: Bismuth is used to make Polonium (Po):
flame retardant compounds. It is also used
● Distinctive Property: Polonium is used for
in the manufacture of a few special types of
treating diseases related to the thyroid. The isotope
semiconductor devices.
called Astatine-211 is utilized in the process of
Group 16 Elements: radiotherapy.
Oxygen (O): ● Applications: Polonium is employed in the
treatment of cancer as it is known to destroy
● Distinctive Property: Oxygen is used in the
cancer-causing cells.
nuclear power industry to produce uranium
hexafluoride for separating uranium isotopes. Group 17 Elements:
It’s also used in making sulfur hexafluoride,
Fluorine (F):
the insulating gas for high-power electricity
transformers. ● Distinctive Property: Fluorine is used for
manufacturing uranium hexafluoride which is
● Applications: Oxygen is used in many
needed in the nuclear power industry to separate
fluorochemicals, including solvents and high-
uranium isotopes.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 95
 ● Applications: Fluorine is used in the production in balloons and airships due to its light weight.
of aluminum, dye, ceramics, and fluorochemicals It is used in maintaining a protective atmosphere
such as solvents and superplastics. It’s used in the such as in the welding process and in cooling
extraction of bromine. It’s used in the production satellite instruments and space vehicles.
of textiles, paper products, dyes, petroleum
● Properties: It is the second lightest element, after
products, medicines, insecticides, disinfectants,
hydrogen. It has the lowest boiling and freezing
foods, solvents, plastics, paints, and many other
point of all elements. It exhibits the property of
products.
superfluidity at near-zero temperature and is
Chlorine (Cl): chemically inert under normal conditions.
● Distinctive Property: Chlorine is used for 2. Neon (Ne):
disinfecting drinking water. It’s used in the
● Uses: Neon is used in the creation of neon signs
production of textiles, paper products, dyes,
for advertising. It is used in lasers, lightning
petroleum products, medicines, insecticides,
arresters on power lines and telephone poles, and
disinfectants, foods, solvents, plastics, paints, and
in cryogenic refrigerants.
many other products.
● Properties: It is a noble gas that is chemically
● Applications: Chlorine is used to manufacture
inert and does not form compounds with other
chlorates, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
elements.
and in the extraction of bromine. It’s used in
making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water 3. Argon (Ar):
purification compounds, dyes, medicines,
● Uses: Argon is used in the food industry for wine
sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography,
storage and chip packet storage. It is used in the
etc.
industrial sector for argon plasma torch and as
Bromine (Br): a shield gas in the welding process. It is used in
scientific research for tracking air masses.
● Distinctive Property: Bromine is used in
making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water ● Properties: It is a noble gas that is chemically
purification compounds, dyes, medicines, inert and is denser than air.
sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography,
4. Krypton (Kr):
etc.
● Uses: Krypton is used in flash lamps, stroboscopic
● Applications: Bromine is used in the glass
lamps, and photographic flashes. It is used in
industry to make ruby-red colored glasses and
lasers and in double glazed windows as a thermal
enamels and to decolorize glass.
insulation.
Iodine (I):
● Properties: It is a noble gas that is chemically
● Distinctive Property: Iodine is used for treating inert and is about three times heavier than air.
diseases related to the thyroid.
5. Xenon (Xe):
● Applications: Iodine is employed in the treatment
● Uses: Xenon is used in flash lamps called Xenon
of cancer as it is known to destroy cancer-causing
flash lamps. It is used in medicine as a natural
cells.
anaesthetic. It is used to measure the flow of blood
Astatine (At): and also used to image the brain, heart, and lungs.
● Distinctive Property: Astatine is used for treating ● Properties: It is a noble gas that is chemically
diseases related to the thyroid. The isotope inert. It is the most expensive and most dense of
called Astatine-211 is utilized in the process of all the gases.
radiotherapy.
6. Radon (Rn):
● Applications: Astatine is employed in the
● Uses: Radon is used in radiotherapy. It is used
treatment of cancer as it is known to destroy
to track air masses to a limited level. Changes
cancer-causing cells.
in groundwater radon concentrations help in the
Group-18 Elements: prediction of earthquakes.
1. Helium (He): ● Properties: It is a noble gas that is chemically
inert and is highly radioactive.
● Uses: Helium is utilized in cryogenics, various
commercial and scientific applications. It is filled

96 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. Who proposed the concept of Triads in the (c) Noble Gases (d) Pnictogens
classification of elements? 10. Which element has the lowest density among the
(a) John Newland (b) J.W. Dobereiner elements mentioned?
(c) Lothar Meyer (d) Dmitri Mendeleev (a) Osmium (b) Hydrogen
2. What did John Newland observe about the (c) Mercury (d) Helium
arrangement of elements based on their atomic 11. What is the unique property of Krypton (Atomic
masses? number: 36)?
(a) Elements arranged in groups of eight (a) Liquid at room temperature
(b) Elements arranged in groups of three (b) Glows in the dark
(c) Elements arranged in groups of ten (c) Used in nuclear reactors
(d) Elements arranged in groups of five (d) Used in superconductors
3. What is the basis of Lother Meyer's attempt to 12. What is the primary use of Curium (Atomic
classify elements in 1869? number: 96)?
(a) Atomic mass and atomic volume (a) Production of superalloys
(b) Atomic number (b) Cancer treatment
(c) Electron configuration (c) Estimating nuclear weapon development
(d) Density and melting point (d) Making gemstones
4. Mendeleev's Periodic Law is based on which 13. In the periodic table, which element is known for
parameter? its use in eyeliner and mascara by the Ancient
(a) Atomic mass Egyptians?
(b) Atomic number (a) Antimony (Atomic number: 51)
(c) Electron configuration (b) Bismuth (Atomic number: 83)
(d) Melting point (c) Mercury (Atomic number: 80)
5. How many periods were there in Mendeleev's (d) Titanium (Atomic number: 22)
periodic table? 14. Which element is known for turning into a gas at
(a) 5 (b) 6 room temperature?
(c) 7 (d) 8 (a) Copernicium (Atomic number: 112)
6. What is the main limitation of Mendeleev's (b) Francium (Atomic number: 87)
classification regarding the position of elements? (c) Curium (Atomic number: 96)
(a) Anomalous pairs of elements (d) Dubnium (Atomic number: 105)
(b) Position of hydrogen 15. Which element has the highest density among the
(c) Position of isotopes elements?
(d) Separation of similar elements (a) Helium (b) Osmium
7. According to the modern periodic law, what is the (c) Tungsten (d) Mercury
fundamental property of elements? 16. What is the distinctive property of Group-I
(a) Atomic mass elements (e.g., Lithium, Sodium)?
(b) Atomic number (a) Most reactive non-metals
(c) Electron configuration (b) Noble gases
(d) Density (c) Alkali Metals
8. How many groups are there in the long form of (d) Transition elements
the periodic table? 17. Which Group-II element is used in medicine to
(a) 16 (b) 18 treat various conditions, including skin problems
(c) 20 (d) 25 and anxiety?
9. What is the distinctive name for Group 1 elements (a) Beryllium (b) Magnesium
in the periodic table? (c) Calcium (d) Strontium
(a) Halogens (b) Alkali Metals 18. What is the unique property of Strontium (Sr) that
makes it useful in toothpaste for sensitive teeth?

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 97
 (a) Glows in the dark (a) Water purification
(b) Burns with a bright red light (b) Antiseptic
(c) High refractive index (c) Fertilizer
(d) Emits short-wave ultraviolet light (d) Food preservative
19. Which element is a noble gas used in lighting, 23. Which element is commonly used in the
such as neon signs? production of nuclear power as a fuel in nuclear
(a) Argon (b) Krypton reactors?
(c) Neon (d) Radon (a) Uranium (b) Thorium
20. What is the primary use of Xenon (Xe) in modern (c) Plutonium (d) Neptunium
applications? 24. What is the unique property of Lead (Pb) that
(a) Anesthesia makes it suitable for shielding against radiation?
(b) Nuclear reactors (a) High melting point
(c) Lighting (b) Low density
(d) Semiconductor manufacturing (c) High thermal conductivity
21. Which element is essential for plant growth and is (d) High atomic number
a major component of chlorophyll? 25. Which element is commonly used in batteries
(a) Iron (b) Magnesium and is a crucial component in the production of
stainless steel?
(c) Zinc (d) Copper
(a) Nickel (b) Cobalt
22. What is the primary use of Iodine (I2) in everyday
life? (c) Chromium (d) Manganese

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

98 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Kinetic Theory of
6 Gases

●● A gas which follows all gas laws (Boyle’s law, charles’s

Kinetic Theory of Gases law, Avogadro principle) and gas equation at every
The properties of the gases are entirely different from those possible temperature and pressure is known as ideal
of solid and liquid. In case of gases, thermal expansion is or perfect gas.
very large as compared to solids and liquids .To state the ●● Molecules of gas can do only and only translational
conditions of a gas, its volume, pressure and temperature motion and kinetic energy related to this is known as
must be specified. translational kinetic energy.
Intermolecular force: Solid > liquid > real gas > ideal gas ●● Potential energy of ideal gas is zero so internal energy
(zero). of ideal gas is perfectly translational K.E. of gas. It is
Potential energy: Solid < liquid < real gas < ideal gas directly proportional to absolute temperature.
(zero). Properties/Assumptions of Ideal gas:
Internal energy, internal kinetic energy, internal potential ●● All the molecules of a gas are identical as regards their
energy at a given temperature for solid, liquid and gas: shape and mass. The molecules of different gases are
(i) Internal kinetic energy : Same for all. different.
(ii) Internal potential Energy: Maximum for ideal gas ●● The gas molecules behave as rigid, elastic and smooth
(PE = 0) and Minimum for solids (PE = –ve). spheres. The molecules collide with the walls of the
container. These collisions are perfectly elastic i.e.,
(iii) Internal Energy: Maximum for Ideal gas and there is no loss of kinetic energy in these collisions.
Minimum for solid.
The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous
At a given temperature for rare and compressed gas: random motion. They move with all possible velocities
(i) Internal kinetic energy Same for both, the compressed in all possible directions. They obey Newton’s law of
and rarefied gas. motion.
(ii) Internal potential energy (PE) <Rared> (PE) Mean momentum = 0; Mean velocity = 0.
compressed. < > = 0 ; < v2 > ¹ 0 (Non zero) ; < v3 > = < v5 > = 0
(iii) Internal Energy < (U)Rared > (U)compressed ●● The average distance travelled by a molecule between
N.T.P. S.T.P. two successive collisions is called as mean free path
(lm) of the molecule.
Temperature 0° C = 273.15 K 0.01° C = 273.16K
Pressure 1 atm = 1.01325 1 atm ●● The time during which a collision takes place is
× 105 N/m2 negligible as compared to time taken by the molecule
= 1.01325 × 105 to cover the mean free path so NTP ratio of time of
Pascal collision to free time of motion 10–8 : 1.
Volume 22.4 lit. 22.4 lit ●● When a gas taken into a vessel it is uniformly
distributed in entire volume of vessel such that its
Ideal gas concept density, moleculer density, motion of molecules etc.
Volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to all are identical for all direction, therefore
volume of container so volume of gas = volume of container root mean velocity → equal
(Except 0 K)
Pressure exerted by the gas in all direction Px = Py =
No intermolecular force acts between gas molecules. Pz = P → equal
Special point for ideal gas

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 99
●● All those assumptions can be justified, if number of gas
molecules are taken very large i.e., 1023 molecules/
Avogadro’s Law:
cm3. At the same temperature and pressure equal volumes of all
gases contain equal numbers of molecules.
Boyle’s Law
if P,V, and T are same then N1 = N2
For a given mass of a gas at constant temperature, the
volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. Where P is Pressure,V is volume and T is temperature.

If M and T are constant or PV = constant Dalton’s Law:

Charles’s Law The pressure exerted by a mixture of several gases equals
the sum of the pressure exerted by each component gas
For a given mass of a gas at constant pressure, for increasing present in the mixture.
1°C temperature volume also increases part of its initial
volume. P mix. = P1 + P2 + P3 ..

V µ T or = constant Graham’s Law of diffusion.

Gay Lussac’s Law: At same temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion
of gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the
According to this law, for a given mass of a gas at constant density of gas.
volume, for increasing 1°C temperature pressure is also
increases 1/273 part of its initial pressure Among all gases for a given temperature vrms is maximum
for H2 gas so its diffusion rate is maximum.
P µ T or = constant

STUDENT'S NOTES

100 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. According to the kinetic theory of gases, gas (c) Low pressure and high temperature
particles: (d) High pressure and low temperature
(a) Have definite shapes 11. Gas particles move in ____________ lines until
(b) Are stationary they collide.
(c) Are in constant, random motion (a) Circular (b) Wavy
(d) Attract each other strongly (c) Random (d) Straight
2. In the kinetic theory, gas particles are considered 12. The volume occupied by gas particles is considered
to have a ____________ volume. negligible compared to the total ____________ of
(a) Large (b) Negligible the gas.
(c) Fixed (d) Constant (a) Mass (b) Density
3. According to the kinetic theory, gas particles (c) Pressure (d) Volume
undergo ____________ collisions. 13. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is
(a) Inelastic (b) Slow directly proportional to the ____________ of the
(c) Elastic (d) Repulsive gas.
4. What factor is related to the average kinetic (a) Mass (b) Volume
energy of gas particles? (c) Pressure (d) Temperature
(a) Pressure (b) Volume 14. Gas particles undergo ____________ collisions
(c) Temperature (d) Density with the walls of the container.
5. The pressure exerted by a gas is the result of: (a) Elastic (b) Inelastic
(c) Slow (d) Non-random
(a) Attractive forces between particles
(b) Repulsive forces between particles 15. The kinetic theory assumes ____________
(c) Random motion of particles intermolecular forces between gas particles.
(d) Stationary particles (a) Strong attractive (b) Strong repulsive
6. Boyle's Law relates the pressure and __________ (c) Negligible (d) Constant
of a gas. 16. The kinetic theory provides a molecular-level
(a) Temperature (b) Volume explanation for the macroscopic properties
of gases, such as pressure, temperature, and
(c) Density (d) Mass
____________.
7. According to Charles's Law, at constant pressure,
(a) Mass (b) Density
the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
____________. (c) Volume (d) Color
(a) Temperature (b) Density 17. The pressure exerted by a gas is the result of the
____________ of gas particles with the walls of
(c) Mass (d) Pressure
the container.
8. The ideal gas behavior is approached at:
(a) Repulsion (b) Attraction
(a) Low pressure and high temperature (c) Vibration (d) Collisions
(b) High pressure and low temperature
18. The kinetic theory is a fundamental concept in the
(c) Low pressure and low temperature field of ____________ and statistical mechanics.
(d) High pressure and high temperature
(a) Biology (b) Chemistry
9. Avogadro's Law relates the volume and _________ (c) Geology (d) Physics
of a gas.
19. As the temperature of a gas increases, the average
(a) Pressure (b) Temperature kinetic energy of its particles ____________.
(c) Density (d) Amount (moles)
(a) Decreases (b) Increases
10. The kinetic theory of gases helps explain (c) Remains constant (d) Fluctuates
deviations from ideal behavior under conditions
of: 20. The kinetic theory assumes that gas particles
move ____________ of each other.
(a) Low pressure and low temperature
(a) At constant speed
(b) High pressure and high temperature
(b) In a circular motion

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 101
 (c) Independently (a) High pressure and high temperature
(d) In a straight line (b) Low pressure and low temperature
21. Collisions between gas particles are perfectly (c) High pressure and low temperature
____________, meaning that kinetic energy is (d) Low pressure and high temperature
conserved during collisions. 24. The kinetic theory of gases assumes that the
(a) Elastic (b) Inelastic volume occupied by gas particles is ____________
(c) Slow (d) Random compared to the total volume of the gas.
22. The kinetic theory provides a molecular-level (a) Greater (b) Equal
explanation for the deviations of real gases from (c) Negligible (d) Constant
____________ gas behavior. 25. According to the kinetic theory, gas particles are
(a) Solid (b) Liquid in ____________ motion.
(c) Ideal (d) Dense (a) Constant, circular
23. Under what conditions do real gases tend to (b) Random, wavy
behave like ideal gases? (c) Stationary
(d) Constant, random
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (d)

STUDENT'S NOTES

102 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

7 Chemistry in Daily Life

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): Contains pozzolanic

Cement materials like fly ash or silica fume, enhancing concrete
Cement, an essential component in concrete construction, durability and performance.
amalgamates various elements, each contributing distinct Rapid Hardening Cement: Rapid strength achievement
functionalities and attributes. The primary constituents and makes it ideal for swift applications like prefabricated
classifications of cement are as follows: structures and roadworks.
Calcium Oxide or Calcium Hydroxide (Lime): Lime Quick Setting Cement: Rapid setting without curing,
stands as a pivotal ingredient in cement formation, fostering suitable for underwater and tunneling projects.
the creation of calcium silicates and aluminates, essential
for robustness. Its quantity significantly impacts cement Glass
quality and setting time.
Glass is a solid material that does not have a regular crystal
Silicon Dioxide (Silica): Adding silica fortifies cement, structure and is often clear, fragile and inert. It is used for
enhancing its durability and strength by reacting with lime, various purposes, such as windows, tableware, and optics.
forming key components like dicalcium and tricalcium
silicate. Glass is made by heating a mixture of raw materials,
such as sand, soda, lime, and other substances, at very
Aluminium Oxide (Alumina): Alumina expedites cement high temperatures and then cooling it quickly to prevent
setting and lowers clinker formation temperatures. Its the growth of visible crystals. There are different ways
reaction with lime leads to the rapid setting attribute in of making glass, such as the float glass method, the
cement. glassblowing method, and the drawing method.
Iron Oxide: Introducing iron oxide imparts color and There are many kinds of glass with different characteristics
aids in raw material fusion. Its interaction with lime and and uses. Some of the common kinds of glass are:
alumina contributes to cement robustness and solidity.
● Soft glass: A kind of glass that melts at a low
Magnesium Oxide (Magnesia): Magnesia enhances temperature and is easy to shape and mold. It is used
cement workability and plasticity. However, excessive for making glass beads, ornaments, and art objects.
amounts may lead to cement fissures and reduced strength.
● Hard glass: A kind of glass that melts at a high
Sulfur Trioxide: Included for hydration control and temperature and is resistant to heat and chemicals. It is
prevention of ettringite formation, sulfur trioxide, in used for making laboratory equipment, thermometers,
excess, can render cement unstable. and light bulbs.
Calcium Sulfate: Used to delay setting time and curb flash ● Flint glass: A kind of glass that has lead oxide in it and
setting, calcium sulfate, generally in gypsum or anhydrite has a high refractive index and dispersion. It is used
form, regulates cement hardening. for making lenses, prisms, and optical instruments.
Alkaline Substances: Balancing raw material acidity and ● Pyrex glass: A kind of glass that is made of borosilicate
augmenting cement resistance to sulfate attacks, alkaline and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion. It is
substances demand moderation to prevent efflorescence used for making cookware, bakeware, and laboratory
and the emergence of white salt deposits on concrete apparatus that can withstand high temperatures.
surfaces.
● Crookes glass: A kind of glass that has cerium oxide in
Diverse cement types serve distinct purposes, each it and has the property of blocking ultraviolet rays. It is
offering specific properties: used for making sunglasses, eyeglasses, and protective
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): The most prevalent, goggles.
suitable for general construction, boasts high compressive ● Photochromic glass: A kind of glass that changes its
strength and moderate setting time. color or transparency depending on the intensity of

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 103
 light. It is used for making eyeglasses that can adapt to example, a resin with sodium ions can exchange
different lighting conditions. them with the calcium and magnesium ions in the
water, making it soft. The resin can be regenerated by
● Xena glass: A kind of glass that is made of zirconium
washing it with a salt solution.
silicate and has a high strength and hardness. It is
used for making bulletproof glass, armor, and dental ● Reverse osmosis method: Reverse osmosis is a
implants. process that uses a semipermeable membrane to
separate the water from the dissolved salts. The water
● Crown glass: A kind of glass that is made by spinning
goes through the membrane, leaving behind the salts.
a disk of molten glass and has a low refractive index
This method requires high pressure and energy.
and dispersion. It is used for making window panes,
mirrors, and telescope lenses. Some important compund and Its uses:
● Quartz glass: A kind of glass that is made of pure silica Element Compound Formula Use
and has a very high melting point and transparency. It Sodium Table salt NaCl Seasoning, food
is used for making ultraviolet lamps, semiconductor preservation,
devices, and optical fibers. water softening
Color material for the different color for the Glass Sodium Lye NaOH Paper, soap,
cleaning
Color Material products, drain
Green Iron oxides opener
Blue Cobalt oxide or copper compounds Sodium Baking soda NaHCO3 Cooking,
stomach
Red Gold chloride or selenium compounds relief, fire
Purple Manganese dioxide extinguishing
Yellow-green Uranium oxide Calcium Limestone CaCO3 Marble,
chalk, cement,
Amber or Sulfur compounds, carbon, and iron
stomach relief
brown salts
Calcium Quicklime CaO Fertilizer, steel
White Antimony oxides or tin compounds production,
Black Manganese, cobalt, and iron or water
chromium or nickel purification
Calcium Gypsum CaSO4 Plaster, drywall,
Hardness of Water : tofu, cement
The amount of calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in Magnesium Magnesia MgO Fireproof
water determines its hardness. Hard water makes it difficult material,
to form lather with soap and can damage household stomach relief,
appliances, pipes, boilers, and skin. There are two kinds of laxative, dietary
water hardness: temporary and permanent. supplement
Magnesium Epsom salt MgSO4 Bath salt,
Temporary hardness: Temporary hardness is due to the fertilizer,
presence of calcium and magnesium bicarbonates in water. medicine,
This kind of hardness can be removed by heating the water, laxative
which makes the bicarbonates break down into insoluble Magnesium Milk of Mg(OH)2 Stomach relief,
carbonates that can be filtered out. For example, Ca(HCO3)2 magnesia laxative, fire
→ CaCO3 + H2O + CO2. Another way to remove temporary retardant,
hardness is by adding lime (Ca(OH)2), which reacts with antacid
the bicarbonates to form insoluble calcium carbonate and Copper Blue vitriol CuSO4 Plant
water. For example, Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + protection,
2H2O. herbicide,
algicide,
Permanent hardness: Permanent hardness is due to the
colorant
presence of calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulfates
Copper Black oxide CuO Battery,
in water. This kind of hardness cannot be removed by
catalyst,
heating, but it can be removed by other methods such as:
colorant,
● Washing soda (Na2CO3) method: Washing soda ceramic
reacts with the calcium and magnesium chlorides Copper Copper Cu(NO3)2 Plant nutrition,
and sulfates to form insoluble carbonates that can be nitrate wood
filtered out. For example, CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 protection,
+ 2NaCl. colorant, rocket
propellant
● Ion exchange method: Ion exchange resins are
substances that can swap ions with the water. For

104 General Science (General Knowledge)

Zinc Zinc white ZnO Sun protection, Potassium Saltpeter KNO3 Plant nutrition,
paint, rubber, gunpowder,
medicine, rocket
semiconductor propellant, food
Zinc White ZnSO4 Plant nutrition, preservation
vitriol dietary
supplement, Medicine
medicine, plant Medicine is a word that describes any substance or
protection combination of substances that are used to cure, prevent,
Zinc Zinc ZnCl2 Battery, or diagnose a disease or a health condition. Medicine can
chloride soldering, also be used to restore, correct, or modify the physiological
disinfection, functions of the body by having a pharmacological,
deodorization immunological, or metabolic effect.
Lead Sugar of Pb(C2H3O2)2 Hair color,
lead sweetener, There are many kinds of medicines that have different
textile dyeing, chemical structures, modes of action, routes of
medicine administration, biological systems affected, or therapeutic
Lead Litharge PbO Battery, glass, effects. Some of the common kinds of medicines are:
ceramic, rubber, ● Antibiotics: These are medicines that destroy or stop
paint the growth of bacteria that cause infections. Examples
Lead Lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2 Fireworks, of antibiotics are penicillin, amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin,
matches, and erythromycin. Antibiotics are used to cure
explosives, bacterial infections such as pneumonia, strep throat,
colorant urinary tract infections, and skin infections.
Nitrogen Nitrogen NO2 Air pollution,
dioxide acid rain, ● Analgesics: These are medicines that reduce pain
bleaching, by blocking the transmission of pain signals to the
nitration brain. Examples of analgesics are aspirin, ibuprofen,
Nitrogen Nitric acid HNO3 Plant nutrition, acetaminophen, and morphine. Analgesics are used to
explosive, treat mild to severe pain caused by headaches, injuries,
rocket surgery, arthritis, or cancer.
propellant,
● Antihistamines: These are medicines that lower or
etching
prevent the effects of histamine, a chemical released by
Nitrogen Ammonia NH3 Plant nutrition,
the immune system in response to allergens. Examples
cleaning,
of antihistamines are diphenhydramine, loratadine,
cooling,
cetirizine, and fexofenadine. Antihistamines are used
medicine
Sulfur Sulfur SO2 Air pollution, to treat allergic reactions such as sneezing, itching,
dioxide acid rain, runny nose, and hives.
preservation, ● Antidepressants: These are medicines that affect
bleaching the levels of certain chemicals in the brain called
Sulfur Sulfuric H2SO4 Plant nutrition, neurotransmitters, which are involved in mood
acid battery, regulation. Examples of antidepressants are fluoxetine,
detergent, sertraline, citalopram, and bupropion. Antidepressants
chemical are used to treat depression and other mental disorders
synthesis such as anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and
Sulfur Hydrogen H 2S Rotten egg post-traumatic stress disorder.
sulfide odor, flammable
gas, corrosion, ● Antidiabetics: These are medicines that lower the
poison blood sugar levels in people with diabetes. Examples
Potassium Potassium KCl Salt alternative, of antidiabetics are insulin, metformin, glipizide, and
chloride plant nutrition, pioglitazone. Antidiabetics are used to treat type 1 and
medicine, lethal type 2 diabetes, which are conditions characterized
injection by high blood sugar levels that can lead to serious
Potassium Potash KOH Soap, biodiesel, complications such as heart disease, kidney failure,
plant nutrition, and nerve damage.
alkaline battery

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 105
 Exercise

1. Which element enhances cement workability but (d) Potassium chloride

might reduce strength if in excessive amounts? 10. What category of medicine is used to treat
(a) Silicon Dioxide bacterial infections?
(b) Magnesium Oxide (a) Antibiotics (b) Analgesics
(c) Aluminum Oxide (c) Antihistamines (d) Antidepressants
(d) Iron Oxide 11. Which medicine is specifically used to reduce
2. What is the purpose of including sulfur trioxide in pain by blocking pain signals to the brain?
cement? (a) Aspirin
(a) Enhancing durability (b) Diphenhydramine
(b) Hydration control (c) Penicillin
(c) Increasing workability (d) Morphine
(d) Lowering clinker formation temperatures 12. Which medicine category is utilized to lower the
3. Which type of cement is suitable for swift effects of histamine in allergic reactions?
applications like prefabricated structures? (a) Antibiotics (b) Analgesics
(a) Ordinary Portland Cement (c) Antihistamines (d) Antidepressants
(b) Portland Pozzolana Cement 13. What do antidiabetic medications primarily aim to
(c) Rapid Hardening Cement regulate?
(d) Quick Setting Cement
(a) Blood pressure (b) Blood sugar levels
4. Which method of glass-making involves the rapid (c) Cholesterol (d) Insulin production
cooling of a heated mixture?
14. Which glass type has the property of adapting to
(a) Float glass method different lighting conditions?
(b) Glassblowing method
(a) Crookes glass
(c) Drawing method
(b) Photochromic glass
(d) Sculpting method
(c) Quartz glass
5. What kind of glass is resistant to heat and (d) Xena glass
chemicals?
15. What is the purpose of adding alumina in cement?
(a) Flint glass (b) Pyrex glass
(a) To enhance durability
(c) Xena glass (d) Crown glass
(b) To lower clinker formation temperatures
6. What color material is used to create purple glass? (c) To expedite setting
(a) Iron oxides (b) Cobalt oxide (d) To impart color
(c) Gold chloride (d) Manganese dioxide 16. What property does magnesium oxide enhance in
7. How is temporary hardness in water typically cement?
removed? (a) Workability (b) Durability
(a) By adding lime (c) Rapid setting (d) Color enhancement
(b) Through ion exchange 17. How is permanent hardness in water typically
(c) By heating the water removed?
(d) Using the reverse osmosis method
(a) By adding lime
8. Which compound is NOT used for water (b) Through ion exchange
softening? (c) By heating the water
(a) Washing soda (b) Sodium chloride (d) Using the reverse osmosis method
(c) Nitric acid (d) Potash 18. Which compound is utilized in making
9. Which substance is utilized in making both soap semiconductor devices?
and cleaning products? (a) Zinc chloride
(a) Sodium lye (b) Sulfuric acid
(b) Calcium limestone (c) Potassium chloride
(c) Magnesium milk (d) Zinc oxide

106 General Science (General Knowledge)

 ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b)
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (d)

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SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 107
 BIOLOGY

108 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

1 Cell the Unit of Life

(i) Prokaryotic cells: These are primitive and

Cell the Unit of Life incomplete cells. They have less developed
Cell is the structural and functional unit of all life forms. nucleus without nuclear membrane & nucleolus.
A single cell organism such as bacteria, Amoeba and e.g. Bacteria.
Chlamydomonas are also a type of life forms. The (ii) Eukaryotic cells: These are well developed
microscopic study of cells is called Cytology. A cell may be cells. They have advanced nucleus with unclear
defined as a unit of protoplasm surrounded by a membrane. membrane and nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.
History Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell:
A.V. Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723), a first person to Property Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Cells
construct a microscope. He discovered the minute forms of Cells
life such as bacteria and single-celled animals like Infusoria Nucleus No nucleus Nucleus present
in a drop of water.
Organelles No membrane- Membrane-bound
Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke (1665), bound organelles organelles present
in a cork slice. He gave details about the cell in his book DNA Circular DNA Linear DNA
“Micrographia” and described cell as honeycomb lattice. Structure
Leeuwenhoek (1674) with the improved microscope, Cell Wall Cell wall made Cell wall made
discovered the free cells of bacteria for the first time. Composition of peptidoglycan of cellulose (in
plants) or absent (in
Robert Brown in 1831, discovered the nucleus in the cell.
animals)
J. E. Purkinje in 1839 gave the term ‘protoplasm’ for the Size Smaller size (0.1- Larger size (10-100
living fluid substance of the cell. 5 μm) μm)
The Cell Theory was presented by two German biologists, Cellularity Unicellular Multicellular
M.Schleiden (1838) and T. Schwann (1839). (mostly)
Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis or meiosis
In 1855, Rudolf Virchow said, “Omnis cellulae cellula”,
(cells arise from pre-existing cells). Ribosomes 70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes

Types of Cell & Organism Size of Cells:

(a) On the Basis of Number of Cells Organisms can be ●● The smallest cells (0.1 – 0.2 µm) are found as bacteria
categorized as: and pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), eg.
Mycoplasma gallisepteum.
(i) Unicellular organisms: These are organisms
which are made up of single cell only. This single ●● The largest cell is the egg of an Ostrich which measures
cell Performs all the vital body functions of an about 180 mm in diameter.
organism. e.g. Amoeba. ●● The largest human cell is the female ovum (0.01 mm
(ii) Multicellular organisms: These are the in diameter).
organisms which are made up of numerous cells. ●● The smallest human cell is the red blood cell (0.0075
These cells then combine to form an organ and mm or 7.5 µm).
a group of organs performing different functions
forms an organ system which further forms an Parts of a cell:
organism. e.g. plants and animals.
1. Plasma membrane or Cell membrane
(b) On the basis of type of organization, cells are of two
2. Nucleus:
types:

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 109
 (a) Nuclear membrane (b) Golgi Complex
(b) Nucleolus (c) Lysosome
(c) Nucleoplasm (d) Mitochondria
(d) Chromatin material (e) Plastid (plants only)
3. Cytoplasm: Contain various cell organelles: (f) Ribosome
(a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (g) Centrosome (animals only)

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

110 General Science (General Knowledge)

Plasma membrane or Cell Membrane: Endoplasmic Reticulum is a membranous network,
enclosing a fluid-filled lumen present throughout the
●● Every living cell is externally covered by a thin,
cytoplasm. ER is absent in prokaryotes. On the basis of
transparent, elastic, selectively-permeable membrane
presence or absence of ribosomes, ER is of two types
called- plasma membrane or cell membrane.
(a) Smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
●● Present on both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
(b) Rough or granular endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
●● Made up of protein and phospholipids.
ER Helps in transportation of materials between various
●● Fluid-Mosaic model of plasma membrane is most
regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the
acceptable. It was proposed by Singer and Nicholson.
nucleus. ER Act as cytoskeleton and provide mechanical
Plasma Membrane helps in exchange of gases i.e. CO2, O2 support and shape to the cell.
by the process of diffusion.
RER helps in synthesis of proteins which are sent to various
Osmosis places in the cell depending on need. SER helps in lipid
synthesis.
Is the process of movement of solvent molecules from
the region of low concentration to the region of high Golgi Apparatus
concentration through semi-permeable membranes.
First described by Camilo Golgi (1898). In animal cells it
Cell wall: lies above the nucleus. In plant cells, it is scattered in the
cytoplasm and is called dictyosomes.
Outermost, rigid, dead, protective and supportive layer
found on all plant cells, bacteria, cyanobacteria and some Golgi apparatus helps in packing and dispatching various
protists but not found on animal cells. materials synthesized near ER to inside and outside the
cell. It helps in storage, modification and packaging of
Discovered by Robert Hooke (1666). products in vesicles.
Function of Cell wall:
Lysosomes:
●● It lies outside the plasma membrane.
Discovered by de Duve (1955). These are Membrane-
●● Provide shape and rigidity to cells. bound vesicles formed by SER or golgi apparatus.
●● In plants, it is made up of cellulose, a polymer of glucose. Containing strong hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting
or breaking down all organic materials, these enzymes are
●● In Fungi, it is made up of chitin, a polymer of synthesized by RER.
acetylglucosamine.
They help in intracellular digestion, so called digestive
●● In prokaryotes, it is made up of peptidoglycan, a bags. Destroy any foreign material inside the cell such as
combination of non-cellulose polysaccharides and bacteria etc. Also remove the worn-out and poorly working
amino acids. cell organelles by digesting them. Hence, make a waste
disposal system of the cell and keep the cell clean. During
Nucleus: disturbance in cellular metabolism, Lysosomes burst and
Important and essential part of the cell is present in its enzymes digest their own cell. Thus, Lysosomes are also
cytoplasm and is called ‘nucleus’. called suicidal bags of cell.
It shows variation in shape and number. Mitochondria:
Most cells are monokaryotic with (single nucleus) but RBCs It was first observed by Altman and was later explained by
of mammals are enucleate, Paramoecium is binucleate, Kolliker. Name mitochondria was given by Benda (1897-
Opalina is multinucleate. 98). It is rod-shaped, double membranous cell organelle,
Robert Brown (1831) described it for the first time. called power-house of cell.

In prokaryotic cells, a well defined nucleus is absent due Outer membrane is smooth and porous but the inner
to the absence of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined one is folded into finger-like cristae, for ATP generating
nuclear region is called a nucleoid or genophore. reactions. On cristae oxysomes are present, which are the
main site of ATP generation.
On the basis of membranous convering, cell organelles
are divided into three types: Function:

(i) Membrane less organelles – Example : Ribosomes. It is main cell organelles that help in aerobic respiration.

(ii) Single membrane bound organelles – Example : ●● Release energy required in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, Lysosomes, triphosphate). ATP is called energy currency. ATP
Vacuoles. is used for making new chemical compounds and
for mechanical works. Mitochondria have their own
(iii) Double membrane bound organelles – Example : circular DNA and ribosomes. So, regarded as semi-
Mitochondria and plastids. autonomous and self-replicating cell organelles.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 111
ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate. ATP is known as the energy Beetroot Betalains (betacyanins and
currency of the cell. It is a common cellular fuel that drives betaxanthins)
many energy-requiring processes of the cell.
Brinjal (Eggplant) Anthocyanins (in purple varieties)
Plastids: Turmeric Curcuminoids (curcumin)
Term plastid was given by Haeckel (1866). Found in all (iii) Chloroplast: Green coloured plastids, found in leaves
plant cells and some protists. These are double-membranous and other green parts of plants. Help in photosynthesis
and have their own DNA. Thus, called semi-autonomous to prepare carbohydrates. So,it is called the kitchen of
and self-replicating cell organelles. the cell.
Schimper used the term plastid for the first time in 1885 Granum is the site of light reaction during photosynthesis
and classified plastids as : while stroma is the site of dark reaction during
photosynthesis.
(i) Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids that store starch, oil
and proteins. Ribosome:
(ii) Chromoplasts: Coloured plastids other than green. First observed by Claude (1941) through electron
Contain several pigments and provide colour to petals, microscope and called microsome.
fruits etc.
Name ribosome was given by Palade (1955). Smallest cell
The different pigments in various fruits organelle found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Fruit/Vegetable Primary Pigment(s) Not surrounded by membranes. They are the main site of
protein synthesis.
Carrots Carotene
Potatoes Solenin (purple or red varieties) Vacuoles:
Tomato Lycopene (gives red color) These are uni-membranous sacs for storage of solid or
Chili Pepper Capsanthin (red varieties), liquid nutrients. Outer membrane is called a tonoplast.
Capsaicinoids Small and few in animal cells but large and well developed
Papaya Cryptoxanthin in plant cells. Store some proteins, amino acids, sugars,
various organic acids etc., that are essential for plant cells.

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112 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. “Cell is a unit of life” (OR the term cell was 11. Plasma membrane or unit membrane is made up
proposed by) : of
(a) Malpighi (b) Leeuwenhoek (a) Phosphoprotein and carbohydrate
(c) Schleiden (d) Hooke (b) Protein and fat/phospholipid
2. Plant cell is characterized by : (c) Phospholipid/fat and carbohydrate
(a) Presence of wall, absence of vacuole (d) Carbohydrate and fat/phospholipid
(b) Presence of wall, vacuole starch and the absence 12. What is the latest model for the structure of
of centriole or centrosome. plasmalemma
(c) Presence of vacuole and absence of plastids (a) Unit membrane model
(d) Presence of centriole and lysosomes and absence (b) Fluid mosaic model
of plastids. (c) Molecular sieve model
3. The main difference between an animal and a (d) Sandwich model
plant cell is : 13. Controlling centre of a cell is :
(a) Plant cells lack rigid cell wall (a) Nucleus (b) Nucleolus
(b) Animal cells lack rigid cell wall (c) Chloroplast (d) Ribosome
(c) Plant cells possess small vacuoles
14. What happen to a cell, if its nucleus is removed :
(d) Animal cells possess large vacuoles
(a) Cell dies
4. Example of unicellular animal is/are :
(b) Its catabolism increases
(a) Amoeba (b) Paramoecium (c) Its metabolism decreases
(c) Plasmodium (d) All of these (d) It becomes non-osmotic
5. Who applied cell theory to plants? 15. An enucleated living plant cell is :
(a) Schwann (b) Schleiden (a) Vessel (b) Tracheid
(c) Swanson (d) Jensen (c) Sieve cell (d) All of the above
6. Cell theory states that : 16. A Prokaryotic cell does not possess :
(a) All living cells do mitosis and meiosis (a) Nuclear membrane
(b) All cells are living (b) Plasma membrane
(c) All cells have nucleus (c) Cell wall
(d) Cell is structural unit of all living organisms (d) Cytoplasm
7. Selective permeability is the property of : 17. Main difference between living and non living is
(a) Cell membrane the presence of :
(b) Cell wall (a) Nucleus and growth
(c) ER & Nuclear membrane (b) Protoplasm
(d) All of these (c) Mitochondria and cytoplasm
8. Major component of cell membrane is (d) Movements
(a) Lipid (b) Protein 18. Who coined the term protoplasm?
(c) Carbohydrate (d) Nucleic acid (a) Dujardin (b) Purkinje
9. Plasma membrane (c) Nirenberg (d) Francis P. Roux
(a) Controls the passage of water and soluble 19. Protoplasm includes :
substances in and out of the cell (a) only cytoplasm
(b) Helps in protein synthesis (b) only nucleus and centrosome
(c) Serves as a selective permeable membrane (c) Both cytoplasm and nucleus
(d) (a) and (c) (d) None of these
10. Outermost membrane enclosing the contents of a 20. The compound present in the largest quantity in
plant cell is called an active protoplasm is :
(a) Tonoplast (b) ER (a) Glucose (b) Fat
(c) Plasmalemma (d) Cell wall

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 113
 (c) Protein (d) Water (c) Ribosome (d) Dictyosome
21. pH of cytoplasm is : 24. Which one is not the function of Golgi complex?
(a) Acidic (b) Alkaline (a) Carbohydrate synthesis
(c) Slightly acidic (d) Strongly basic (b) Formation of Lysosome
22. The endoskeleton of a cell is made up of : (c) Formation of secretory vesicles
(a) Cell wall (b) ER (d) Digestion of intracellular particles
(c) Cytoplasm (d) Mitochondria 25. Hydrolytic enzymes are located in :
23. Which of the cell organelle exhibits maximum (a) Lysosomes (b) Ribosomes
polymorphism? (c) Microsomes (d) Mesosomes
(a) Lysosome (b) Spherosome
ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (a)

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 Chapter

2 Nutrition in Plants

Nutrition in Plants Transport of Nutrients:

Plants obtain nutrition through a process known as The transport of nutrients in plants occurs through
photosynthesis, where they use sunlight, water, and specialized tissues and processes that ensure essential
carbon dioxide to produce their own food in the form of substances reach various parts of the plant for growth,
glucose. metabolism, and overall functioning.

Photosynthesis: Vascular System: Plants have specialized tissues (xylem

and phloem) for transporting water, nutrients, and sugars
Photosynthesis is the natural mechanism through which throughout the plant.
green plants, algae, and certain bacteria harness light
A. Xylem : Moves water and minerals from roots to
energy, typically from the sun, and transform it into
leaves.
chemical energy stored within substances like glucose
and other organic compounds. Happening within B. Phloem: Transports sugars (produced during
the chloroplasts of plant cells, this intricate process photosynthesis) from leaves to various parts of the
converts carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, plant for energy and growth.
predominantly glucose, with oxygen being produced as
a byproduct. Growth and Metabolism:
The components of Photosynthesis : Growth and metabolism in plants are essential processes that
involve various biochemical and physiological activities
1. Sunlight: Plants have specialized structures called allowing plants to develop, maintain their structures, and
chloroplasts containing chlorophyll, a pigment that perform vital functions.
captures sunlight.
Growth in Plants:
2. Water Uptake: Roots absorb water and essential
minerals from the soil, transporting them through the 1. Cell Division and Elongation : Plant growth involves
plant via vascular tissues. cell division in meristematic tissues, where cells
actively divide, followed by cell elongation, leading to
3. Carbon Dioxide Absorption: Leaves take in carbon increased length and size of plant structures.
dioxide from the atmosphere through tiny pores called
stomata. 2. Apical and Lateral Growth : Apical meristems at the
tips of roots and shoots contribute to primary growth,
4. Chlorophyll’s Role: Chlorophyll traps sunlight increasing the length of stems and roots. Lateral
energy used to convert water and carbon dioxide into meristems (cambium) contribute to secondary growth,
glucose and oxygen. increasing stem girth.
5. Chemical Reaction: This process occurs in 3. Differentiation and Specialization : Cells undergo
chloroplasts, primarily in the leaf cells’ mesophyll. differentiation, becoming specialized for specific
6. Formula : 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy  C6H12O6+6O2 functions, forming tissues like xylem, phloem,
Nutrients Absorbed from Soil. epidermis, and specialized structures like leaves,
flowers, and roots.
7. Minerals and Nutrients : Besides water, plants also
extract essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, Metabolism in Plants:
potassium, and other minerals from the soil for growth 1. Photosynthesis: Plants synthesize sugars (e.g.,
and development. glucose) through photosynthesis, where chlorophyll
8. Root System : The plant’s root system plays a crucial in chloroplasts captures sunlight energy, converting
role in absorbing these nutrients and transporting them carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and
upwards to different parts of the plant. oxygen.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 115
2. Cellular Respiration: Plants break down sugars environmental stresses significantly impact plant growth
through cellular respiration, releasing energy for and metabolism, triggering adaptive responses.
growth, maintenance, and other metabolic processes. Storage and Defense:
This process occurs in mitochondria.
1. Storage Organs: Plants store excess sugars and
3. Transpiration: Plants absorb water from roots, nutrients in specialized structures like roots, tubers,
transporting it to leaves for photosynthesis. Excess water is bulbs, and fruits for future use.
released through stomata in a process called transpiration,
aiding in nutrient uptake and maintaining turgor pressure. 2. Defense Mechanisms: Plants produce secondary
metabolites (e.g., phenolics, alkaloids) for defense against
4. Nutrient Uptake and Utilization: Plants absorb herbivores, pathogens, and environmental stressors.
essential nutrients from the soil, utilizing them for
Growth and metabolism in plants are intricate processes
various physiological functions like enzyme activity,
that encompass cell division, differentiation, energy
cell structure, and overall growth.
production, nutrient utilization, hormonal regulation, and
Hormonal Regulation: responses to environmental cues, ensuring plants adapt,
grow, and survive in diverse conditions.
1. Plant Hormones: Various hormones like auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene Specialized Nutritional Needs:
regulate plant growth and development. They control 1. Nitrogen Fixation: Some plants form symbiotic
processes such as cell elongation, root growth, relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria to obtain
flowering, and responses to environmental stimuli. nitrogen, crucial for protein synthesis.
2. Tropisms: Hormones also mediate tropisms, directional 2. Micronutrients: Plants also require micronutrients
growth responses to external stimuli like light (phototropism), such as iron, zinc, and others in small quantities for
gravity (gravitropism), and touch (thigmotropism). proper growth and functioning.
Environmental Influences: Plant nutrition is a complex process where plants utilize
Environmental Factors : External factors such as sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to synthesize their
light, temperature, water availability, soil nutrients, and food, while also absorbing essential minerals and nutrients
from the soil for growth, metabolism, and overall health.

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 Exercise

1. How do plants obtain nutrition primarily? (d) Stems

(a) Through ingestion of organic compounds 11. Which hormones regulate plant growth and
(b) Through respiration development?
(c) Through photosynthesis (a) Proteins (b) Carbohydrates
(d) Through cellular division (c) Lipids (d) Plant hormones
2. Where does photosynthesis primarily occur in 12. What is the purpose of tropisms in plants?
plant cells? (a) Nutrient uptake
(a) Mitochondria (b) Directional growth responses
(b) Golgi apparatus (c) Photosynthesis
(c) Chloroplasts (d) Cellular respiration
(d) Endoplasmic reticulum 13. Which environmental factor significantly impacts
3. What is the byproduct of photosynthesis? plant growth?
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Glucose (a) Gravity (b) Soil color
(c) Oxygen (d) Water (c) Indoor lighting (d) Plant height
4. Which structures capture sunlight in plants? 14. What do plants store in specialized structures like
(a) Xylem (b) Phloem roots and fruits?
(c) Chloroplasts (d) Mitochondria (a) Excess sunlight (b) Nutrients and sugars
5. What is the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis? (c) Water (d) Oxygen
(a) Captures sunlight energy 15. What do plants produce for defense against
(b) Breaks down glucose herbivores and pathogens?
(c) Transports nutrients (a) Sugars
(d) Produces water (b) Amino acids
6. What substances are converted into carbohydrates (c) Secondary metabolites
during photosynthesis? (d) Carbon dioxide
(a) Water and nitrogen 16. What are the micronutrients important for in
(b) Carbon dioxide and oxygen plants?
(c) Carbon dioxide and water (a) Root growth (b) Protein synthesis
(d) Oxygen and sunlight (c) Photosynthesis (d) Leaf coloration
7. Where do plants absorb carbon dioxide from? 17. Which process converts sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide into carbohydrates?
(a) Soil (b) Atmosphere
(c) Water (d) Sunlight (a) Cellular respiration
(b) Transpiration
8. Which tissues transport water and minerals in
plants? (c) Photosynthesis
(d) Absorption
(a) Xylem and phloem
(b) Epidermis 18. What is the primary purpose of the xylem in
plants?
(c) Cortex
(d) Mesophyll (a) Transport sugars
(b) Transport water and minerals
9. What is the primary function of the phloem?
(c) Absorb carbon dioxide
(a) Transport sugars (b) Transport water
(d) Produce oxygen
(c) Absorb minerals (d) Produce oxygen
19. What does the chlorophyll capture during
10. What are the primary sites of cell division in photosynthesis?
plants?
(a) Sunlight energy (b) Carbon dioxide
(a) Roots
(c) Water (d) Glucose
(b) Leaves
20. Where does the process of photosynthesis take
(c) Meristematic tissues
place primarily?

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 117
 (a) Mitochondria (c) Golgi apparatus
(b) Chloroplasts (d) Endoplasmic reticulum

ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (b)

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 Chapter

3 Nutrients

There are two types of Nutrients:

Nutrients
Macronutrients: Macronutrients are needed in large
Nutrients are the materials that an organism needs to live, amounts by the body and include protein, carbohydrates,
grow, and reproduce. They provide energy and physical and fat.
components to the organism. Nutrients can be divided
into two categories: macronutrients and micronutrients. (1) Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are a type of organic
Macronutrients are needed in large amounts by the body and compound that have carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
include protein, carbohydrates, and fat. Micronutrients are atoms in a ratio of 2:1 for hydrogen and oxygen.
needed in small amounts by the body and include vitamins, They are a major energy source for living beings, as
minerals, and water. Nutrients have various roles in the they can be converted into glucose or other simple
body, such as building and repairing tissues, regulating sugars. Carbohydrates can be divided into simple and
metabolism, supporting immunity, and maintaining fluid complex categories, based on their structure and how
balance. many sugar molecules they have.

There are two main types of living things on the ground (a) Simple carbohydrates: Simple carbohydrates
of nutrition: have one or two sugar molecules, such as
monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, etc.),
1. Autotrophic nutrition : It is the mode of nutrition disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, etc.), and
in which organisms make their own food from oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose, etc.). They
simple inorganic substances like water and are quickly digested and absorbed by the body,
carbon dioxide, usually through photosynthesis. and they provide a fast energy boost. However,
Plants, algae, and some bacteria are examples of they also tend to increase the blood sugar levels
autotrophs. sharply and may cause health issues if eaten too
much. Simple carbohydrates are found in fruits,
2. Heterotrophic nutrition : It is the mode of nutrition milk, honey, candies, and refined sugars.There are
in which organisms get food by eating other organisms three type of these carbohydrates
or organic matter. Animals, fungi, and most bacteria
are examples of heterotrophs. Monosaccharides: Carbohydrates with one
sugar unit are called monosaccharides. They are
Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into the most basic carbohydrates. Glucose, fructose
three subtypes: and galactose are some examples. They all have
(a) Holozoic nutrition: It is the mode of nutrition the same formula, (CH2O)n, where n is usually
in which organisms take in solid or liquid food between 3 and 7. They are used for energy and as
and break it down inside their body. Humans, building blocks for bigger molecules.
cows, dogs, and birds are examples of holozoic Disaccharides: Carbohydrates with two sugar
organisms. units are called disaccharides. They are made
by joining two monosaccharides and releasing
(b) Saprophytic nutrition: It is the mode of nutrition in
a water molecule. Sucrose (glucose + fructose),
which organisms release digestive enzymes on dead
lactose (glucose + galactose) and maltose (glucose
or decaying organic matter and absorb the nutrients.
+ glucose) are some examples. They have the
Mushrooms, molds, and some bacteria are examples
same formula, C12H22O11. They are also used for
of saprophytes.
energy, but they need to be broken down into
(c) Parasitic nutrition : It is the mode of nutrition in monosaccharides first.
which organisms live on or within another living
Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates with 3 to 10
organism (host) and derive nutrients from it, often
sugar units are called oligosaccharides. They are
harming the host. Tapeworms, lice, and some bacteria
formed by linking 3 to 10 monosaccharides with
are examples of parasites.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 119
 glycosidic bonds. Raffinose (glucose + fructose Keratin: a protein that forms the main part of hair,
+ galactose) and stachyose (glucose + fructose + nails, feathers, horns, and scales. Keratin helps to
galactose + galactose) are some examples. They protect the skin and other organs from harm and
have different functions, such as cell recognition, infection.
signaling and protection.
Collagen: a protein that forms the main part of
(b) Complex carbohydrates: Complex carbohydrates connective tissues, such as tendons, ligaments,
have more than two sugar molecules, such as cartilage, and bone. Collagen helps to provide
polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, etc.). strength and flexibility to the body.
They are harder to digest and absorb by the body,
and they provide a steady and longlasting energy Elastin: a protein that forms the main part
source. They also help regulate blood sugar levels of elastic fibers, such as those found in the
and prevent ketosis. Complex carbohydrates are skin, lungs, and blood vessels. Elastin helps
found in grains, vegetables, legumes, and nuts. to provide elasticity and resilience to the
body.
Carbohydrates have various roles in living beings, such
as: (b) Functional proteins: Functional proteins are
proteins that do various chemical reactions and
●● Providing energy for cellular activities and physical processes in the body. They are usually compact
movements. and globular, which makes them adaptable and
●● Storing energy in the form of glycogen in animals and dynamic. Some examples of functional proteins
starch in plants. are:
●● Forming structural components of cells and tissues, Hemoglobin: a protein that carries oxygen from
such as cellulose in plant cell walls and chitin in fungal the lungs to the tissues of the body. Hemoglobin
cell walls and insect exoskeletons. helps to maintain the oxygen level and pH of the
blood.
●● Serving as signaling molecules and receptors, such as
glycoproteins and glycolipids on cell membranes. Myoglobin: a protein that stores oxygen in the
●● Participating in metabolic pathways and enzymatic muscles of the body. Myoglobin helps to provide
reactions, such as glycolysis and pentose phosphate oxygen for muscle contraction and metabolism.
pathway. Enzymes: proteins that speed up specific
Some examples of foods that have a lot of carbohydrates biochemical reactions in the body. Enzymes help
are: to regulate the rate and direction of metabolic
pathways.
Whole grains: brown rice, oats, quinoa, barley, etc.
Protein is also an important nutrient that we need to get
Fruits: apples, bananas, oranges, berries, etc. from our food. Protein helps us to make and fix muscles,
Vegetables: potatoes, corn, carrots, broccoli, etc. bones, skin, hair, and other tissues. Protein also helps
us to produce hormones, enzymes, and antibodies that
Beans: chickpeas, lentils, black beans, etc.
control our metabolism, immunity, and growth. Some
(2) Protein: Protein is a big and complicated molecule foods that have protein are meat, eggs, dairy, beans,
that exists in all living beings and has many vital roles nuts, and seeds.
for life. Protein consists of smaller units called amino
Protein is a vital nutrient that plays many roles in the body.
acids, which are connected in long chains. There are
You can get protein from various foods, both plant based
about 20 different amino acids that naturally occur in
and animal based. Some examples are:
proteins, and they decide the shape and function of
each protein. ●● Eggs: A large egg (50 g) has 6.3 g of protein.
There are two main types of proteins: structural ●● Almonds: An ounce (28.35 g) of almonds has 6 g of
and functional. Structural proteins give support and protein.
shape to the cells and tissues of the body, such as
collagen, keratin, and elastin. Functional proteins ●● Chicken breast: Half of a chicken breast (86 g) has
carry out various chemical reactions and processes 26.7 g of protein.
in the body, such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies,
●● Cottage cheese: A cup (226 g) of cottage cheese has
and receptors.
28 g of protein.
(a) Structural proteins: Structural proteins are
proteins that give support and shape to the cells ●● Lentils: A cup (198 g) of cooked lentils has 18 g of
and tissues of the body. They are usually stringy protein.
and fibrous, which makes them tough and ●● Quinoa: A cup (185 g) of cooked quinoa has 8 g of
longlasting. Some examples of structural proteins protein.
are:

120 General Science (General Knowledge)

(3) Fat: Fat is a nutrient that gives energy and helps the important for vision, bone health, immunity, and blood
body use some vitamins. There are different kinds of clotting.
fats, and some are better for health than others.
Supporting cell structure: Fat is a major part of cell
Fat is a type of lipid, which is a molecule made of membranes, which are the outer layers of cells that control
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Fat consists of what goes in and out of the cell. Fat also helps form myelin,
smaller parts called fatty acids and glycerol. which is a protective layer around nerve cells that enables
fast and effective transmission of signals.
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, depending
on how many and how they arrange their carbon Regulating hormones: Fat is involved in the making and
carbon bonds. regulating of hormones, such as estrogen, testosterone, and
cortisol, which affect growth, reproduction, metabolism,
Saturated fats have only single bonds, while
and stress response.
unsaturated fats have one or more double or triple
bonds. Unsaturated fats can be further divided Modulating inflammation: Fat can affect the level of
into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, inflammation in the body, which is a natural response to
depending on how many double or triple bonds they injury or infection. Some fats, such as omega3, can have
have. antiinflammatory effects, while others, such as trans fats,
can have proinflammatory effects.
The main types of fats are saturated, monounsaturated,
polyunsaturated, and trans fats. Source : Fat can come from both animal and plant sources,
such as:
(a) Saturated fats: Saturated fats are mostly found in
animal products, such as meat, cheese, butter, and Animal sources: Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products,
cream. They are usually solid at room temperature and lard. These sources tend to be high in saturated fats and
and can increase the amount of bad cholesterol cholesterol, which should be eaten in moderation.
(LDL) in the blood.
Plant sources: Nuts, seeds, avocados, olives, and vegetable
(b) Monounsaturated: Monounsaturated fats are oils. These sources tend to be high in unsaturated fats and
mostly found in plant oils, such as olive, peanut, low in cholesterol, which are good for health. However,
and canola oil. They are usually liquid at room some plant oils, such as palm and coconut oil, are high in
temperature and can decrease the amount of saturated fats, and some processed foods, such as chips and
bad cholesterol and increase the amount of good cookies, are high in trans fats, which should be avoided or
cholesterol (HDL) in the blood. limited.
(c) Polyunsaturated: Polyunsaturated fats are also Micronutrients: Micronutrients are needed in small
mostly found in plant oils, such as sunflower, amounts by the body and include vitamins, minerals, and
corn, and soybean oil. They can also be found in water.
some fish, such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel.
(1) Vitamins: Vitamins were discovered in 1912 by a
They contain essential fatty acids, such as omega3
scientist named Frank.Vitamins are part of our diet but
and omega6, which the body cannot make by
do not provide any energy.Our body has been infected
itself. They can also decrease the amount of bad
with some disease because of them.
cholesterol and lower the risk of heart disease and
stroke. Vitamins are organic substances that are essential
for normal health and growth in animals. They
(d) Trans fats: Trans fats are artificially made by
perform specific and vital functions in the body
adding hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fats, a
chemistry, such as facilitating or regulating
process called hydrogenation. They are often
metabolic reactions.
used in processed foods, such as baked goods,
snacks, and margarine. They can increase Vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body in
the amount of bad cholesterol and decrease sufficient amounts, so they must be obtained from the
the amount of good cholesterol, as well as diet or from synthetic sources.
increase the risk of heart disease, diabetes,
Vitamins are classified into two groups based on their
and obesity.
solubility:
Use : Fat has several roles in the body, such as: (a) Fat-soluble: Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in
Providing energy: Fat is the most dense source the body’s fat cells and require fat for absorption.
of energy in the diet, providing about 9 calories Like A,D,E,K
per gram, compared to 4 calories per gram for (b) Water-soluble: Water-soluble vitamins are not
carbohydrates and proteins. Fat can be stored in the stored in the body and need to be replenished
body as adipose tissue, which acts as a backup of regularly. Like,B,C
energy and insulation.
The chemical name ,sources and the Deficiency Disease
Absorbing vitamins: Fat helps the body absorb and move of Vitamins:
fatsoluble vitamins, such as A, D, E, and K, which are

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 121
Vitamin Chemical Sources Deficiency (2) Minerals: Minerals are inorganic elements that are not
Name Disease synthesized by living organisms. They are obtained
A Retinol Carrots, Night from food sources or supplements. Minerals perform
Sweet blindness, Dry various functions in the body, such as maintaining
Potatoes, skin, Impaired fluid balance, regulating nerve and muscle activity,
Spinach, immunity forming bones and teeth, and participating in enzyme
Liver reactions.
B1 Thiamine Whole Beriberi, Minerals are classified into two groups:
grains, Wernicke-
Nuts, Pork Korsakoff (a) Macrominerals:Macrominerals are minerals that are
syndrome needed in more than 100 milligrams per day, such as
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
B2 Riboflavin Dairy Ariboflavinosis,
chloride, and sulfur.
products, Cracks in the
Leafy corners of the (b) Trace minerals: Trace minerals are minerals that
greens, mouth are needed in less than 100 milligrams per day, such
Fortified as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, selenium,
cereals molybdenum, fluorine, and chromium.
B3 Niacin Meat, Fish, Pellagra,
Source and role of minerals:
Legumes, Dermatitis,
Mushrooms Diarrhea, Mineral Sources Role in the Body
Dementia
Calcium Dairy products, Bone and teeth
B5 Pantothenic Meat, Fatigue,
Leafy greens, formation, Muscle
acid Whole Nausea,
Fortified foods function, Nerve
grains, Tingling in
transmission
Avocado hands and feet
B6 Pyridoxine Chickpeas, Anemia, Phosphorus Meat, Dairy, Nuts, Bone and teeth
Potatoes, Dermatitis, Whole grains formation, Energy
Bananas Neurological metabolism,
symptoms DNA/RNA
B7 Biotin Egg yolks, Dermatitis, structure
Nuts, Seeds Neurological Magnesium Nuts, Seeds, Leafy Enzyme function,
symptoms greens, Whole Muscle and nerve
B9 Folic acid Leafy Megaloblastic grains function, Bone
greens, anemia, Neural health
Fortified tube defects in Sodium Table salt, Fluid balance,
grains, newborns Processed foods Nerve function,
Beans Muscle
B12 Cyanocobalamin Meat, Pernicious contraction
Fish, Dairy anemia, Nerve Potassium Fruits, Vegetables, Fluid balance,
products damage Legumes Nerve function,
C Ascorbic acid Citrus Scurvy, Muscle
fruits, Bell Weakness, contraction,
peppers, Gum disease Blood pressure
Broccoli regulation
D Ergocalciferol Sunlight Rickets (in
Chloride Table salt, Acid-base
(D2), exposure, children),
Processed foods balance,
Cholecalciferol Fatty fish, Osteomalacia
Digestion, Nerve
(D3) Fortified (in adults)
function
dairy
E Tocopherol Nuts, Nerve damage, Sulfur Protein-rich foods Component of
Seeds, Muscle (Meat, Eggs, Fish) amino acids,
Vegetable weakness Supports protein
oils structure
K Phylloquinone, Leafy Excessive Iron Red meat, Hemoglobin
Menaquinones greens, bleeding, Spinach, Legumes production,
Cruciferous Osteoporosis Oxygen
vegetables, transport, Energy
Fermented metabolism
foods

122 General Science (General Knowledge)

Zinc Shellfish, Meat, Enzyme function, Selenium Brazil nuts, Antioxidant
Legumes, Nuts Immune system Seafood, Meat function,
support, Wound Thyroid hormone
healing production
Copper Shellfish, Organ Enzyme function, Molybdenum Legumes, Grains, Enzyme function,
meats, Nuts, Seeds Iron metabolism, Nuts Metabolism of
Connective tissue sulfur-containing
formation amino acids
Manganese Nuts, Whole Antioxidant Fluorine Fluoridated water, Dental health,
grains, Legumes function, Bone (Fluoride) Tea, Fish Strengthens tooth
formation, enamel
Metabolism Chromium Broccoli, Whole Insulin action,
Iodine Seafood, Iodized Thyroid hormone grains Glucose
salt production, metabolism
Metabolic rate
regulation

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 123
 Exercise

1. Who is credited with the discovery of vitamins? (c) Pellagra (d) Burning feet syndrome
(a) Lunin (b) Funk and Hopkins 12. Vitamin B7 is also known as:
(c) James Lind (d) Dehydro retinol (a) Vitamin H (b) Vitamin K
2. The study of vitamins is referred to as: (c) Vitamin E (d) Vitamin D
(a) Vitaminology (b) Micronutrientology 13. Which vitamin promotes DNA synthesis and RBC
(c) Nutritional Science (d) Vitamin Study maturation?
3. What term was given by Funk and Hopkins to (a) Vitamin B12 (b) Vitamin B7
describe these essential nutrients? (c) Vitamin B6 (d) Folic Acid
(a) Protein factors (b) Mineral essentials 14. What is the common name for Vitamin C?
(c) Vitaminoids (d) Vitamins (a) Ascorbic Acid (b) Cyanocobalamin
4. Which vitamin is known as the "Sunshine vitamin" (c) Calciferol (d) Retinol
or "Anti Ricket" vitamin? 15. Vitamin 'P' is another name for:
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin D (a) Vitamin B17 (b) Vitamin Q
(c) Vitamin E (d) Vitamin K (c) Citrin (d) Vitamin B15
5. What deficiency disease is associated with a lack 16. What is the recently discovered anticancer vitamin?
of Vitamin D in children?
(a) Vitamin B17 (b) Vitamin C
(a) Rickets (b) Scurvy
(c) Vitamin B12 (d) Vitamin E
(c) Pellagra (d) Beri-Beri
17. What deficiency causes disorder in the liver
6. Vitamin E is also known for its: according to the text?
(a) Antisterility properties (a) Vitamin C (b) Vitamin B6
(b) Anti-anemia effects (c) Vitamin B15 (d) Vitamin B7
(c) Anti-cancer abilities
18. Which vitamin is absent in plants but is found in
(d) Anti-scurvy properties Spirulina, an alga?
7. What is the primary role of Vitamin K in the body? (a) Vitamin C (b) Vitamin B12
(a) Bone health (b) Blood clotting (c) Vitamin B6 (d) Vitamin A
(c) Vision (d) Skin regeneration 19. What is the primary role of Vitamin E in the body?
8. Which vitamin is known as the "Anti beri-beri" factor? (a) Blood clotting (b) Antioxidant
(a) Vitamin B1 (b) Vitamin B2 (c) Bone health (d) Collagen formation
(c) Vitamin B3 (d) Vitamin B5 20. What vitamin is considered as "Nature's most
9. Vitamin B2 is also known as: potent antioxidant"?
(a) Vitamin G (b) Vitamin K (a) Vitamin C (b) Vitamin E
(c) Vitamin H (d) Vitamin P (c) Vitamin B12 (d) Vitamin A
10. Which vitamin is essential for the formation of 21. Which vitamin is crucial for the synthesis of DNA
acetylcholine and Coenzyme A? and RBCs?
(a) Vitamin B1 (b) Vitamin B3 (a) Vitamin B12 (b) Vitamin C
(c) Vitamin B5 (d) Vitamin B6 (c) Folic Acid (d) Vitamin B6
11. What deficiency disease is associated with a lack 22. What is the primary function of Vitamin K in the body?
of Vitamin B5? (a) Vision (b) Blood clotting
(a) Scurvy (b) Rickets (c) Bone health (d) Antioxidant properties
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b)

124 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Deficiency and
4 Diseases

Examples include:
Deficiency
Bacterial Infections: Such as strep throat, tuberculosis,
It refers to a lack or shortage of something essential
urinary tract infections (UTIs).
for normal bodily functioning. In a biological
context, deficiency typically denotes an inadequate Viral Infections: Such as influenza (flu), common cold,
amount of a nutrient, vitamin, mineral, or any other HIV/AIDS, COVID-19.
vital substance required by the body for proper
physiological processes. Deficiencies can result Fungal Infections: Like athlete’s foot, ringworm,
from various factors including inadequate intake, candidiasis (yeast infection).
poor absorption, increased demand, or increased Parasitic Infections: Such as malaria, giardiasis,
excretion. toxoplasmosis.

Diseases Non-infectious Diseases: These conditions are not

caused by pathogens and don’t spread from person to
Diseases are abnormal conditions or disorders that person. They often result from genetic factors, lifestyle
affect the body, its organs, tissues, or systems, causing choices, environmental exposures, or underlying medical
characteristic symptoms, disturbances, or malfunctions. conditions. Examples include:
Diseases can be caused by pathogens such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi, or parasites, but they can also stem from Cardiovascular Diseases: Such as hypertension (high
genetic factors, lifestyle choices, environmental factors, or blood pressure), coronary artery disease, heart failure.
nutritional deficiencies. They often involve specific signs Metabolic Diseases: Like diabetes mellitus, metabolic
and symptoms and can affect the body’s normal structure syndrome.
or function.
Autoimmune Diseases: Such as rheumatoid arthritis,
Type of Diseases lupus, multiple sclerosis.
Infections and non-infectious diseases are two broad Cancer: Various types such as lung cancer, breast cancer,
categories that classify diseases based on their origin and leukemia.
nature. Neurological Disorders: Like Alzheimer’s disease,
Infectious Diseases: These are illnesses caused by Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy.
pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, Respiratory Diseases: Such as asthma, chronic obstructive
or other microorganisms that invade the body and pulmonary disease (COPD).
cause infection. They can spread from person to
person, through contact with infected individuals, These categories help differentiate diseases based on
contaminated surfaces, or vectors like insects. their underlying causes, allowing for specific treatment
approaches and preventive measures.
Infection Disease :
Bacterial Disease
Disease Bacteria Affected Organs Symptoms
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lungs primarily, but can affect Persistent cough, chest pain, coughing
other organs up blood, weight loss, fatigue
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Nervous system Muscle stiffness, jaw cramping
(lockjaw), difficulty swallowing,
muscle spasms

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 125
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Skin, nerves, respiratory tract Skin lesions, numbness, muscle
weakness, loss of digits/toes
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Multiple organs including Sores (chancre) on genitals or mouth,
genitals, skin, heart, and rash, neurological symptoms in later
nervous system stages
Meningitis Various bacteria including Meninges (protective layers Headache, fever, stiff neck, sensitivity
Neisseria meningitidis, around the brain and spinal to light, confusion, nausea
Streptococcus pneumoniae cord)
Botulism Clostridium botulinum Nervous system, muscles Muscle weakness, blurred vision,
difficulty swallowing, paralysis
Pneumonia Various bacteria including Lungs Fever, cough, chest pain, difficulty
Streptococcus pneumoniae breathing, fatigue

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Digestive system (intestines) Severe diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration,
rapid heart rate, muscle cramps
Plague Yersinia pestis Lymph nodes, lungs Swollen and painful lymph nodes
(buboes), fever, chills, coughing up
blood
Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Digestive system, bloodstream High fever, abdominal pain, weakness,
headache, rash
Pertussis Bordetella pertussis Respiratory system Severe coughing fits (whooping cough),
difficulty breathing, vomiting after
coughing
Diptheria Corini bactriun diptheri Throat
Virus Disease

Disease Virus Affected Organs Symptoms

Rabies Rabies virus Nervous system Fever, headache, hydrophobia (fear
of water), confusion, paralysis,
hallucinations
Measles Measles virus Respiratory system, skin High fever, cough, runny nose, red
eyes, rash spreading across the body
Herpes Herpes simplex virus Oral/genital mucosa, nerves Cold sores, genital sores, itching, pain,
(HSV) nerve pain (shingles)
Hepatitis Hepatitis viruses (A, B, C, Liver Jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain,
D, E) nausea, fever, dark urine
Ebola Ebola virus Multiple organs, blood Fever, headache, muscle pain,
vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding
Polio Poliovirus Nervous system, muscles Fever, sore throat, headache, muscle
weakness or paralysis
Chickenpox Varicella-zoster virus Skin, mucous membranes Rash with itchy blisters, fever, fatigue,
headache
Smallpox Variola virus Skin, mucous membranes Fever, rash, pustules covering the body,
scarring, high mortality
Dengue Dengue virus Blood, lymphatic system High fever, severe headache, joint/
muscle pain, rash, bleeding

Influenza Influenza viruses (A, B, C) Respiratory system Fever, cough, sore throat, body aches,
fatigue, runny/stuffy nose

126 General Science (General Knowledge)

Protozoa Disease

Disease Protozoa Affected Organs Symptoms

Kala Azar Leishmania donovani Liver, spleen, bone marrow Prolonged fever, enlarged spleen,
weight loss, anemia, fatigue
Malaria Plasmodium spp. (e.g., P. Blood, liver Recurrent high fever, chills, sweating,
falciparum, P. vivax) anemia, fatigue, nausea
Dysentery Entamoeba histolytica Intestines Severe diarrhea with blood or mucus,
abdominal pain, fever
Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Intestines, liver Abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, liver
abscesses, fatigue
Sleeping Trypanosoma brucei Nervous system, blood Fever, headaches, confusion, sleep
Sickness disturbances, neurological symptoms

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 127
 Exercise

1. Deficiency refers to a lack of something essential 9. Leprosy affects which organs or systems?
for bodily functioning, typically indicating an (a) Nervous system
inadequate amount of:
(b) Respiratory tract
(a) Genetic material (c) Skin, nerves, and respiratory tract
(b) Nutrient, vitamin, or vital substance (d) Digestive system
(c) Environmental factors
10. Syphilis primarily causes sores (chancre) on
(d) Lifestyle choices which body parts?
2. Diseases are conditions that affect the body, its (a) Skin
organs, tissues, or systems, causing characteristic
(b) Heart
symptoms, and are caused by:
(c) Genitals or mouth
(a) Bacteria only (d) Liver
(b) Pathogens, genetic factors, and lifestyle choices
11. Meningitis is an infection affecting:
(c) Viruses exclusively
(d) Environmental factors only (a) Lungs
(b) Kidneys
3. Infectious diseases caused by pathogens invading
(c) Meninges (protective layers around the brain
the body include all EXCEPT:
and spinal cord)
(a) Tuberculosis (d) Stomach
(b) Hypertension
12. Which bacterium causes Botulism?
(c) Influenza
(d) Malaria (a) Clostridium botulinum
(b) Streptococcus pneumoniae
4. Non-infectious diseases result from factors like
(c) Neisseria meningitidis
genetic factors, lifestyle choices, or environmental
exposures and include: (d) Vibrio cholerae
(a) Metabolic diseases 13. Pneumonia is caused by various bacteria, including:
(b) Bacterial infections (a) Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(c) Viral infections (b) Clostridium botulinum
(d) Fungal infections (c) Streptococcus pneumoniae
5. Which category of diseases is primarily caused (d) Vibrio cholerae
by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or 14. Cholera primarily affects which system?
parasites? (a) Respiratory system
(a) Infectious diseases (b) Digestive system
(b) Non-infectious diseases (c) Nervous system
(c) Lifestyle diseases (d) Cardiovascular system
(d) Genetic diseases 15. Plague is caused by:
6. Tuberculosis primarily affects which organ(s)? (a) Yersinia pestis
(a) Skin (b) Lungs (b) Vibrio cholerae
(c) Liver (d) Nervous system (c) Salmonella typhi
7. Which bacterium causes Tetanus? (d) Clostridium tetani
(a) Mycobacterium tuberculosis 16. Typhoid fever is caused by:
(b) Clostridium tetani (a) Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(c) Mycobacterium leprae (b) Vibrio cholerae
(d) Treponema pallidum (c) Salmonella typhi
8. Symptoms of Tetanus include: (d) Neisseria meningitidis
(a) Severe diarrhea 17. The virus causing Rabies primarily affects the:
(b) Muscle stiffness and jaw cramping (a) Respiratory system
(c) Skin lesions and numbness (b) Nervous system
(d) Fever and confusion (c) Digestive system

128 General Science (General Knowledge)

 (d) Cardiovascular system (a) Nervous system and muscles
18. The virus responsible for Measles affects the: (b) Digestive system
(a) Skin (c) Respiratory system
(b) Respiratory system and skin (d) Cardiovascular system
(c) Nervous system 23. Chickenpox is caused by which virus affecting the
(d) Digestive system skin and mucous membranes?
19. Herpes simplex virus causes: (a) Ebola virus
(b) Varicella-zoster virus
(a) Cold sores and genital sores
(c) Influenza virus
(b) Respiratory infections
(d) Rabies virus
(c) Skin rashes
(d) Fever and headache 24. The virus responsible for Dengue affects which
systems?
20. Hepatitis predominantly affects which organ?
(a) Nervous system and blood
(a) Lungs (b) Liver
(b) Digestive system
(c) Kidneys (d) Heart
(c) Respiratory system
21. Ebola virus primarily impacts which systems or (d) Blood and lymphatic system
organs?
25. Influenza primarily impacts the:
(a) Lungs
(a) Respiratory system
(b) Liver
(b) Digestive system
(c) Multiple organs and blood
(c) Cardiovascular system
(d) Nervous system
(d) Nervous system
22. Poliovirus primarily targets the:

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

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 STUDENT'S NOTES

130 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

5 Reproductive System

produce offspring. This process contributes to genetic

Reproductive System diversity and variation within a species.
Reproduction is the biological process through which new During sexual reproduction, two distinct gametes,
individual organisms of the same species are produced, typically an egg (female gamete) and a sperm (male
ensuring the perpetuation and continuation of life. gamete), combine through a process called fertilization.
It involves the creation of offspring, either sexually or These gametes are formed through a specialized
asexually, depending on the organism, where genetic cell division process called meiosis, which halves
information is passed from parent to offspring, ensuring the the genetic material in the gametes, ensuring that
preservation of the species. when they combine during fertilization, the resulting
offspring will have a complete set of chromosomes.
It is divided into two types:
The fusion of the egg and sperm results in the
1. Asexual Reproduction : Asexual reproduction is formation of a zygote, which develops into a new
a type of reproduction where new individuals are individual with a unique combination of genetic traits
produced from a single parent without the involvement inherited from both parents. This genetic variability is
of gametes (sex cells) or the fusion of genetic material essential for the adaptation and evolution of a species,
from two different individuals. This process does as it introduces diverse traits that can increase survival
not involve fertilization and occurs through various chances in changing environments.
mechanisms.
Sexual reproduction occurs in various forms across
Types of asexual reproduction include: different organisms, but its fundamental process
a. Binary Fission: A single organism divides into two involves the exchange and fusion of genetic material,
nearly equal parts. Common in bacteria and some leading to the creation of genetically diverse offspring.
single-celled organisms.
Reproductive organs of male :
b. Budding: A new organism grows from an outgrowth
or bud on the parent organism. Yeasts and hydra The male reproductive system is a complex network of
exhibit budding. organs that work together to produce, store, and deliver
sperm. Key organs within the male reproductive system
c. Fragmentation: The body of an organism breaks into include:
distinct pieces, and each piece can grow into a new
individual. Seen in organisms like starfish and certain 1. Testes: These are the primary male reproductive organs
plants. responsible for producing sperm and testosterone, the
male sex hormone. Sperm development occurs within
d. Vegetative Propagation: New plants develop from the seminiferous tubules located in the testes.
specialized structures like runners, rhizomes, tubers,
or bulbs in plants. Common in strawberries (runners) 2. Epididymis: This is a coiled tube located behind
or potatoes (tubers). each testis where sperm mature and are stored before
ejaculation. It helps in the transportation and storage
e. Parthenogenesis: Development of an embryo from of sperm.
an unfertilized egg. Certain insects, reptiles, and some
fish reproduce via parthenogenesis. 3. Vas Deferens: Also known as the ductus deferens, this
is a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from
These methods allow organisms to reproduce rapidly and the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
efficiently in favorable conditions, maintaining genetic
uniformity as they produce genetically identical offspring. 4. Seminal Vesicles: Glands located near the base of the
bladder that produce a significant portion of the seminal
2. Sexual reproduction : Sexual reproduction is a fluid. This fluid contains nutrients and substances that
biological process that involves the fusion of specialized support and nourish sperm.
sex cells, or gametes, from two parent organisms to

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 131
5. Prostate Gland: A walnut-sized gland situated below 5. Vagina: A muscular tube connecting the uterus to the
the bladder that produces a fluid that mixes with sperm outside of the body. It serves as the birth canal and
to form semen. It also helps in sperm motility and also allows menstrual blood to leave the body during
viability. menstruation.
6. Bulbourethral Glands: Also called Cowper’s glands, 6. Vulva: The external genitalia that includes the labia
these small glands produce a clear fluid that cleanses majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vaginal opening.
the urethra and lubricates it during sexual arousal.
The female reproductive system undergoes cyclical
7. Urethra: This tube serves as a passage for both urine changes controlled by hormones, resulting in menstruation,
and semen. During ejaculation, the urethra carries ovulation, and the potential for pregnancy. These organs
semen from the ejaculatory ducts out through the work together to support fertilization, implantation, and the
penis. development of a fetus during pregnancy.
8. Penis: The external male reproductive organ that
contains the urethra. During sexual arousal, the penis
becomes erect, allowing for the delivery of semen into
the female reproductive tract during intercourse.

The menstrual cycle:

The menstrual cycle is a natural process that occurs in
females, typically lasting around 28 days, although it can
vary from person to person. It involves a series of hormonal
changes and physical events that prepare the body for a
possible pregnancy.
1. Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5): The cycle begins with
Reproductive organs of female
menstruation, where the lining of the uterus sheds if
Each of these organs plays a crucial role in the process of no egg was fertilized in the previous cycle. This phase
producing and delivering sperm for fertilization. is characterized by the discharge of blood and tissue
through the vagina.
Female reproductive organs:
2. Follicular Phase (Days 1-13): Simultaneously with
The female reproductive system consists of several organs
menstruation, the brain’s pituitary gland releases
that work together to facilitate reproduction.
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates
1. Ovaries: Paired organs located in the pelvis that the ovaries to produce follicles (fluid-filled sacs), each
produce eggs (ova) and hormones like estrogen and containing an immature egg. As these follicles grow,
progesterone. they release estrogen, which helps rebuild the uterine
lining.
2. Fallopian Tubes: Also known as oviducts, these are
thin tubes extending from each ovary to the uterus. 3. Ovulation (Around Day 14): Around the middle of
They serve as the site where fertilization typically the cycle, a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers
occurs. the release of a mature egg from one of the follicles in
the ovary. This is called ovulation. The egg moves into
3. Uterus: A pear-shaped organ where a fertilized egg
the fallopian tube and is available for fertilization for
implants and develops into a fetus during pregnancy. It
about 12-24 hours.
consists of the cervix (the lower narrow part) and the
main body (the fundus). 4. Luteal Phase (Days 15-28): After ovulation, the
ruptured follicle transforms into a structure called the
4. Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that connects to
corpus luteum, which releases progesterone and some
the vagina. It acts as a barrier between the uterus and
estrogen. These hormones help thicken the uterine
the vagina and dilates during childbirth to allow the
lining in preparation for a potential pregnancy. If
baby to pass through.
fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks

132 General Science (General Knowledge)

 down, hormone levels drop, and the cycle begins again three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
with menstruation. endoderm. These layers give rise to different tissues
and organs in the body.
The cycle repeats itself, and the length and characteristics
can differ for each individual. Hormonal fluctuations Ectoderm: Develops into the nervous system, skin,
during this time can cause various physical and emotional hair, and nails.
symptoms, such as mood swings, breast tenderness,
Mesoderm: Forms muscles, bones, blood, kidneys,
bloating, and fatigue.
and the heart.
It’s important to note that factors like stress, illness, and
Endoderm: Gives rise to the digestive system, lungs,
changes in weight or exercise routines can influence the
liver, and pancreas.
menstrual cycle, causing variations in its regularity or
symptoms. If someone experiences severe or disruptive 5. Organogenesis: This stage involves the formation and
symptoms during their menstrual cycle, it’s advisable to development of specific organs and body structures
consult a healthcare professional for guidance and support. from the three germ layers. It’s a complex process
where organs and systems begin to take shape and
Process of embryonic development in a woman : develop.
The process of embryonic development in a woman 6. Fetal Development: After the major organs have
occurs after fertilization and involves several stages as the formed, the embryo is now considered a fetus. Over
fertilized egg progresses into a mature embryo. the remaining weeks of pregnancy, the fetus grows and
1. Fertilization: Fertilization typically occurs in the matures, with organs continuing to develop and fine-
fallopian tube when a sperm cell penetrates and merges tune their functionality.
with the egg, forming a zygote. This fusion creates a Throughout this process, the developing embryo/fetus
single cell with the full set of chromosomes necessary is supported by the placenta and the umbilical cord.
for human development. The placenta provides nutrients and oxygen from the
2. Cleavage: The zygote begins to undergo rapid cell mother’s bloodstream to the developing fetus and
division called cleavage. These divisions result in a removes waste products. The umbilical cord connects
cluster of cells known as a morula, which eventually the fetus to the placenta, facilitating this exchange of
forms a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. substances.

3. Implantation: Around 5-7 days after fertilization, the It’s essential to note that this development is highly intricate
blastocyst reaches the uterus and implants itself into and sensitive, and various factors such as nutrition, maternal
the lining of the uterine wall. This process allows the health, environmental influences, and genetic factors can
embryo to receive nourishment from the mother’s body. significantly impact the process. Regular prenatal care
and a healthy lifestyle are crucial to supporting optimal
4. Gastrulation: Once implanted, the blastocyst embryonic and fetal development.
undergoes gastrulation, where it transforms into

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 133
 Exercise

1. Reproduction ensures the continuation of life by 10. Which germ layer gives rise to the nervous system
producing: and skin?
(a) Offspring of different species (a) Ectoderm (b) Mesoderm
(b) Offspring of the same species (c) Endoderm (d) Zygote
(c) Single-celled organisms 11. The role of the placenta during embryonic
(d) Asexual organisms development includes:
2. Asexual reproduction differs from sexual (a) Production of sperm
reproduction primarily because it: (b) Supplying nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
(a) Involves the fusion of gametes (c) Formation of blastocyst
(b) Produces genetically identical offspring (d) Fusion of gametes
(c) Requires two parent organisms 12. What marks the beginning of the menstrual cycle?
(d) Produces diverse offspring (a) Ovulation (b) Implantation
3. Which of the following is NOT a form of asexual (c) Menstruation (d) Fertilization
reproduction?
13. The external male reproductive organ that contains
(a) Binary fission (b) Budding the urethra is the:
(c) Fertilization (d) Fragmentation (a) Vas Deferens (b) Prostate Gland
4. Sexual reproduction contributes to genetic (c) Penis (d) Epididymis
diversity through:
14. The process that involves a surge in luteinizing
(a) Meiosis and fusion of gametes hormone triggering the release of a mature egg is
(b) Fragmentation and budding called:
(c) Parthenogenesis (a) Menstruation (b) Ovulation
(d) Binary fission (c) Fertilization (d) Implantation
5. The primary male reproductive organ responsible 15. Which organ is responsible for producing eggs
for producing sperm and testosterone is the: and hormones like estrogen and progesterone?
(a) Epididymis (b) Testes (a) Fallopian Tubes (b) Cervix
(c) Vas Deferens (d) Prostate Gland (c) Ovaries (d) Uterus
6. The gland that produces a fluid mixing with sperm 16. The male reproductive system transports mature
to form semen is the: sperm from the epididymis to the urethra via:
(a) Seminal Vesicles (a) Seminal Vesicles
(b) Prostate Gland (b) Vas Deferens
(c) Bulbourethral Glands (c) Bulbourethral Glands
(d) Testes (d) Prostate Gland
7. Which female reproductive organ typically serves 17. The stage where the zygote forms a hollow ball of
as the site for fertilization? cells is known as:
(a) Uterus (b) Fallopian Tubes (a) Cleavage (b) Implantation
(c) Ovaries (d) Cervix (c) Gastrulation (d) Fertilization
8. The menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle 18. The phase where the uterus sheds its lining if no
involves: egg is fertilized is known as the:
(a) Ovulation (a) Follicular Phase
(b) Shedding of the uterine lining (b) Luteal Phase
(c) Development of the egg (c) Menstrual Phase
(d) Fertilization (d) Ovulation Phase
9. The process of forming three primary germ layers 19. The germ layer that develops into muscles, bones,
during embryonic development is called: blood, and the heart is the:
(a) Implantation (b) Gastrulation (a) Ectoderm (b) Mesoderm
(c) Cleavage (d) Fertilization (c) Endoderm (d) Blastocyst

134 General Science (General Knowledge)

20. The part of the male reproductive system 23. The stage when a blastocyst implants into the
responsible for storing and maturing sperm is the: uterine wall is known as:
(a) Testes (b) Epididymis (a) Fertilization (b) Cleavage
(c) Seminal Vesicles (d) Vas Deferens (c) Implantation (d) Gastrulation
21. The structure that connects the ovaries to the 24. The external female genitalia includes:
uterus is known as the: (a) Fallopian Tubes (b) Uterus
(a) Cervix (b) Fallopian Tubes (c) Vulva (d) Ovaries
(c) Vulva (d) Vagina 25. The phase where a surge in luteinizing hormone
22. Which gland produces a clear fluid cleansing the triggers the release of a mature egg is the:
urethra and lubricating it during sexual arousal? (a) Follicular Phase
(a) Seminal Vesicles (b) Menstrual Phase
(b) Prostate Gland (c) Ovulation Phase
(c) Bulbourethral Glands (d) Luteal Phase
(d) Epididymis
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 135
 STUDENT'S NOTES

136 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Reproduction In
6 Plants

and the ovary, which contains ovules that develop into

Reproduction In Plants seeds upon fertilization.
The reproductive organs of the plan: Each of these parts plays a specific role in the reproductive
Flower: The flower is the reproductive structure found in process of flowering plants, contributing to the formation
flowering plants (angiosperms). It’s typically composed of seeds and ensuring the continuation of plant species
of four main parts: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels through pollination and fertilization.
(or pistils). Flowers play a crucial role in reproduction by Spores: Some plants reproduce via spores, which are tiny
facilitating pollination and subsequent seed formation. reproductive units that can develop into new plants. Ferns,
Calyx: The calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower, mosses, and some algae use spores for reproduction.
consisting of sepals. Sepals are usually green and enclose
Sporogenesis:
and protect the flower bud before it blooms. They can also
support and protect the other parts of the flower. Sporogenesis refers to the process by which spores are formed
Corolla: The corolla is the inner whorl of the flower, in certain organisms, particularly in plants, fungi, and some
comprising petals. Petals are often colorful and play a role protists. This process involves the production of specialized
in attracting pollinators like bees, butterflies, and birds. reproductive cells called spores, which serve as a means of
They also protect the reproductive organs of the flower. reproduction, dispersal, and survival in adverse conditions.

Androecium: The androecium is the male reproductive There are two primary types of sporogenesis:
part of the flower, composed of stamens. Stamens consist 1. Meiotic Sporogenesis: This type of sporogenesis
of two parts: the anther and the filament. The anther involves meiosis, a cell division process that reduces
produces pollen, which contains male gametes necessary the chromosome number by half. Meiotic sporogenesis
for fertilization. The filament supports the anther. occurs in plants during the formation of spores within
Gynoecium: The gynoecium is the female reproductive sporangia (spore-producing structures).
part of the flower, made up of carpels (or pistils). Carpels Through meiosis, a diploid cell undergoes two rounds
typically consist of three parts: the stigma, style, and ovary. of division to produce four haploid spores. These
The stigma receives pollen, the style connects the stigma spores are genetically diverse and have half the number
to the ovary, and the ovary contains ovules, which develop of chromosomes as the parent cell.
into seeds after fertilization. This type of sporogenesis is common in plants, where
Sepal: Sepals are the outermost part of the flower and spores serve as the starting point for the development
collectively form the calyx. They are often green and protect of gametophytes (haploid plants) in the life cycle.
the flower bud before it opens. Sepals can also play a role in 2. Mitotic Sporogenesis: Mitotic sporogenesis involves
attracting pollinators or providing support to the petals. the formation of spores through mitosis, a cell division
Petal: Petals are part of the corolla and are typically process that results in identical daughter cells with the
brightly colored or have distinct patterns. They are involved same chromosome number as the parent cell.
in attracting pollinators and protecting the reproductive In some fungi and certain protists, mitotic sporogenesis
organs of the flower. occurs within specialized structures or sporocysts.
Stamen: The stamen is the male reproductive organ of the Here, a diploid cell undergoes mitotic divisions to
flower, part of the androecium. It consists of the anther, produce multiple haploid spores. These spores are
which produces pollen grains containing male gametes, often used for dispersal and can develop into new
and the filament, which supports the anther. organisms under suitable conditions.
Carpel: The carpel, also known as the pistil, is the female Both meiotic and mitotic sporogenesis are essential
reproductive organ of the flower, part of the gynoecium. It reproductive processes that ensure the production of spores,
typically comprises three parts: the stigma, which receives enabling organisms to disperse and propagate, contributing
pollen, the style, which connects the stigma to the ovary, to their survival and life cycle.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 137
 genetic material from the sperm to combine with the
Gametogenesis: genetic material of the egg.
Gametogenesis refers to the process by which specialized 3. Formation of Zygote: The fusion of the male and
cells called gametes are formed. Gametes are reproductive female gametes results in the formation of a zygote. The
cells—sperm cells in males and egg cells in females—that zygote is the initial cell of the new organism and contains
fuse during fertilization to form a new organism. a complete set of chromosomes, half from the sperm
There are two primary types of gametogenesis: (paternal) and half from the egg (maternal). This fusion
marks the beginning of the developmental process.
1. Megagametogenesis: This term describes the formation
of female gametes, or megagametophytes, in plants. It 4. Cell Division and Development: After fertilization, the
primarily occurs within the ovule, a structure found in zygote undergoes rapid cell divisions through a process
the ovary of the flower. Megagametogenesis involves a called cleavage. These divisions lead to the formation
series of cell divisions that lead to the formation of the of a blastocyst (in mammals) or an embryo (in plants),
embryo sac, which contains the female gametes (or egg which further develops into a mature organism.
cells). The process begins with the megaspore mother Fertilization is a critical event in the life cycle of sexually
cell, which undergoes meiosis to produce haploid reproducing organisms, as it combines genetic material
megaspores. One of these megaspores undergoes from two individuals to create offspring with genetic
multiple rounds of mitotic divisions, leading to the diversity. This process ensures the continuity of species
development of the embryo sac. Within the embryo sac, and contributes to genetic variability within populations.
one or more cells differentiate into the egg cell(s), which
are the female gametes essential for fertilization. Pollination:
2. Microgametogenesis: This term pertains to the formation Pollination is a crucial process in the reproduction of
of male gametes, or microgametophytes, in plants. It flowering plants, where pollen grains from the male
occurs within the pollen grains, which are produced in reproductive organs (anthers) of a flower are transferred
the male reproductive organs of flowers called anthers. to the female reproductive organs (stigma) of the same
Microgametogenesis involves the development of pollen or another flower. This transfer of pollen allows for
from the microspore mother cells through meiosis. Each fertilization and the production of seeds.
microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce
haploid microspores. These microspores then mature There are various methods of pollination:
into pollen grains through a process of mitotic divisions 1. Self-pollination: In this method, pollen from the
and cellular differentiation. Each pollen grain contains anther of a flower is deposited on the stigma of the
male gametes, usually two sperm cells, that are crucial same flower or another flower on the same plant. For
for fertilization. example, pea plants often self-pollinate.
Both megagametogenesis and microgametogenesis are 2. Cross-pollination: This occurs when pollen is
fundamental processes in plant reproduction, ensuring transferred from the anther of one flower to the
the formation of male and female gametes necessary for stigma of another flower on a different plant of the
sexual reproduction. These processes involve specialized same species. Bees, butterflies, birds, wind, and other
cellular divisions and transformations that culminate in the animals can facilitate this process. An example is the
production of functional gametes, contributing to the plant cross-pollination of apple trees by bees.
life cycle and the continuation of plant species.
3. Wind pollination: Some plants rely on the wind to
Fertilization: carry their pollen from one flower to another. These
Fertilization is the process by which two gametes, typically plants usually have small, lightweight pollen grains.
a sperm cell and an egg cell, unite to form a zygote, Examples include grasses, such as wheat and corn.
initiating the development of a new organism. 4. Insect pollination: Many plants are pollinated by
In sexual reproduction, fertilization occurs following the insects like bees, butterflies, beetles, and flies. They are
fusion of male and female gametes, each contributing genetic attracted to flowers by their colors, scents, and nectar.
material to form a new individual with a unique combination As they move from flower to flower collecting nectar,
of genetic traits. This process involves several steps: they inadvertently transfer pollen, aiding in pollination.
1. Pollination / Transfer of Gametes In plants, pollination A classic example is the pollination of clover by bees.
facilitates the transfer of pollen containing male gametes 5. Bird and bat pollination: Some plants have evolved
(sperm cells) from the anther of a flower to the stigma of to be pollinated by birds (like hummingbirds) or bats.
another flower. In animals, the transfer of sperm to the These animals feed on the nectar of flowers and carry
vicinity of the egg usually occurs through mating. pollen between them as they move from one flower to
2. Fusion of Gametes: Once the sperm cell reaches the another. Examples include certain species of orchids
egg cell, a series of biochemical reactions and processes pollinated by hummingbirds.
are initiated, leading to the fusion of the two gametes. Each method of pollination plays a vital role in the
The sperm cell penetrates the protective layers around reproduction of plants, ensuring genetic diversity and the
the egg cell, and their membranes merge, allowing the continuation of plant species.

138 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. Which of the following is a crucial process in (a) Insect pollination

plant reproduction? (b) Wind pollination
(a) Germination (b) Pollination (c) Bird and bat pollination
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Transpiration (d) Self-pollination
2. What is transferred during the process of 11. What attracts insects and animals to flowers,
pollination? aiding in pollination?
(a) Seeds (b) Nectar (a) Color and scent
(c) Pollen (d) Petals (b) Large leaves
3. In self-pollination, where is pollen deposited? (c) Thorny stems
(d) Underground roots
(a) On another plant's stigma
(b) On the same flower's stigma 12. Pollination ensures:
(c) On leaves (a) Reproduction of plants
(d) On the ground (b) Growth of stems
4. Which pollination method involves the transfer (c) Formation of leaves
of pollen from one flower to another on the same (d) Protection from predators
plant? 13. Which part of the flower holds the pollen
(a) Wind pollination grains?
(b) Insect pollination (a) Stigma (b) Style
(c) Self-pollination (c) Anther (d) Ovary
(d) Bird pollination 14. Which plant is commonly wind-pollinated?
5. What is the primary role of the stigma in pollination? (a) Rose (b) Dandelion
(a) Producing nectar (c) Lily (d) Tulip
(b) Attracting insects 15. What do insects often collect from flowers that
(c) Receiving pollen aids in pollination?
(d) Holding seeds (a) Pollen (b) Stems
6. Which pollinator is known for its role in (c) Leaves (d) Roots
transferring pollen between flowers while
16. Which of the following is an example of cross-
collecting nectar?
pollination?
(a) Bees (b) Butterflies
(a) Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma on the
(c) Birds (d) Ants same flower
7. What kind of plants typically rely on wind (b) Transfer of pollen from one flower to another
pollination? on a different plant
(a) Plants with heavy pollen grains (c) Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma on
(b) Plants with brightly colored flowers different flowers of the same plant
(c) Plants with large petals (d) Transfer of pollen by wind
(d) Plants with small, lightweight pollen grains 17. Which type of pollination requires the involvement
8. Which of the following is NOT a method of of a third-party organism?
pollination? (a) Wind pollination
(a) Wind pollination (b) Insect pollination (b) Self-pollination
(c) Transpiration (d) Bird pollination (c) Insect pollination
9. What is the male reproductive organ of a flower (d) Bird pollination
called? 18. Pollination by water is common in:
(a) Ovary (b) Pistil (a) Terrestrial plants
(c) Stigma (d) Anther (b) Aquatic plants
10. Which method of pollination involves the (c) Desert plants
assistance of birds or bats? (d) Tropical plants

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 139
19. Which part of the flower receives pollen during (c) Pollination (d) Photosynthesis
pollination? 23. Which of the following is NOT a natural
(a) Anther (b) Stigma pollinator?
(c) Style (d) Ovary (a) Bees (b) Humans
20. What characteristic helps flowers attract insects (c) Birds (d) Butterflies
for pollination? 24. Wind-pollinated flowers typically have:
(a) Dull coloration (b) Unpleasant scent (a) Showy petals
(c) Nectar secretion (d) Large thorns (b) Sticky pollen
21. Which pollinator is commonly associated with the (c) Large nectar glands
pollination of orchids? (d) Small, inconspicuous flowers
(a) Bees (b) Butterflies 25. Which method of pollination ensures genetic
(c) Hummingbirds (d) Beetles diversity in plant populations?
22. The process of transferring pollen from the anther (a) Wind pollination (b) Insect pollination
to the stigma is known as: (c) Self-pollination (d) Bird pollination
(a) Fertilization (b) Germination

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (b)

STUDENT'S NOTES

140 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

7 Sensory Organs

c. Pupil: The pupil is the black circular opening in

Sensory Organs the center of the iris. It adjusts in size to control the
Sensory organs are specialized structures within living amount of light entering the eye. In bright conditions,
organisms that detect and respond to various stimuli from the pupil contracts to reduce the amount of light, while
the environment. in dim conditions, it dilates to allow more light in.
These organs enable organisms to perceive and interpret d. Lens: Behind the iris, the lens helps focus light onto
information about their surroundings. the retina. It changes shape to adjust focus, allowing
us to see objects at varying distances through a process
Humans and many animals possess several sensory organs, called accommodation.
each dedicated to specific types of stimuli.
e. Retina: The retina lines the inner back surface of the eye
1. Eyes (Vision): and contains photoreceptor cells called rods and cones.
These cells detect light and convert it into electrical
The human eye is a complex sensory organ responsible
signals that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
for vision, allowing us to perceive the world around us.
Its mechanism involves various parts working together to f. Rods and Cones: Rods are responsible for vision in
capture light, convert it into electrical signals, and transmit low light conditions and detecting motion, while cones
these signals to the brain for interpretation. are responsible for color vision and detail in bright
conditions. Cones are concentrated in the fovea, the
a. Cornea: The cornea is the transparent, dome shaped
central area of the retina.
outer layer that covers the front of the eye. It acts as a
protective barrier and helps in focusing light. g. Optic Nerve: The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve
fibers that carries visual information from the retina to
b. Iris: The iris is the colored part of the eye that regulates
the brain. It transmits the electrical signals generated
the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting the
by the photoreceptor cells to the visual cortex in the
size of the pupil. The muscles in the iris control pupil
brain for interpretation.
dilation and constriction.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 141
 Ear Canal (Auditory Canal) : This tube like passage
Mechanism of Vision: carries sound waves from the pinna to the eardrum. It
When light enters the eye, it passes through the cornea, then is lined with glands that produce cerumen (earwax),
the pupil, and the lens, which focuses it onto the retina. The which helps protect the ear canal by trapping dirt and
light stimulates the photoreceptor cells—rods and cones— preventing infections.
in the retina. Rods are more sensitive to light and provide
b. Middle Ear:
black and white vision, while cones provide color vision.
Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane) : The eardrum is a
These photoreceptor cells convert light into electrical
thin membrane that separates the outer and middle ear.
signals, which are transmitted through the optic nerve to
It vibrates when sound waves strike it, transmitting
the brain’s visual cortex. The brain processes these signals,
these vibrations to the inner ear.
assembling them into the images and visual information
that we perceive as vision. Ossicles: Three small bones—the malleus (hammer), incus
(anvil), and stapes (stirrup)—form the ossicular chain. They
This intricate system of parts and processes allows the
amplify and transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the
human eye to capture, process, and interpret light, enabling
inner ear. The stapes’ movement against the oval window of
us to see the rich and diverse world around us.
the cochlea creates pressure waves within the inner ear.
2. Ears (Hearing): c. Inner Ear:
The human ear is a complex organ responsible for the sense Cochlea: Shaped like a snail’s shell, the cochlea is a
of hearing and aiding in balance and spatial orientation. spiral shaped, fluid filled structure. It plays a critical
Comprised of multiple parts, each with distinct functions, role in hearing by converting sound vibrations into
the ear facilitates the reception, transmission, and electrical impulses that the brain can interpret. The
interpretation of sound waves. cochlea contains the Organ of Corti, which houses
The ear is divided into three main sections: the outer ear, thousands of tiny hair cells responsible for detecting
middle ear, and inner ear. different frequencies of sound.

a. Outer Ear: Vestibular System: Adjacent to the cochlea is the

vestibular system, which includes three semicircular
Pinna (Auricle): The visible part of the ear is the canals and the utricle and saccule. This system helps
pinna, the outer fleshy structure that collects and in maintaining balance and spatial orientation by
funnels sound waves into the ear canal. detecting head movement and position in space.

142 General Science (General Knowledge)

 b. Nasal Cavity: The nasal cavity is a hollow space
The Mechanism of Hearing: behind the nostrils. It is lined with mucous membranes
1. Sound waves are collected by the pinna and channeled and tiny hairs called cilia, which help filter and
into the ear canal. humidify the air entering the nose.
2. The sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, c. Nasal Septum: The nasal septum is a partition made
transmitting these vibrations to the ossicles. of cartilage and bone that separates the nasal cavity
into two chambers.
3. The ossicles amplify and relay these vibrations to the
oval window of the cochlea. d. Sinuses: There are four pairs of sinuses—air filled
cavities around the nasal cavity. These sinuses help
4. Fluid movement within the cochlea stimulates the
in reducing the weight of the skull and in producing
hair cells in the Organ of Corti, generating electrical
mucus that moisturizes the nasal passages.
impulses.
e. Olfactory Epithelium: Located in the upper part of the
5. These impulses travel along the auditory nerve to the
nasal cavity, the olfactory epithelium contains millions
brain, where they are processed and interpreted as sound.
of specialized sensory nerve cells called olfactory
The human ear’s intricate structure and functioning receptors. These receptors detect odor molecules in the
enable us not only to perceive sound but also to maintain air.
balance and orientation in our environment, contributing
f. Olfactory Bulb: The olfactory bulb is an extension of
significantly to our sensory experience.
the brain located just above the nasal cavity. It receives
3. Nose (Smell): signals from the olfactory receptors and processes
the information before transmitting it to the brain for
Certainly! The human nose is a complex sensory organ interpretation.
primarily responsible for the sense of smell (olfaction) and
also contributes to the sense of taste. It’s composed of several g. Nasal Turbinates: The nasal turbinates are bony
parts that work together to detect and process smells. structures covered with mucous membranes inside the
nasal cavity. They help increase the surface area in the
a. Nostrils: The external openings of the nose are called nose, warming and moisturizing the air as it passes
nostrils or nares. Air enters the nasal passages through through.
these openings.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 143
The process of smelling begins when odor molecules d. Salivary Glands : The tongue plays a role in the
from substances in the environment enter the nasal cavity production of saliva, which aids in digestion and
through the nostrils. As the air passes over the olfactory lubrication of food for easier swallowing. Salivary
epithelium, the olfactory receptors bind to specific odor glands located in and around the tongue release saliva
molecules. These receptors then send electrical signals to into the mouth.
the olfactory bulb, where the information is processed.
e. Papillae Sensation : Papillae contribute to the
The olfactory bulb interprets these signals and relays the sensation of texture in the mouth. Filiform papillae,
information to various parts of the brain, including the in particular, provide tactile information about food
limbic system, which is associated with emotions and texture, allowing us to distinguish between different
memory. This is why certain smells can evoke strong consistencies.
emotions or trigger memories.
f. Speech Formation : The tongue’s movements and
The intricate structure of the human nose allows us to detect positioning play a vital role in speech production. It
a wide range of scents and odors, contributing significantly elps in shaping sounds by touching various parts of the
to our sensory experiences and influencing our perceptions mouth, such as the teeth, palate, and lips.
of the world around us.
g. Swallowing : The tongue assists in the process of
4. Tongue (Taste): swallowing by moving food to the back of the mouth
and into the throat. It helps push the food bolus toward
The human tongue is a versatile and crucial organ the pharynx to initiate the swallowing reflex.
responsible for various functions, including tasting,
swallowing, speech formation, and cleaning the oral cavity. h. Cleaning Action : The constant movement of the
tongue helps clean the oral cavity by removing food
a. Papillae: These are small structures on the tongue’s particles and bacteria from the teeth, gums, and palate.
surface that contain taste buds. There are four types This cleaning action contributes to oral hygiene.
of papillae: fungiform (scattered across the tongue),
filiform (help with texture sensation), foliate (located The human tongue is a remarkable organ with intricate
on the sides of the tongue), and circumvallate (larger structures and functions. Its ability to detect tastes,
and arranged in a V shape at the back of the tongue). facilitate speech, aid in swallowing, and contribute to oral
Taste buds on these papillae detect different tastes. hygiene makes it an essential component of our daily lives
and overall well being.
b. Taste Buds: These microscopic structures housed
within the papillae contain specialized cells responsible 5. Skin (Touch and Temperature):
for detecting tastes. They can detect five primary
The human skin is the largest organ of the body, serving
tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory).
as a protective barrier between the internal organs and the
Each taste bud contains receptors for these different
external environment. It consists of several layers, each
tastes.
with specific functions and components.
a. Epidermis: The epidermis is the outermost layer
of the skin, providing protection against pathogens,
UV radiation, and water loss. It primarily contains
keratinocytes, which produce the protein keratin,
contributing to the skin’s strength and waterproofing.
Melanocytes within the epidermis produce melanin,
responsible for skin pigmentation and protection
against UV rays.
b. Dermis: Beneath the epidermis lies the dermis, a
thicker layer containing blood vessels, nerves, hair
follicles, sweat glands, and connective tissue. The
dermis provides structural support to the skin and
houses the skin’s sensory receptors responsible for
touch, pressure, temperature, and pain perception.
c. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Tissue): The hypodermis
is the deepest layer of the skin, composed of fat cells
(adipocytes), connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves.
It acts as an insulating layer, regulating body temperature
and providing cushioning and energy storage.
c. Tongue Muscles : The tongue is made up of various
muscles that allow for movement, enabling functions Parts and Structures of the Skin:
such as speaking and swallowing. The intrinsic muscles
within the tongue help change its shape, while the extrinsic Hair: Hair follicles embedded in the dermis produce hair.
muscles aid in its movement within the oral cavity. Each hair follicle contains cells that create the hair shaft,

144 General Science (General Knowledge)

which emerges from the skin’s surface. Hair helps regulate help regulate body temperature by expanding or contracting
body temperature and provides sensory information. to control blood flow.
Sweat Glands: Sweat glands, including eccrine and Nerves: The skin is rich in sensory nerves that transmit
apocrine glands, are located in the dermis. Eccrine glands signals to the brain, allowing us to perceive sensations such
produce sweat that helps regulate body temperature by as touch, temperature, pressure, and pain.
cooling the skin when evaporated. Apocrine glands produce Nails: Nails are made of a protein called keratin and grow
a thicker secretion that is activated during emotional stress from the nail root beneath the skin. They protect the tips of
and puberty. the fingers and toes and assist in tasks requiring fine touch
and manipulation.
Sebaceous Glands: Sebaceous glands secrete an oily
substance called sebum, which lubricates and waterproofs The human skin performs various essential functions,
the skin and hair, preventing excessive dryness and including protection against pathogens, regulation of body
protecting against microbial invasion. temperature, sensation perception, and synthesis of vitamin
D when exposed to sunlight. Its complex structure and
Blood Vessels: The skin contains a network of blood multiple layers enable it to carry out these vital roles in
vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to skin cells and maintaining overall health and well being.

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 Exercise

1. Regarding the human eye, which part acts as a (c) Ossicles (d) Auditory canal
protective barrier and assists in focusing light? 11. Where are the olfactory receptors located for
(a) Iris (b) Lens detecting odors?
(c) Cornea (d) Retina (a) Nasal septum (b) Olfactory bulb
2. What is the function of the iris in the human eye? (c) Nasal turbinates (d) Olfactory epithelium
(a) Transmit electrical signals 12. Which part of the tongue contains taste buds for
(b) Regulate light entering the eye different tastes?
(c) Detect light (a) Papillae (b) Tongue muscles
(d) Produce rods and cones (c) Salivary glands (d) Nasal septum
3. In bright conditions, what happens to the pupil of 13. What is the function of the hypodermis
the eye? (subcutaneous tissue) in the skin?
(a) It dilates (a) Protection against UV radiation
(b) It contracts (b) Regulate body temperature
(c) It remains the same (c) Insulating layer and energy storage
(d) It closes completely (d) Sensory perception
4. What is the function of the vestibular system in 14. Where are sweat glands primarily located in the
the inner ear? skin?
(a) Aids in hearing (a) Dermis (b) Epidermis
(b) Maintains balance and spatial orientation (c) Hypodermis (d) Hair follicles
(c) Amplifies sound vibrations 15. What is the primary function of sebaceous glands
(d) Collects sound waves in the skin?
5. Where are photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) (a) Produce sweat
located in the eye? (b) Regulate body temperature
(a) Lens (b) Cornea (c) Lubricate and waterproof skin
(c) Retina (d) Pupil (d) Produce keratinocytes
6. What type of vision do rods primarily support in 16. Which part of the skin contains sensory nerves for
the human eye? touch, pressure, and temperature?
(a) Color vision (a) Blood vessels (b) Dermis
(b) Detail vision (c) Nails (d) Sebaceous glands
(c) Black and white vision 17. What is the main purpose of nails in humans?
(d) Peripheral vision
(a) Sensory perception
7. What nerve carries visual information from the (b) Regulate body temperature
eye to the brain? (c) Protect the tips of fingers and toes
(a) Optic nerve (b) Auditory nerve (d) Lubrication and waterproofing
(c) Olfactory nerve (d) Facial nerve 18. Which part of the eye controls the amount of light
8. Which part of the ear collects and funnels sound entering the eye?
waves into the ear canal? (a) Lens (b) Pupil
(a) Ossicles (b) Cochlea (c) Retina (d) Cornea
(c) Pinna (Auricle) (d) Auditory nerve 19. Where are the auditory receptors responsible for
9. What separates the outer and middle ear in the detecting different frequencies of sound located?
human ear? (a) Cochlea (b) Pinna (Auricle)
(a) Eardrum (b) Ossicles (c) Eardrum (d) Ossicles
(c) Pinna (d) Cochlea 20. Which structure separates the nasal cavity into
10. Which structure converts sound vibrations into two chambers?
electrical impulses in the ear? (a) Olfactory bulb (b) Nasal septum
(a) Cochlea (b) Pinna (c) Nasal turbinates (d) Nostrils

146 General Science (General Knowledge)

21. What part of the tongue aids in detecting texture (c) Supply nutrients and oxygen
sensations in the mouth? (d) Detect temperature changes
(a) Papillae (b) Salivary glands 24. What is the primary function of sweat glands in
(c) Taste buds (d) Tongue muscles the skin?
22. Which layer of the skin primarily contains (a) Regulate body temperature
keratinocytes and melanocytes? (b) Produce sebum
(a) Epidermis (b) Dermis (c) Lubricate the skin
(c) Hypodermis (d) Hair follicles (d) Protect against UV radiation
23. What is the function of the blood vessels in the 25. Which organ is responsible for black and white
skin? vision in low-light conditions?
(a) Produce sweat (a) Cornea (b) Retina
(b) Provide structural support (c) Pupil (d) Rods

ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (d)

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 STUDENT'S NOTES

148 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

8 Respiratory System

Alveoli : Structural & functional unit of lungs is called

Respiration alveoli Approximately 300 million alveoli are present in
A process in which oxygen combines with organic both lung. Inner (alveolar) surface area of both lungs is
compounds in cells to release energy is called respiration. approximately 100 m2.
Internal surface of Alveoli is termed as the Respiratory
Stages of Respiration:
surface. Muscles are absent in the lungs of mammals. So
According to scientist G.S. Carter there are three stages the power of self-contraction and self-expension is absent
in respiration- in these lungs. (Sucken lungs)
(i) External Respiration (Ventilation): Gaseous Diaphragm: A muscular septum which is found only in
exchange between environment and lung. mammals (and crocodile). Normal shape of it is dome
like which divides body cavity in two parts upper thoracic
(ii) Internal Respiration:
cavity & lower abdominal cavity.
(A) Gaseous exchange between lungs and blood.
Radial muscles are present in diaphragm. they originate
(B) Gaseous exchange between blood and tissue fluid. from periphery & inserted in central region of diaphragm.
(iii) Cellular Respiration: Oxidation of organic By the contraction in these muscles, diaphragm become
compounds in cell in which energy is released. flatten in shape, so, volume of thoracic cavity increases.
Therefore, diaphragm helps in inspiration.
Structure of Respiratory System
Mechanism of breathing
(1) Respiratory Tract (Conducting zone)
Inspiration and expiration are included in breathing.
(2) Lungs (Exchange zone) Normal breathing is termed Eupnoea.
Respiratory tract Inspiration: Diaphragm becomes flat and is pushed
A passage from external nostrils to lungs towards abdominal cavity. Air pressure in the lungs is
decreased as compared to atmospheric pressure. Now air
or rushes from outside, through respiratory track and fills the
A passage by which air enters into lungs lungs. Inspiration is an active process. Normally it takes
around 2 seconds.
Lungs
Expiration: Normal expiration is a passive activity. It takes
●● Anatomical organ which is the actual site for exchange around 3 seconds. During expiration, contraction (in any
of gases. muscle) does not take place. Due to which the volume of
●● Between the buccal and the Nasal cavity hard palate thoracic cavity is decreased, and pressure of thoracic cage
followed by soft palate is present. The terminal part of on lungs is increased. Thus air which was filled in lungs
soft plate is called Uvula. goes outside through respiratory tract. Normal breathing is
also called Abdominal breathing.
●● At the time of swallowing of food, the Uvula lifts up
and covers the internal-nares and so prevents the food ●● Normal breathing rate of rabbit is 36-38 per minute. for
from entering the nasal-passage. human it is 12-18 per minute.

●● Near the glottis a flat cartilage called the Epiglottis is ●● Most oxygen comes in the blood from air, it is
present. At the time of swallowing food this cartilage approximately 3% dissolves in the blood plasma.
covers the glottis, So the breathing stops. Remaining 97% oxygen combines with haemoglobin to
form oxyhaemoglobin. One molecule of haemoglobin
Pharynx is the only part where food and air passage mix combines with 4 molecules of oxygen.
together.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 149
●● Oxygen does not oxidise haemoglobin. Formation of FRC = ERV + RV
oxyhaemoglobin is a process of oxygenation.
= 1000 ml + 1200 ml
●● Some gases (e.g. Ozone) oxidise haemoglobin. This
FRC = (2200 – 2500 ml)
oxidised haemoglobin is called Methamoglobin.
3. Vital capacity - [V.C.]: It is the amount of air that can
Transport of Carbon dioxide be expired by most forceful expiration after a deepest
●● The blood transports carbon dioxide comparatively inspiration. Inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory
easily because of its higher solubility. reserve volume and tidal volume are included in it.

●● Carbon dioxide produced by the tissues, diffuses V.C. = IRV + ERV + TV

passively into the blood stream and passes into the = 3000 ml + 1000 ml + 500 ml
red blood corpuscles, where it reacts with water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Immediately after its = 4500 ml (4300 to 4800 ml)
formation, carbonic acid dissociates into Hydrogen 4. Total lung capacity -[T.L.C.]: It is the maximum
(H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3–) ions. amount of air that lungs can hold. In it inspiratory
●● When the deoxygenated blood reaches the alveoli of the reserve volume, tidal volume, expiratory reserve
lung, it contains carbon dioxide as dissolved in plasma, volume and residual volume are included.
as carbaminohaemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions. In TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
the pulmonary capillaries, the carbon dioxide dissolved
in plasma diffuses into alveoli. Carbaminohaemoglobin = 3000 + 500 + 1000 + 1200
also splits into carbon dioxide and haemoglobin. TLC = 6000 ml (approx) (5700 to 6000 ml)
●● When bicarbonates and carbamino compounds reach Respiratory Disorders
in the lungs, then they dissociate. Thus CO2 is formed.
(a) Bronchitis : It is the inflammation of the bronchi, which
PULMONARY VOLUMES is characterised by hypertophy and hyperplasia of
Physical capacity of lungs is measured by spirometer: sero-mucous gland and goblet cells lining the bronchi.
The symptom is regular coughing, with thick greenish
1. Tidal volume [T.V.]: It is amount of air inspired or yellow sputum that indicates the underlying infection,
expired during normal breathing. Its value for man is resulting into excessive secretion of mucous. It may
500 ml. also be caused by cigarette smoking and exposure to
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume [I.R.V.]: It is the air pollutants like carbon monoxide.
maximum amount of air inspired over tidal volume by (b) Bronchial Asthma : This is characterised by the
deepest inspiration. Its value is about 3000 ml. (2500 spasm of the smooth muscles present in the walls
to 3000 ml) of the bronchiole. It is generally caused due to the
3. Expiratory reserve volume [E.R.V.]: It is the amount hypersensitivity of the bronchiole to the foreign
of air expired over tidal volume by most forceful substances present in the air passing through it.
expiration. Its value is 1000 ml. [1000-1100] The symptoms of the disease may be coughing, or
difficulty in breathing mainly during expiration. The
4. Residual volume - [R.V.]: It is the amount of air mucous membranes on the wall of the air passage start
that remains inside lungs after forceful expiration. secreting excess amount of mucous, which may clog
Residual volume can not be given out of lungs. Its the bronchi, as well as bronchiole.
value is 1200ml.
(c) Emphysema: It is an inflation or abnormal distension
Spirogram of pulmonary volumes and capacities of the bronchiole or alveolar sac, which results into the
Pulmonary capacities loss of elasticity of these parts. As a result the alevolar
sac remains filled with air even after expiration and
1. Inspiratory capacity - [I.C.]: It is the amount of air, ultimately, the lung size increases. The reason for such
one can inspire by maximum distension or expansion a condition can be assigned to cigarette smoking and
of his lungs, it is called I.C. In it inspiratory reserve chronic bronchitis.
volume and tidal volume are included.
(d) Occupational Lung Disease : It is caused because of
I.C. = I.R.V. + T.V. the exposure to potentially harmful substances, such as
= 3000 ml + 500 ml gas, fumes of dusts present in the environment where a
person works, silicosis and asbestosis are the common
I.C. = 3500 ml examples, which occur due to chronic exposure of
2. Functional Residual capacity [FRC]: It is the silica and asbestos dust in the mining industry. It is
amount of air that normally remains inside lungs after characterised by fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous
expiration. In it expiratory reserve volume and residual connective tissue) of upper part of lung, causing
volume are included inflammation.

150 General Science (General Knowledge)

 3. Tachypnoea or hypernoea: It is the state of fast
Decompression sickness: breathing.
During deep sea diving the diver inhales gases at an 4. Apnoea: It is the state of stoppage of breathing
increased pressure in depth, as a result the nitrogen also temporarily.
gets dissolved in the blood. When the diver comes back
to the surface, where the pressure has again decreased, 5. Dyspnoea: It is the state of discomfort due to difficulty
the dissolved nitrogen start getting released from blood in in breathing.
the form of Bubbles which cause a number of problems, 6. Asphyxia: It is the state of suffocation due to high CO2
example air embolism infarction due to blocked vessel etc. concn or low O2 concn.
Important terms in Respiration 7. Anoxia: It is absence of O2 supply to tissues.
1. Eupnoea: It is the state of normal breathing. In man 8. Hypocapnoea: It is the state of reduced CO2 concn in
rate of normal breathing is 12-16 per minute. In infants blood.
rate of breathing is 44 per minute. Rate of breathing is
9. Hypercapnoea: It is the state of increased CO2 conn in
slowest while sleeping.
blood
2. Bradypnoea or Hyponoea: It is the state of slow
breathing.
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 Exercise

1. Which scientist identified three stages of 11. How does carbon dioxide mainly travel in the
respiration? blood?
(a) G.S. Carter (b) Robert Hooke (a) As dissolved in plasma
(c) Louis Pasteur (d) Gregor Mendel (b) As bicarbonate ions
2. What is the main function of the diaphragm? (c) As oxygenated hemoglobin
(a) Separates the nasal cavity (d) As nitrogenated compounds
(b) Aids in smelling 12. What is the function of the internal surface of
(c) Aids in abdominal cavity expansion alveoli termed as?
(d) Forms the alveoli (a) Expiratory surface
3. How many lobes does the right lung of a human (b) Respiratory surface
have? (c) Alveolar surface
(a) 1 (b) 2 (d) Pulmonary surface
(c) 3 (d) 4 13. Which term describes the state of discomfort due
to difficulty in breathing?
4. What is the primary structural and functional unit
of the lungs? (a) Dyspnoea (b) Eupnoea
(a) Alveoli (b) Trachea (c) Anoxia (d) Asphyxia
(c) Bronchi (d) Diaphragm 14. How is decompression sickness caused?
5. What prevents food from entering the nasal (a) Inhalation of nitrogen at high pressure
passage while swallowing? (b) Inhalation of oxygen at low pressure
(a) Glottis (b) Epiglottis (c) Inhalation of carbon dioxide at high pressure
(c) Uvula (d) Pharynx (d) Inhalation of methane at low pressure
6. Which gases combine to form oxyhemoglobin? 15. Which blood cell type transports most of the
oxygen in the bloodstream?
(a) Oxygen and carbon dioxide
(b) Oxygen and nitrogen (a) Red blood cells
(c) Oxygen and hydrogen (b) White blood cells
(d) Oxygen and hemoglobin (c) Platelets
(d) Plasma
7. What is the function of the epiglottis during
swallowing? 16. What is the primary reason for the formation of
oxyhemoglobin?
(a) It covers the glottis
(b) It aids in sound production (a) Oxidation of hemoglobin
(c) It increases air pressure (b) Dissociation of hemoglobin
(d) It assists in smelling (c) Binding of carbon dioxide
(d) Binding of oxygen to hemoglobin
8. Which lung disorder is caused by chronic exposure
to air pollutants or cigarette smoking, leading to 17. What is the term used to describe the state of
excessive mucous secretion? reduced CO2 concentration in the blood?
(a) Bronchitis (b) Asthma (a) Hypocapnoea (b) Hypercapnoea
(c) Emphysema (d) Pneumonia (c) Bradypnoea (d) Tachypnoea
9. What is the term used for the state of normal 18. How many stages of respiration are identified
breathing in humans? according to G.S. Carter?
(a) Dyspnoea (b) Apnoea (a) Two (b) Three
(c) Bradypnoea (d) Eupnoea (c) Four (d) Five
10. Which lung disease occurs due to the abnormal 19. Which lung capacity represents the maximum
distension of bronchioles or alveolar sacs, leading amount of air that lungs can hold?
to decreased elasticity? (a) Tidal capacity
(a) Bronchitis (b) Asthma (b) Inspiratory capacity
(c) Emphysema (d) Pneumonia (c) Functional residual capacity

152 General Science (General Knowledge)

 (d) Total lung capacity (a) Inspiratory reserve volume
20. What is the term used to describe the amount of (b) Residual volume
air that remains inside the lungs after forceful (c) Expiratory reserve volume
expiration? (d) Tidal volume

ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (b)

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154 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

9 Digestive System

3. Teeth: An adult human has 32 teeth, including incisors,

Digestive System canines, premolars, and molars. They are crucial for
To perform various functions of the body, energy is the mechanical breakdown of food. There are 20 teeths
required, which is obtained from food. The process of in children and 28 in teenagers.
conversion of complex indiffusible food material into The crown part of the tooth is made up of a very hard
simple and diffusible food by mechanical and biochemical substance called the Enamel. It is the hardest material
(hydrolysis) process, is termed as Digestion. The process in all animal of animal kingdom.
of digestion is accomplished by alimnetary canal.
In mammals, except Premolar and Last molar, all
Alimentary Canal type of teeth appear twice in life. Teeth which appear
during childhood are called milk teeth/temporary
The alimentary canal is tubular structure which extends
teeth/lacteal teeth/deciduous teeth/primary teeth. Due
from mouth to anus.
to the activity of osteoclast cells These milk teeth are
The alimentary canal is divided into following parts: shed, then permanent teeth appear.
(1) Mouth and Buccopharyngeal cavity ● In frog, only upper jaw has teeth.
(2) Oesophagus ● Hippocampus, tortoise and birds do not have
(3) Stomach teeth.
(4) Intestine Wisdom teeth are the last molar teeth of humans which
appear in the age of 18 to 25 year.
(1) Mouth and Buccopharyngeal cavity:
Role of the Buccal Cavity in Digestion The buccal cavity
The oral or buccal cavity, the beginning of the alimentary has two primary functions:
canal, is instrumental in the digestive process. It comprises
several components: 1. Mastication: The teeth and tongue initiate the
digestion process by mechanically breaking down
1. Structure of the Buccal CavitPalate: The top of the oral food into smaller, digestible pieces.
cavity, split into the hard palate (front part with ridges for
chewing) and the soft palate (back part that’s smooth and 2. Swallowing: The tongue and uvula facilitate the
fleshy). The uvula, an extension of the soft palate, aids in swallowing of the masticated food, pushing it into the
swallowing and prevents food from entering the nasal passage. oropharynx.
2. Tongue: A muscular organ that can move freely and occupies The salivary glands in the buccal cavity produce saliva,
the bottom of the mouth. It has various types of papillae on its which moistens the food and contains enzymes initiating
upper surface, some of which contain taste buds. The tongue the chemical breakdown of food. This intricate process
assists in food mastication, taste sensation, and speech. in the buccal cavity ensures the food is well-prepared for
further digestion in the stomach and beyond.
Composition of saliva :
●● Water-99.5 %
●● Mucus, starch - digesting Ptyalin enzyme, lysozyme
and thiocyanates and few ions like sodium, potasium,
chloride, IgA antibody, urea and uric acid etc., are
present.
●● Ptyalin is secreted only by the parotid gland. Lysozyme
and Thiocyanates mainly kill bacteria. They also check
the growth of bacteria in mouth cavity.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 155
 1. Small Intestine: The small intestine is the site of most
(2) Oesophagus: digestion and nutrient absorption. It consists of three
Two apertures are found in central part of segments:Duodenum: The initial segment where food
Buccopharyngeal cavity. from the stomach combines with bile and digestive
enzymes.
●● Ventral or lower aperture is called Glottis which is
related to the Larynx. Which is guarded by epiglottis. 2. Jejunum: The central segment where the majority of
nutrients are absorbed.
●● The Dorsal and upper aperture is called gullet which
opens into oesophagus. 3. Ileum: The final and longest segment, responsible for
absorbing vitamin B12, bile acids, and any remaining
The length of oesophagus depends on length of neck so the
nutrients.
longest Oesophagus is present in Giraffe.
Large Intestine The large intestine absorbs water and
(3) Stomach: electrolytes from the indigestible food matter and expels
The stomach, a significant component of the digestive waste. It is divided into:
system, is a J-shaped organ situated in the upper-left section 1. Cecum: The starting point of the large intestine, linked
of the abdomen. It’s a hollow structure that holds food to the ileum via the ileocecal valve. The appendix, a
temporarily for about 4-5 hours, during which it initiates small pouch, is connected to the cecum.
the digestion process.
2. Colon: This segment is split into four parts: the
Structure of the Stomach The stomach is segmented ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon.
into four parts: Its primary role is to extract water and salt from solid
Cardiac: This is where the esophagus enters the stomach. wastes before expulsion.
It’s located near the heart, hence the name. The gastro- 3. Rectum: The final part of the large intestine, ending in
oesophageal sphincter guards the opening of the esophagus the anus. It stores feces until they are expelled through
into the stomach, preventing food from re-entering the the anus.
esophagus.
This structure allows for a systematic and effective
Fundus: This segment is filled with air and gas. digestion and absorption process.
Body: This is the principal part of the stomach where food Glands and Organs associated with Digestion
is broken down into smaller particles because the enzymes
act here. LIVER
Pylorus: Also known as the pyloric part, it is the posterior The liver, situated in the upper right part of the abdomen
part of the stomach that opens into the small intestine, i.e., below the diaphragm, is the body’s largest solid organ,
duodenum. The pyloric sphincter guards the opening of the typically weighing about 3 pounds. It has a roughly
pylorus into the duodenum. triangular shape and is divided into two lobes – a larger right
lobe and a smaller left lobe – separated by the falciform
The stomach also has four types of muscles: oblique muscle ligament. A layer of fibrous tissue called Glisson’s capsule
layer, longitudinal muscle layer, circular muscle layer, and covers the liver’s exterior, and it is further enveloped by
serosa. the peritoneum, a membrane lining the abdominal cavity.
Role of the Stomach in Digestion: Distinguishing itself from most organs, the liver receives
The stomach can expand to temporarily store food. The blood from two primary sources. The portal vein transports
stomach muscles’ churning action physically breaks down nutrient-rich blood from the digestive system, while
the food. The stomach releases Hydrochloric Acid and the hepatic artery carries oxygenated blood from the
enzymes for the chemical breakdown of food. The enzyme heart. These blood vessels branch into small capillaries,
pepsin is responsible for protein breakdown. The stomach culminating in functional units called lobules. Each lobule
releases food into the small intestine in a controlled and comprises millions of hepatocytes, and blood is removed
regulated manner. from the liver through three hepatic veins.

Composition of Gastric juice : Functioning as a gland, the liver plays numerous roles in
the body, possibly exceeding 500 distinct functions. Some
Water = 99.5% of its key functions include:
HCl = 0.2 - 0.3% ●● Bile Production: The liver produces bile, aiding the
pH = 1.5 to 2.5 (very acidic) small intestine in breaking down and absorbing fats,
cholesterol, and certain vitamins.
rest = mucus water, HCl and gastric enzymes
(Pepsinogen, Prorennin, Gastric Lipase etc.).s ●● Absorption and Metabolism of Bilirubin: Bilirubin,
(4) Intestine a byproduct of hemoglobin breakdown, is absorbed
and metabolized in the liver. Iron released from
The intestine is composed of two primary sections: the hemoglobin is stored in the liver or bone marrow for
small and large intestines. the production of new blood cells.

156 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● Support for Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is essential width. It comprises three sections: the fundus, responsible
for creating coagulants that facilitate blood clotting. for storing bile juices; the body, initiating a taper into the
Bile, formed in the liver, is crucial for vitamin K neck; and the neck, which further narrows as it connects to
absorption. The liver must produce sufficient bile to the cystic duct.
generate clotting factors.
Functionally, the gallbladder primarily serves to store
●● Fat Metabolism: Bile aids in breaking down fats, and concentrate bile, a yellow-brown digestive enzyme
making them more digestible. produced by the liver. This bile is crucial for the digestion
of fats. Upon receiving signals triggered by the initiation
●● Metabolism of Carbohydrates: The liver stores
of eating, the gallbladder contracts, releasing stored bile
carbohydrates, converting stored carbohydrates
through the biliary tract. The bile then flows through the
(glycogen) into glucose. Glucose is released into the
common bile duct into the duodenum, the initial segment
bloodstream to regulate blood sugar levels and provide
of the small intestine, where it mixes with awaiting food
a quick energy boost.
for digestion. This process, vital for efficient digestion and
●● Vitamin and Mineral Storage: The liver stores fat- nutrient absorption, culminates in an emptied gallbladder
soluble vitamins, including A, D, E, K, and B12. resembling a deflated balloon after a meal, ready to be
refilled.
Pancreas
Various conditions can lead to gallbladder issues, with
The pancreas is an abdominal organ playing two crucial gallstones being the most prevalent. Gallstones, akin to
roles in the body. Firstly, it generates digestive enzymes pebble-like formations composed of bile material, can
facilitating food breakdown in the small intestine, and develop in the gallbladder or bile ducts, ranging in size
secondly, it produces hormones, including insulin, for the from tiny grains of sand to as large as golf balls. While
regulation of blood sugar levels. typically benign, they may cause discomfort, nausea, or
Pancreas Structure: inflammation. Additional gallbladder ailments encompass
cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder) and
Positioned behind the stomach and surrounded by the gallbladder cancer.
spleen, liver, and small intestine, the pancreas is integral
to the digestive system and blood sugar regulation. It Spleen:
releases digestive enzymes such as amylase, proteases, and
The spleen is a sizable, encapsulated organ with a bean-like
lipase into the duodenum, aiding in the digestion of sugar,
shape, positioned on the left side of the body beneath the
proteins, and fat, respectively. The pancreas houses Islets
diaphragm. It plays a significant role in the mononuclear
of Langerhans, which secrete hormones like insulin and
phagocyte system, housing T and B lymphocytes along
glucagon into the bloodstream.
with numerous phagocytes.
Pancreas Functions:
Spleen Structure:
●● Digestion: The pancreas secretes enzymes like trypsin
The spleen exhibits a dark purple hue and resides in
and chymotrypsin, amylase, facilitating the digestion
the left hypochondriae region of the abdomen, situated
of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
between the stomach’s fundus and the diaphragm. While
●● Blood Sugar Regulation: Through the release of its dimensions fluctuate throughout an individual’s life, in
hormones such as insulin and glucagon, the pancreas adults, it typically measures about 12 cm in length, 8 cm in
contributes to the control of blood sugar. breadth, and 3-4 cm in thickness, weighing approximately
●● Endocrine Function: The endocrine part, 200 grams. Encased in an outer coat of peritoneum firmly
encompassing Islets of Langerhans, releases insulin adherent to the internal fibro-elastic coat or splenic capsule,
and glucagon directly into the bloodstream, thereby the spleen forms trabeculae within the organ. The spleen’s
regulating the body’s blood sugar levels. interior, referred to as splenic pulp, consists of two types:
White Pulp and Red Pulp.
●● Exocrine Function: The pancreas contains exocrine
glands producing essential enzymes like trypsin and Functions of the Spleen:
chymotrypsin for digestion. These enzymes, including The spleen’s primary immunological function involves
amylase for carbohydrates and lipase for fats, contribute filtering blood by trapping bloodborne microbes and
to the breakdown of proteins. initiating an immune response, particularly crucial for B
Issues with pancreas function, as seen in conditions like cell responses to polysaccharide antigens. It is formed
pancreatitis or diabetes, can lead to various health problems partly by lymphatic tissue, contributing to T and B
and complications. lymphocyte production. With the presence of lymphoid
reticulo-endothelial tissue, the spleen is involved in
Gall Bladder antibody and antitoxin production. In fetal development,
the spleen acts as a significant haemopoietic organ, and
The gallbladder, a small, pear-shaped organ situated it plays a role in removing damaged red blood cells and
beneath the liver on the right side of the abdomen, measures immune complexes. Acting as an erythropoietic organ, it
approximately three to four inches in length and one inch in serves as a reservoir for erythrocytes or blood. Individuals

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 157
who have undergone spleen removal (splenectomy) exhibit 2. It destroys all the bacteria present in the food.
increased susceptibility to encapsulated bacteria infections
3. HCl stops the action of saliva on food. In stomach, the
and a higher risk of severe malarial infections, underscoring
medium is highly acidic.
the spleen’s crucial role in immunity.
4. It dissolves the hard portions of the food and makes it
Physiology of Digestion soft.
Digestion is divided in two ways-Mechanical digestion and Rennin is active in the childhood stage of mammals only.
Chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion takes place in Rennin, acts on milk protein casein. Casein is a soluble
mouth and small intestine. protein. In presence of Rennin, casein gets converted into
Digestion in oral cavity insoluble Ca-paracaseinate. This process is termed as
Curdling of milk.
Food enters through mouth food is tasted in oral cavity and
mixed with saliva, tongue mixes the food with saliva. This Digestion by Pepsin:
food with saliva is called bolus. This saliva (pH 6.8 – 7.0) Pepsin breaks proteins into smaller molecules. Digestion of
contains water (99.5%) and electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl–, proteins can take place properly in the stomach.
HCO3–, Thiocynate).
Digestion by Gastric Lipase:
Mechanical digestion:
It converts fats into fatty-acids and glycerols. It is secreted
●● In mouth teeth, tongue and lips have lmportant role in in a less amount so less digestion of fats takes place here.
mechanical digestion through the process of chewing This lipase acts on emulsified fat and convert it into fatty
or mastication. acid & glycerol. 1% emulsified fat is present in the food.
Chemical digestion: ●● Peristalsis continues during the process of digestion so
●● In this type of digestion saliva act with food particles. the gastric -juice mixes properly with the food. Due to
peristalsis the food is converted into a paste. This form
●● Saliva contain 99.5% water & 0.5% salts. of food which is thick, acidic & semidigested in the
●● These salts are organic and inorganic type. stomach is called chyme.

●● The main components are mucin, lysozyme, thiocynate Bile-Juice

and Ptyalin. In the proximal-part of the duodenum bile-juice is secreted.
Mucin: The parenchyma cells of the liver produce bile-juice and it
is stored in the Gall- bladder. Bile-juice does not contain
It is a glycoprotein. It lubricates the food particles. It helps any digestive enzyme. Therefore it is not a true digestive
in the swallowing of food. juice (Pseudodigestive juice). Bile-juice is a greenish
Lysozyme: (Biliverdin) yellow (Bilirubin) coloured alkaline fluid.

It is an enzyme which kills the harmful bacteria. Due to this Composition of liver bile.
reason saliva is a antiseptic lotion. pH 8.0
Thiocynate: H2O 98%
It is a special salt which kills the harmful bacteria. So it is Organic constituents are bile acid, bile pigment, cholesterol,
called bacteriocidal salt. Lecithin, inorganic constituents, Na+, K+ etc. Bile-
Ptyalin: pigments are the excretory-substances of the liver.

Starch Maltose + alpha-Dextrin Pancreatic Juice

Ptyalin is found in human saliva, because human food is Pancreatic juice is highly odouriferous, colourless basic
mainly made up of starch. Ptyalin digest only ripe and fluid which contains enzymes and salts.
cooked starch. It does not digest the raw starch, 30% starch Composition of Pancreatic Juice-
in buccal cavity is digested by ptyalin.
Total amount in man = 1 - 1.5 litre/day
Ptyalin is absent in saliva of rabbit and carnivorous animal,
because food of rabbit is mainly made up of cellulose Water = 98%, pH = 7.5-8.3,

When food leaves the stomach through its pyloric end and Salts & Enzyme = 2%
enters the duodenum it is called chyme (acidic). ●● Pancreatic juice contains only inorganic-salts.
Functions of HCl: ●● Pancreatic, alpha-Amylase and Amylopsin dissociates
1. The main function of HCl is to convert inactive starch into Maltose. Majority of starch breaks up into
enzymes (zymogens) into active enzymes. For example the duodenum.
it converts Pepsinogen into Pepsin and Prorennin into ●● Trypsinogen and Chymotrypsinogen are converted to
Rennin. Trypsin and Chymotrypsin. Majority of proteins are

158 General Science (General Knowledge)

 broken into the stomach and the remaining are broken can be converted into glucose and then to fat and are
into the duodenum by these two enzymes. thus stored. This is an irreversible reaction.
●● Fat digesting enzyme - In pancreatic-juices various Egestion (Defaecation)
Fat-digesting enzymes are found which are collectively
●● The elimination of faeces from the alimentary canal is
called steapsin.
called egestion or defaection.
Maximum digestion of carbohydrates is done in
●● The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent faeces
duodenum, but its digestion is completed in Jejunum.
in the rectum initiate a neural reflex causing an urge
Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System or desire for its removal. The egestion of faeces to
the outside through the anal opening (defaecation)
●● No absorption of food takes place in the oral and
is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass
the oesopharyngeal cavity. Only some chemicals/
peristaltic movement.
medicines and alcohol are absorbed in oropharyngeal
cavity. ●● Peristalsis gradually pushes the indigestible materials
of the small intestine into the large intestine or colon.
●● In the stomach, absorption of water, some salts,
Normally 1500 ml of chyme passes into the large
alcohol, glucose and few drugs like Aspirin takes
intestine per day. The colon absorbs most of the
place, complete absorption of alcohol takes place in
water. It also absorbs electrolytes, including sodium
the stomach.
and chloride from the chyme. The epithelial cells of
●● Iron & calcium ion are absorbed in the duodenum. the colon also excrete certain salts such as iron and
calcium from the blood.
●● Maximum absorption take place in jejunum.
●● Escherichia coli (bacterium) lives in the colon which
●● Ileum absorbs Vitamin-B12 & Bile salt
feeds on undigested matter. This bacterium, in turn
●● * Millions of microscopic folds or finger like produces Vitamin – B12, B1, B2 & K that are absorbed
projections are present in the lumen of gut which are by the wall of the colon. Consequently, the chyme
called villi, villus is unit of absorption. converts into semisolid faeces.
●● Digestion and absorption of Carbohydrate Protein energy malnutrition
●● All these proteins are exposed to pepsin, trypsin, Kwashiorker:
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases
●● It is a protein deficiency disease. It commonly affects
Triglycerides combines with a small amount of protein and infants and children between 1 to 3 year of age.
resultant complex is called chylomicron (150 mm, white).
Symptoms: Underweight, stunted growth, poor brain
Chylomicron enters the lacteal. Fat soluble vitamins are
development loss of appetite anaemia, oedema on lower
absorbed along with dietary fat whereas water soluble
leg and face.
vitamins are absorbed by passive diffusion. Vit. B12 is
absorbed with intrinsic factor by forming a complex. In Cure: Proteins are necessary for growth, repair of tissue
ileum Vit. B12 & Bile salt are absorbed. In colon only and for body defence therefore adequate amount of
water is absorbed. proteins must be present in the diet. Daily requirement – 1
gm protein per kg. body weight in adult. 2 gm protein per
Besides fats, other substances of the digested food like-
kg body weight in growing children.
sugars, amino- acids, vitamins, minerals- salts after being
absorbed, enter the blood capillaries. All blood- capillaries Sources in food: Cereals pulses, meat, fish, milk,
coming out of the alimentary canal, join together to form groundnut, peas, leafy vegetables etc.
the Hepatic portal vein. This vein takes the digested food
Marasmus:
material into the liver. From the liver, the Hepatic vein and
the superior post - caval vein takes them to the heart. Heart It is caused by protein-energy-malnutrition(PEM) or
distributes them throughout the body . Liver performs deficiency of protein and total food caloric value. It mainly
some necessary and important actions on the digested food. occure in the age group of one year in newly born baby.
Colon absorbs water from the undigested food. Due to ●● Symptoms: Impairs physical growth, subcutaneous
Haustra the water - absorbing surface of colon increases fat diseappears, ribs become very prominent, limbs
and it efficiently increases absorption of water. become thin and skin becomes dry, thin & wrinkled.
There is no oedema on leg and face but loss of weight
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which
occurs.
utilise them for their activities. This process is called
assimilation. ●● Cure: Diet with adequate proteins and proper caloric
value should be given to the infants.
●● Amino acids are not stored but are taken up by the cells
in connection with the synthesis of proteins. Proteins Source in food– Same as kwashiorkor.
are used for growth, repair, etc. Excess amino acids
●● Hypercholesterolemia (Overnutrition): It is caused
due to intake of excess of saturated fat such as butter,

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 159
 ghee, red meat, egg. Cholesterol level in blood rises ●● Hypervitaminosis (Overnutrition): It is caused by
abnormally (hypercholesterolemia) this may cause excessive intake of vitamin. Such as excess of vitamin D
thrombosis and heart attack. causes deposition of calcium in soft tissue. Excess of vitamin
Acauses lack of appetite, itching rash etc.Hypervitaminosis of
●● Obesity (Overnutrition): It is caused by excessive
‘D’, Nausea, anorexia, hypercalcaemia, hyperphosphetemia,
intake of high caloric nutrients such as sugar, honey
calcification of soft tissue.
and saturated fat. Fat accumulates in the tissue. This
may cause high blood pressure, diabetes and heart ●● Fluorosis: It is caused by excessive intake of fluorine.
diseases. Regular exercise and taking of green leafy It is characterised by mottled (brownish discolouration)
vegetable are recommended to such persons. teeth.

STUDENT'S NOTES

160 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. Dental formula of adult man is - 13. Largest gland of body is-

(a) Pancreas (b) Duodenum
2,1, 2,3 2,1, 2,3
(a) (b) (c) Liver (d) Thyroid
2,1, 2,3 2,1, 2, 2
14. Which substance of saliva destroy the harmful
2,1, 2,3 2,1,3, 2 bacteria-
(c) (d)
2,1, 2, 4 2,1,3, 2 (a) Cerumin (b) Chyme
(c) Lysozyme (d) Secretin
2. Rumen of a cow is a part of its-
15. Which of the following is not a function of liver :-
(a) Intestine (b) Stomach
(c) Caecum (d) Rectum (a) Deamination
(b) Bile storage
3. The structure which prevents entry of food into
(c) Synthesis of plasma protein
wind pipe during swallowing in mammals is-
(d) Storage of fat soluble vitamin
(a) Larynx (b) Glottis
16. Kupffer cells are found in:
(c) Epiglottis (d) Pharynx
(a) Liver (b) Kidney
4. Which of the following is a common passage in
swallowing food and breathing- (c) Heart (d) Blood
(a) Pharynx (b) Larynx 17. The major site of protein breakdown to form free
amino acids, is in the-
(c) Glottis (d) Gullet
(a) Kidney (b) Spleen
5. The hardest constituent of the tooth is-
(c) Liver (d) Bone-marrow
(a) Enamel (b) Dentine
18. Cells of liver which act as phagocytes are :
(c) Bone (d) Pulp
(a) Dieter's cells (b) Kupffer's cells
6. In which animal tongue control the temperature-
(c) Hensen cells (d) Aciner cells
(a) Rabbit (b) Dog
19. Simple sugar of blood is-
(c) Man (d) Cow
(a) Galactose (b) Lactose
7. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by the :- (c) Sucrose (d) Glucose
(a) Paneth cells (b) Goblet cells 20. During prolonged starvation, body derives
(c) Chief cells (d) Parietal cells nutrition from storage of -
8. How many teeth in man grows twice in life : (a) Liver and adipose tissue
(a) 32 (b) 28 (b) Spleen
(c) 20 (d) 12 (c) Liver and lungs
9. In human teeth, which help in cutting- (d) Subcutaneous fat and Pancreas
(a) Canine (b) Incisor 21. Intake of food is called-
(c) Molar (d) Premolar (a) Ingestion (b) Egestion
10. Dental formula of adolescent human before 17 (c) Digestion (d) Nutrition
year is - 22. Maximum digestion of food take place in –
(a) 2,1,2,2/2,1,2,2 (b) 2,1,2,3/2,1,2,3 (a) Stomach (b) Jejunum
(c) 2,1,0,3/2,1,0,2 (d) 2,0,2,3/1,0,2,3 (c) Colon (d) Duodenum
11. Ptyalin is secreted by- 23. Pancreatic juice is released into-
(a) Stomach (b) Salivary gland (a) Duodenum (b) Ileum
(c) Pancreas (d) Bile (c) Stomach (d) Jejunum
12. In pancrease, pancreatic juice and hormone are 24. Animals which eat their own faeces are called-
secreted by- (a) Omnivorous (b) Herbivorous
(a) Same cells (c) Coprophagus (d) Carnivorous
(b) Different Cells 25. Pancreatic lipase acts upon-
(c) Same cells at different times (a) Glycogen (b) Triglycerides
(d) None of these. (c) Dissacharides (d) Polypeptides

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 161
 ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (b)
16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (b)

STUDENT'S NOTES

162 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

10 Circulatory System

deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through

Circulatory System veins.
The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular In vertebrates like humans, the closed circulatory
system, is a complex network of blood vessels, organs, and system offers advantages such as efficient transport,
cells that transports essential substances such as oxygen, regulation of blood pressure, and better control over the
nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the delivery of nutrients and removal of waste products. It
body. It plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis also allows for the specialization of blood vessels to
by distributing these substances and aiding in various perform specific functions like oxygen exchange in the
physiological processes. lungs (pulmonary circulation) and nutrient exchange
There are two primary types of circulatory systems in body tissues (systemic circulation).
found in organisms:
Blood Circulatory System In Human Body:
1. Open Circulatory System: This system is
characteristic of invertebrates like arthropods (e.g., The human blood circulatory system is a complex network
insects, crustaceans) and some mollusks (e.g., snails, responsible for the transport of nutrients, oxygen, hormones,
clams). and waste products throughout the body. It consists of the
heart, blood vessels, and blood.
In an open circulatory system, the blood or hemolymph
flows through vessels that are open ended, allowing Heart
the fluid to bathe the internal organs directly.
The human heart is a vital organ that functions as a muscular
The heart pumps the hemolymph into the body cavity pump, responsible for circulating blood throughout the
called the hemocoel, where it comes into direct contact body. It consists of four chambers: two atria (upper
with tissues and cells. chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers). The heart’s
structure and mechanism involve various components and
Nutrients, gasses, and waste are exchanged directly
processes that enable the efficient circulation of blood.
between the hemolymph and the cells.
Structure of the Human Heart:
Example: Insects have an open circulatory system
where hemolymph is pumped by the heart through
arteries into the body cavity, bathing the organs, and
then returning to the heart via ostia (openings).
2. Closed Circulatory System: This system is present
in most vertebrates, including humans, and some
invertebrates like annelids (e.g., earthworms).
In a closed circulatory system, blood is contained
within a closed network of blood vessels that carry it
away from and back to the heart.
The blood flows under pressure through arteries,
arterioles, capillaries (where exchange of substances
occurs), venules, and veins.
The blood remains separate from interstitial fluid, and 1. Atria: The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood
substances are exchanged through the vessel walls. from the body through the superior and inferior vena
Example: Humans have a closed circulatory system cava.
where the heart pumps oxygenated blood from the The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the body cells through arteries, and the lungs via the pulmonary veins.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 163
2. Ventricles: The right ventricle receives deoxygenated heart to pump blood efficiently, ensuring a continuous
blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs flow of oxygenated blood to the body’s tissues and
through the pulmonary artery. organs.
The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the Blood Vessels
left atrium and pumps it to the entire body through the
aorta. Blood Vessels: Blood vessels are the pathways through
which blood is transported. There are three primary types
3. Valves: The heart has four valves that prevent the of blood vessels:
backward flow of blood:
a. Arteries: These carry oxygenated blood away from
Tricuspid valve and mitral (bicuspid) valve control the heart to various parts of the body. The largest artery
blood flow between the atria and ventricles. is the aorta, which branches into smaller arteries.
Pulmonary valve and aortic valve control blood flow Pulmonary Arteries: Originating from the right
out of the ventricles into the pulmonary artery and ventricle of the heart, the pulmonary arteries are
aorta, respectively. the primary arteries responsible for transporting
4. Septum : The septum separates the right and left sides deoxygenated blood. Their function is to convey blood
of the heart, preventing the mixing of oxygenated and with low oxygen levels from the heart to the lungs,
deoxygenated blood. where the blood undergoes oxygenation, and surplus
carbon dioxide is expelled.
Mechanism of the Human Heart:
b. Veins: Veins transport deoxygenated blood back to the
1. Blood Circulation: Deoxygenated blood returns to heart. They have valves that prevent backward flow of
the heart from the body through the vena cava into the blood. The largest vein is the vena cava, which returns
right atrium. blood to the right atrium of the heart.
From the right atrium, blood moves through the Pulmonary Veins: The pulmonary veins constitute a
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. network of blood vessels responsible for transporting
The right ventricle contracts, sending deoxygenated oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. These
blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. veins are integral to the pulmonary circuit, a vascular
system facilitating the exchange of blood between the
In the lungs, blood receives oxygen and releases heart and lungs in the human body.
carbon dioxide through the process of gas exchange.
c. Capillaries: These are tiny, thin walled vessels where
Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products
atrium via the pulmonary veins. occurs between the blood and body tissues. Capillaries
From the left atrium, blood moves through the mitral connect arteries to veins and form an extensive
valve into the left ventricle. network throughout the body.
The left ventricle contracts, sending oxygenated blood Blood
to the entire body through the aorta. Blood falls under the category of connective tissue,
2. Cardiac Cycle: The cardiac cycle consists of systole composed of two primary components: formed elements
(contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of the heart (comprising red blood cells, white blood cells, and
chambers. platelets) and blood plasma (the extracellular matrix). The
plasma, primarily constituted of water, houses proteins,
Systole: During systole, the ventricles contract, forcing glucose, mineral ions, hormones, and carbon dioxide.
blood out of the heart into the arteries (ventricular
ejection). Blood maintains a pH level within a specific range
to indicate its acidity or alkalinity. Typically, arterial
Diastole: In diastole, the heart relaxes, allowing the blood pH ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 , indicating a slightly
chambers to refill with blood. alkaline nature. The lungs, kidneys, and cellular buffering
3. Heartbeat Regulation: The heartbeat is regulated by mechanisms collaborate to regulate blood pH, with
electrical impulses generated by the sinoatrial (SA) deviations suggesting conditions like acidosis or alkalosis.
node, often referred to as the heart’s natural pacemaker. The volume of blood in the human body varies based on
The electrical impulses travel through the atria, factors like age, weight, gender, and health. On average,
causing them to contract, followed by the contraction adult males possess around 5.6 liters of blood, whereas
of the ventricles. adult females have about 4.5 liters . This amount accounts
for approximately 7 to 8 percent of body weight. Blood
This rhythmic sequence of contractions and relaxations volume differs in children and newborns and can change
maintains blood circulation throughout the body. due to factors like fluid loss, dehydration, or retention.
The synchronized contractions and relaxations of the Blood serves as a vital fluid performing various pivotal
heart’s chambers, along with the precise functioning of functions within the body:
its valves and electrical conduction system, enable the

164 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● Transporting oxygen to tissues via hemoglobin in red maintain proper function and support the body’s metabolic
blood cells. needs.
●● Conveying nutrients, hormones, and waste products. Plasma is the liquid component of blood, making up
about 55% of its total volume. It’s a yellowish, straw
●● Maintaining body temperature, fluid equilibrium, and
colored fluid that carries various substances throughout the
pH balance.
body. Plasma consists mainly of water (about 90%) and
●● Protecting against infections and injuries through contains dissolved proteins, electrolytes (such as sodium
white blood cells and platelets. and potassium), hormones, waste products, nutrients (like
glucose and amino acids), and gasses.
●● Contributing to immune responses and the
inflammatory process. The key functions of plasma include:
●● Assisting in tissue repair and growth. 1. Transportation: It carries nutrients, hormones, waste
products, and gases throughout the body to various
●● This alternative presentation aims to convey the details
organs and tissues.
about blood’s composition, characteristics, and crucial
roles in the body in a slightly different manner. 2. Clotting: Plasma contains clotting factors (proteins)
that help in blood clot formation. When there’s an
Red Blood Cells (RBCs) : Red Blood Cells play a vital role
injury, these factors work together to stop bleeding by
in human blood. These cells, also known as erythrocytes,
forming a blood clot.
have a key function in carrying oxygen from the lungs to
the body’s tissues and organs while transporting carbon 3. Immunity: Plasma contains antibodies and other
dioxide back to the lungs for removal from the body. proteins that play a crucial role in the body’s immune
response, defending against infections and diseases.
Red blood cells are shaped like discs and lack a nucleus
in mammals, allowing them to accommodate more Plasma is separated from the cellular components of blood
hemoglobin, the protein essential for oxygen transportation. (such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets)
Hemoglobin gives these cells their characteristic red color. through a process called centrifugation. This separation
Typically, a red blood cell survives for about 120 days. allows for the collection of plasma, which is used in various
medical treatments like plasma transfusions for patients
The bone marrow is responsible for producing red blood
with clotting disorders or immune deficiencies.
cells through a process called erythropoiesis, which is
triggered by a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), Additionally, plasma donation by healthy individuals is a
generated by the kidneys. Adequate levels of iron, vitamin critical way to collect plasma for further processing into
B12, and folic acid are necessary for the proper generation various medical products used to treat conditions like immune
of RBCs. deficiencies, hemophilia, and certain autoimmune diseases.
Doctors often use a complete blood count (CBC), a standard 1. Vascular Spasm: When a blood vessel is injured, its
blood test, to measure the quantity of red blood cells in a walls constrict or spasm, reducing blood flow to the
person’s blood. These results are crucial in diagnosing various damaged area. This vasoconstriction helps minimize
conditions, such as anemia (a shortage of red blood cells or blood loss.
their quality) or polycythemia (an excess of red blood cells).
2. Platelet Adhesion: Platelets, small cell fragments in
Maintaining a healthy count of red blood cells is essential the blood, adhere to the site of injury. They stick to
for efficient oxygen transportation and overall bodily the exposed collagen fibers within the damaged blood
functions. vessel walls.
White Blood Cells (WBCs): Part of the immune system, 3. Platelet Activation and Aggregation: Once adhered,
these cells defend the body against infections and foreign platelets become activated and release chemicals
substances.Nucleus is found in WBC. Their life span is 3 to that attract more platelets to the injury site. These
4 days. After that they die in blood . activated platelets clump together, forming a plug that
temporarily stops the bleeding.
Platelets: Small cell fragments involved in blood clotting,
essential for wound healing.The quantity of Platelets in 4. Coagulation Cascade: A series of chemical reactions,
blood is 2.5 to 5 lake/m3. Their life span is 3 to 4 days. known as the coagulation cascade, is triggered by the
release of certain substances. This cascade involves
Plasma: The liquid component of blood that carries blood
various clotting factors, which are proteins present
cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products. Plasma is
in the blood plasma. They interact in a sequential
primarily composed of water, electrolytes, proteins, and
manner, ultimately leading to the conversion of the
other substances.
protein fibrinogen into fibrin.
The circulatory system operates through a cycle:
5. Fibrin Formation: Fibrin is a fibrous protein that
oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the body
forms a meshlike network around the platelet plug.
tissues through arteries, exchanges oxygen and nutrients in
This mesh traps more platelets and blood cells, creating
the capillaries, and then returns to the heart through veins,
a stable blood clot.
carrying waste products. This cycle repeats continuously to

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 165
6. Clot Retraction and Repair: The clot contracts, Along with these antigens, individuals also have antibodies
pulling the edges of the broken blood vessel together. in their plasma that react against blood cells with antigens
Eventually, as the blood vessel heals, the clot dissolves they lack. For instance, type A blood has anti b antibodies,
through a process called fibrinolysis. type B has anti a antibodies, type AB has neither anti a
nor anti b antibodies, and type O has both anti a and anti b
This process is tightly regulated within the body to ensure
antibodies.
that clotting occurs only when necessary. Disorders in this
clotting process, such as hemophilia or thrombosis, can lead to Rh Blood Group System:
excessive bleeding or unwanted clot formation, respectively.
The Rh system determines the presence or absence of the
Blood Group: Blood Group was discovered by Karl Rh antigen, also known as Rh factor, on the surface of red
Landsteiner. Blood groups, also known as blood types, blood cells.
refer to the classification of blood based on the presence
If the Rh antigen is present, the blood type is considered
or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red blood
Rhpositive (Rh+), while its absence indicates Rhnegative
cells. The two most commonly known blood group systems
(Rh).
are the ABO system and the Rh system.
Incompatible Rh factors can cause complications,
●● ABO Blood Group System:
particularly in pregnancy, where an Rhnegative mother
●● The ABO system categorizes blood into four main carrying an Rh Positive fetus may produce antibodies
types: A, B, AB, and O. against the fetus’s Rh antigen, potentially leading to
hemolytic disease of the newborn.
●● These blood types are determined by the presence or
absence of specific antigens – A and B antigens – on These blood group systems are essential for blood
the surface of red blood cells. transfusions and organ transplants to ensure compatibility
between donor and recipient blood types, minimizing the
●● Type A blood has A antigens, type B has B antigens,
risk of adverse reactions. Additionally, understanding
type AB has both A and B antigens, while type O has
blood types is crucial in emergency medicine to provide
neither A nor B antigens.
the right blood type in critical situations.
Blood Group Antigen Antibody It’s important to note that while the ABO and Rh systems
A A b are the most clinically significant, there are other blood
B B a group systems that exist, each with its own set of antigens
and antibodies, albeit less commonly encountered in
AB AB X
routine blood typing and transfusions.
O X ab

STUDENT'S NOTES

166 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. What is the primary function of the circulatory (a) Red blood cells
system? (b) White blood cells
(a) Transportation of oxygen (c) Platelets
(b) Digestion of nutrients (d) Plasma
(c) Regulation of body temperature 11. What determines the ABO blood group system?
(d) Elimination of waste products (a) Presence of antigens
2. Which type of circulatory system is characteristic (b) Number of platelets
of most vertebrates, including humans? (c) Volume of plasma
(a) Closed circulatory system (d) White blood cell count
(b) Open circulatory system 12. Which blood type is considered the universal
(c) Mixed circulatory system donor?
(d) Peripheral circulatory system (a) Type A (b) Type B
3. In an open circulatory system, where does the (c) Type AB (d) Type O
blood or hemolymph flow?
13. In the Rh blood group system, what does Rh+
(a) Closed vessels indicate?
(b) Arteries (a) Presence of Rh antigen
(c) Open-ended vessels (b) Absence of Rh antigen
(d) Lymphatic vessels (c) Antibody presence
4. What is the main component of blood plasma? (d) Blood clotting disorder
(a) Red blood cells 14. What is the function of antibodies in the blood?
(b) White blood cells (a) Transport oxygen
(c) Water (b) Fight infections
(d) Platelets (c) Aid in clot formation
5. Which blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood (d) Maintain pH balance
back to the heart?
15. What percentage of blood volume does plasma
(a) Arteries (b) Veins typically constitute?
(c) Capillaries (d) Venules (a) 20% (b) 35%
6. The largest artery in the human body is called: (c) 45% (d) 55%
(a) Renal artery (b) Aorta 16. Which component of the circulatory system helps
(c) Pulmonary artery (d) Carotid artery regulate body temperature?
7. What is the primary function of red blood cells? (a) Red blood cells
(a) Blood clotting (b) White blood cells
(b) Immune defense (c) Platelets
(c) Oxygen transportation (d) Blood vessels
(d) Hormone production 17. How is an open circulatory system different from
8. Which of the following is NOT a type of white a closed circulatory system?
blood cell? (a) Open circulatory system has no vessels.
(a) Neutrophil (b) Platelet (b) Closed circulatory system exchanges substances
(c) Lymphocyte (d) Monocyte through vessel walls.
(c) Open circulatory system pumps blood into a
9. What is the purpose of platelets in the blood?
closed network.
(a) Oxygen transportation (d) Closed circulatory system exists only in
(b) Blood clotting invertebrates.
(c) Immune response 18. Which blood type lacks both A and B antigens?
(d) Nutrient delivery
(a) Type A (b) Type B
10. Which blood component is responsible for clot (c) Type AB (d) Type O
formation?

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 167
19. What is the main function of fibrin in the blood 20. Which blood group system is primarily responsible
clotting process? for compatibility in blood transfusions?
(a) Forms platelet plug (a) ABO system
(b) Converts fibrinogen into fibrin (b) Rh system
(c) Traps more platelets and blood cells (c) Hemoglobin system
(d) Contracts the clot (d) Coagulation system

ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

168 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

11 Excretory System

cycle, 2 molecules of NH3 react with 1 molecule of CO2,

Excretory System resultants a molecule of urea is formed.
Homeostasis: Animals on the basis of excretory matter are divided
into three categories:
Maintenance of steady state (Walter Cannon).
Homeostatic mechanism are important for normal life Ammoniotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic
as they maintain condition within a range in which, the 1. Excretory Ammonia Urea Uric acid
animals metabolic processes can occur. The process which matter
is concerned with removal of nitrogenous waste materials 2. Requirement Very large Less than Least
(e.g.. urea, uric acid, CO2, Ammonia, salts, excess water of water ammonia
etc.) is termed excretion. 3. Toxicity Highest Less than Least
Elimination of nitrogenous wastes ammonia
4. Examples Teloests, Mammals, Birds,
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of Tadpoles, Sharks, Insects,
nitrogenous wastes excreted by the animals. Ammonia is Aquatic Land
the most toxic form and requires large amount of water for insects snails,
its elimination, whereas uric acid, being the least toxic, can many
be removed with a minimum loss of water. reptiles
On the basis of type of excretory products (ammonia, urea Human excretory system consists of:
or uric acid) three types of animals are present.
●● Two kidneys & their blood supplies.
(1 Ammonotelics: Most aquatic animals excrete
nitrogenous waste as ammonia, the water soluble ●● A pair of ureters.
ammonia molecules diffuse across the body surface ●● urinary bladder
into surrounding water. In fishes most of the ammonia
(NH3) is lost as ammonium ions (NH4+) across the ●● Urethra
gill epithelium. Example of ammonotelic animals The functional units of mammalian kidney are called
are teloest (modern bony fish), aquatic amphibians Nephrons. Urine produced by each nephron empties into
(tadpoles), aquatic reptiles and aquatic insects. collecting duct. The collecting duct passes through a
(2) Ureotelics: Animals like mammals, many terrestrial papilla into the renal calyx (Pleural - calyces). The renal
amphibians, marine fish excrete urea and are called calyces drain urine in the central cavity of renal pelvis.
Ureotelic. Ammonia produced by metabolism is Urine passes from the pelvis into the ureter. Both the
converted into urea in the liver of these animals and ureters open through separate oblique openings into the
released into the blood which is filtered and excreted urinary bladder.
out by the kidneys. Excretion of urea is benefical for Nephron  Collecting duct  Papilla  Renal calyx 
these animals than ammonia because of following Renal pelvis  Ureters  Urinary bladder  Urethra
reason.
Physiology of Micturition
(i) Urea can be tolerated in much more concentrated
form because it is 100000 times less toxic than The process of relaese of urine is called micturition and
ammonia. the neural mechanism causing it is called micturition
reflex. This reflex is initiated when interoceptors, present
(ii) Urea excretion helps to sacrifice less water while
in the wall of urinary bladder, get stimulated by the
disposing off the nitrogenous wastes.
tension created due to stretching of bladder wall as the
Urea is produced in the liver by urea cycle or Ornithine bladder gradually fills with urine brought into it by the
Cycle. It is also termed as the Kreb-Henseleit cycle. In this ureters.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 169
Role of other organs in excretion 12. Proteinuria: excess protein level in urine.
Lungs: 13. Albuminuria: presence of albumin in urine, usually
occurs in nephritis (inflammation of glomeruli), when
Human lungs eliminate around 18L of CO2 per day and
the size of the filtering slits enlarges and basement
about 400ml of water per day in normal resting condition.
membrane looses its negative charge.
Different volatile materials are also readily eliminated
through the lungs. 14. Ketonuria: Presence of abnormally high ketone
bodies in urine.
Skin:
15. Haemoglobinuria: Presence of blood or blood cells in
Human possess two types of glands:
urine.
(1) Sweat glands: These excrete sweat, Sweat contain
16. Nephritis: Inflamation in glomerulus due to bacterial
99.5%, Water, NaCl, Lactic acid, Urea, Amino acid and
infection.
glucose. Volume of sweat may vary from negligible to
14 litres a day. Special Points
(2) Sebaceous glands: These secrete sebum which contain 1. (a) The urine on standing gives a pungent smell. It is
waxes, sterols, other hydrocarbons and fatty acids. This due to conversion of urea into ammonia by bacteria.
secretion provides a protective oily covering for the skin.
(b) The volume of urine produced per day will increase
Integument in many aquatic animals excretes ammonia on a cold day, due to ¯ADH seretion.
in surrounding medium by diffusion.
2. Highest concentration of urea is found in hepatic vein.
Liver: (Because urea is synthesized in liver.
Liver is the main site for elimination of cholesterol, bile Least concentration of urea is found in renal vein.
pigments (bilirubin & biliverdin), inactivated products of (Becasue urea is excreted through urine formed in kidney)
steroid hormones, some vitamins and many drugs. Bile
carries these materials to the intestine from where they are 3. If one kidney is removed, the remaining one enlarges
excreted with the faeces. and performs function of both kidneys.
4. Camels can withstand water deprivation by reducing
Important Terms Related To Excretion
urinary water loss and water loss by sweat.
1. Oligouria: Less production of urea/urine
5. Earthworms excrete ammonia when sufficient water is
2. Anuria: No production of urine available while they excrete urea instead of ammonia
in drier surroundings.
3. Polyuria: Excess production of urine. More urine
formation takes place due to less secretion of ADH. 6. When lung fishes and xenopus (African toad) live
Due to less secretion of ADH, the amount of water in water, they are normally ammonotelic but they
increases in the urine. So, the patient feels thirsty again become ureotelic when they live in moist air or mud
and again. This disease is called Diabetes-insipidus. during summer.
4. Glycosuria: Excretion of Glucose through Urine. This Crocodiles = normally ammonotelic
sign is present in Diabetes-mellitus. This disease is
7. Bean shaped kidney are present only in mammals.
caused mainly due to less secretion of Insulin.
8. Uric acid is the last product of purine metabolism in
5. Uremia: Excess of urea in blood is termed as Uremia.
human (2,6,8–trioxy purine is uric acid.)
6. Kidney Stone: Due to deposition of Calcium-oxalate
9. Test of urea in urine is specific urease test.
in the kidney, stone is formed. Sometimes, calcium-
phosphate and calcium-sulphate are also found. These Urea NH3 + CO2
are insoluble-salts. Normally, these are not excreted by
Phenol Red is used as a indicator
the urine.
Optimum temp for reaction 60°C.
7. Haematuria: Excretion of blood through urine. It is
a symptom of many diseases like Black water fever, 10. Urinary Bladder – Stimulation for voiding urine = 220 cc.
Bacterial-infection.
Generally micturation occur =300 – 400 ml.
8. Diuresis: The process of excess formation of urine in
Discomfort condition after 500 ml.
the kidney’s is termed as diuresis.
Capacity of bladder 1000 cc.
9. Dysuria: Condition of painful micturition
11. No. of functioning nephrons decrease 10% for every
10. Urinode: Characteristic smell of the urine is due to
10 years after the age of 40 years.
urinode substances.
12. In each kidney there are about 250 collecting duct each
11. Cystitis: Infection of urinary-bladder is termed as
of which collects urine from 4000 nephrons.
cystitis.

170 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. Workers in deep mines usually suffer from (c) Egg laying (d) Aquatic
dehydration because 12. Ureotelic animals are those in which the main
(a) Water is lost due to evaporation nitrogenous waste product is
(b) Water is lost due to defaecation (a) Amino acids (b) Urea
(c) Water is lost in the form of urines (c) Uric acid (d) Ammonia
(d) Water is lost along with salts in the form of 13. Excretory product of mammals is
sweat
(a) Salts (b) Glucose
2. A condition of failure of kidney to form urine is
(c) Urea (d) Ammonia
called -
14. Urine of a human being suffering from diabetes
(a) Creatinine (b) Haematuria
inspidus is
(c) Anuria (d) Ketonuria
(a) Tasteless and thick
3. Diuresis is the condition in which
(b) Sweet and thick
(a) The excretion of volume of urine increases (c) Tasteless and watery
(b) The excretion of volume of urine decreases (d) Sweet and watery
(c) The kidney fails to excrete urine
15. What will happen if one kidney is removed from
(d) The water balance of the body is disturbed. the body of a human being-
4. Which blood vessel contains the least amount of (a) Death due to poisoning
urea
(b) Ureamia and death
(a) Hepatic vein (c) Stoppage of urination
(b) Renal vein (d) Nothing, the person will survive and remain
(c) Hepatic portal vein normal kidney will become hypertrophied
(4) Renal artery 16. Occurence of excess urea in blood due to kidney
5. Ammonia is the main nitrogenous excretory failure is
material in (a) Urochrome (b) Uraemia
(a) Amphibians (b) Aves (c) Uricotelism (d) Ureotelism
(c) Tadpoles (d) Reptiles 17. Total filtrate formed in 24 hours in human kidney
6. Presence of RBC in urine is called is
(a) Anuria (b) Haematuria (a) 1.8 litres (2) 8.0 litres
(c) Glycosuria (d) Ketonuria (c) 18 litres (d) 180 litres
7. A man has taken large amount of protein in his 18. In cockroach, the excretory product is-
diet. He will excrete more of (a) Ammonia (b) Uric acid
(a) Urea (b) Uric acid (c) Urea (d) Both 1 and 3
(c) Sugar (d) Salts and water 19. Ornithine cycle operates in
8. Ornithine cycle is related to (a) Stomach (b) Pancreas
(a) Respiration (b) Excretion (c) Liver (d) Oral cavity
(c) Digestion (d) Nutrition 20. Uric acid is nitrogenous waste in
9. In mammals the urinary bladder opens into (a) Mammals and molluscs
(a) Uterus (b) Urethra (b) Birds and lizards
(c) Vestibule (d) Ureter (c) Frog and cartilaginous fishes
10. Urea is derived from (d) Insects and bony fishes
(a) Fats (b) Amino acids 21. Ornithine cycle performs
(c) Carbohydrates (d) Uric acid (a) ATP synthesis
11. Animals which excrete large amount of ammonia (b) Urea formation in spleen
are (c) Urea formation in liver
(a) Terrestrial (b) Amphibians (d) Urine formation in liver

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 171
22. Henle's loop is found in (a) Removeal of urea from blood
(a) Lungs (b) Heart (b) Removal of uric acid
(c) Kidney (d) Liver (c) Passing out urine
23. Ammonia is converted into urea in (d) Removal of faces
[RPMT 95, Manipal 95] 25. Physiologically urea is produced by the action of
(a) Heart (b) Spleen an enzyme
(c) Liver (d) Brain (a) Uricase (b) Urease
24. Micturition is (c) Arginase (d) None

ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d)
16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

172 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

12 Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland, a small, pea

Endocrine System sized gland located at sella turcica in sphenoid bone at
The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs the base of the brain, is often referred to as the “master
in the human body responsible for producing and gland” due to its pivotal role in regulating other
secreting hormones that regulate various functions such endocrine glands and various bodily functions.
as growth, metabolism, sexual development, and mood. The total weight of this gland is 0.6 gm.
These glands, including the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal,
pancreas, ovaries, and testes, release hormones directly Composed of two distinct parts—the anterior pituitary
into the bloodstream. (adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)—it functions as a vital component
Glands: of the endocrine system.
Glands are specialized organs or tissues within the human Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis):
body that produce and secrete substances essential for
This part of the pituitary gland produces and releases
various physiological functions.
several hormones that control the activity of other
These substances, known as secretions, can be hormones, endocrine glands:
enzymes, or other specific products.
Growth Hormone (GH): Regulates growth, cell
Glands play a crucial role in maintaining the body’s reproduction, and regeneration.
internal balance by releasing these secretions directly into
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates
the bloodstream or through ducts to specific target areas.
the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones that
There are three types of glands which are following. regulate metabolism.
1. Exocrine glands: Exocrine glands are specialized Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Signals the
structures within the body that secrete substances adrenal glands to release cortisol, crucial for managing
through ducts onto epithelial surfaces or into body stress and metabolism.
cavities. These secretions can include enzymes,
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
sweat, Tears, mammary glands, mucus, saliva, and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Regulate reproductive
oils, among others, and serve various functions like
functions, such as ovarian and testicular activity.
digestion, temperature regulation, and protection.
Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production in
An example of an exocrine gland is the sweat gland,
females after childbirth and plays a role in reproductive
found throughout the skin. Sweat glands produce and
health.
secrete sweat onto the skin’s surface through tiny ducts,
helping regulate body temperature by cooling the body Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis):
when it becomes overheated. Another example is the
This portion of the pituitary gland doesn’t synthesize
salivary glands, which release saliva into the mouth
hormones but stores and releases two hormones
through ducts, aiding in the initial digestion of food
produced by the hypothalamus:
and maintaining oral health.
Oxytocin: Regulates uterine contractions during
2. Endocrine Glands: Those glands which release their
childbirth and facilitates milk ejection during
effects directly into the blood are called endocrine
breastfeeding. It also influences social bonding and
glands and the effects of these glands are called
emotional behaviors.
hormones.
Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone ADH): Controls
Hormones: Hormones act as the catalysts which
water balance by regulating the amount of water
change the rate of the reaction.
reabsorbed by the kidneys, thereby affecting blood
The following glands are the endocrine glands pressure and urine concentration.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 173
 The pituitary gland’s functions are controlled by a. Hypothyroidism: This condition occurs when the
signals from the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough hormones,
The hypothalamus secretes releasing and inhibiting leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight gain,
hormones that stimulate or suppress the production cold intolerance, and depression. One common
and release of pituitary hormones. cause is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an autoimmune
condition where the body attacks the thyroid
Hypothalamus Gland: The hypothalamus is a small
gland.
but incredibly important region located at the base of
the brain, just below the thalamus. Despite its size, it b. Hyperthyroidism: It results from an
plays a critical role in regulating various physiological overproduction of thyroid hormones. Symptoms
functions and linking the nervous system to the include weight loss, rapid heartbeat, anxiety, and
endocrine system. heat intolerance. Graves’ disease is a common
cause of hyperthyroidism, also caused by an
The hypothalamus serves as a bridge between the
autoimmune response leading to excessive
nervous and endocrine systems by controlling the
hormone production.
release of hormones from the pituitary gland. It
produces several releasing and inhibiting hormones c. Goiter: Enlargement of the thyroid gland due to
that stimulate or suppress the secretion of pituitary various reasons, including iodine deficiency or
hormones. These hormones, transported via the underlying thyroid disorders like hypothyroidism
bloodstream, regulate the activity of other endocrine or hyperthyroidism.
glands throughout the body.
d. Thyroid nodules: These are abnormal growths
Pineal Gland: The pineal gland, a smallest endocrine or lumps within the thyroid gland. While most
gland in the brain, is situated deep within the brain’s nodules are noncancerous (benign), some may
central structures, near the center and slightly above require further evaluation to rule out thyroid
the middle of the brain, between the two hemispheres. cancer.
It’s shaped like a pine cone, hence its name, and is part
Treatment for thyroid disorders often involves
of the epithalamus.
medication to regulate hormone levels (such as
The pineal gland synthesizes and secretes the synthetic thyroid hormones for hypothyroidism or
hormone melatonin. Melatonin production is medications to suppress hormone production for
regulated by the perception of light. The gland hyperthyroidism), radioactive iodine therapy, or
is particularly sensitive to light exposure, and in severe cases, surgery to remove part or all of
its production of melatonin is inhibited by light, the thyroid gland.
especially blue light. During the day, when light
3. Parathyroid Glands: Found behind the thyroid gland,
exposure is high, the production of melatonin is
these small glands produce parathyroid hormone
suppressed. However, in darkness or low-light
(PTH), which plays a vital role in maintaining calcium
conditions, such as at night, the pineal gland
levels in the blood and bones.
increases its production of melatonin.
Thymus gland: The thymus gland is a vital organ
Thyroid gland: This is the largest endocrine gland.
of the immune system located behind the breastbone
The thyroid gland is positioned in the front part of
(sternum) and in front of the heart. It is most prominent
the neck, just below the Adam’s apple, and consists
in infants and children but gradually decreases in size
of two lobes connected by a narrow band of tissue
and activity with age, becoming mostly inactive in
called the isthmus. It is a vital part of the endocrine
adulthood.
system and produces hormones that play a crucial
role in regulating metabolism and various bodily The thymus gland secretes hormones called thymosins
functions. that assist in the development and differentiation of T
cells. These hormones aid in the proper functioning
The thyroid gland synthesizes two main hormones:
and regulation of the immune system.
i. Triiodothyronine (T3): This hormone is
Adrenal glands: The adrenal glands, situated atop
derived from the conversion of thyroxine (T4)
each kidney, are critical endocrine organs divided into
and is more biologically active. T3 plays a key
two distinct parts: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal
role in regulating metabolism, heart rate, body
medulla. Each part serves different functions and
temperature, and the body’s sensitivity to other
secretes various hormones.
hormones.
Adrenal Cortex: This outer layer of the adrenal gland
ii. Thyroxine (T4): The primary hormone secreted
produces steroid hormones known as corticosteroids,
by the thyroid gland. It gets converted into T3
categorized into three main types:
and is crucial for maintaining overall metabolism,
growth, and body temperature. i. Mineralocorticoids: The outermost zone
of the adrenal cortex secretes aldosterone.
Several disorders can affect the thyroid gland:
Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance by

174 General Science (General Knowledge)

 influencing sodium and potassium levels in the
body, which, in turn, affects blood pressure and
fluid balance.
ii. Glucocorticoids: The middle zone of the adrenal
cortex produces cortisol, a hormone involved
in regulating metabolism, stress response,
immune function, and the body’s response to
inflammation.
iii. Androgens: The innermost zone of the
adrenal cortex produces small amounts of
male sex hormones (androgens), including
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), which
contributes to the development of male secondary
sexual characteristics.
Adrenal Medulla: This inner part of the adrenal gland
synthesizes and releases two main hormones:
i. Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Responsible for the
body’s “fight or flight” response during stressful
situations. It increases heart rate, blood pressure,
and glucose levels in the blood, preparing the iii. Mixed glands: Mixed glands, also known as
body to react to stress by providing a burst of mixed exocrine-endocrine glands, are glands
energy. that possess characteristics of both exocrine and
endocrine glands. These glands have structures or
ii. Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): Works regions that perform both exocrine and endocrine
alongside epinephrine to facilitate the stress functions, secreting substances through both ducts
response. It also affects heart rate and blood and directly into the bloodstream.
pressure.
An example of a mixed gland is the pancreas. It
Disorders affecting the adrenal glands can lead to functions as both an exocrine and endocrine gland:
imbalances in hormone production. For instance,
Addison’s disease results from insufficient hormone a. Exocrine Function: The pancreas produces
production by the adrenal cortex, leading to low levels digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase,
of cortisol and aldosterone. Cushing’s syndrome, on the and proteases, which are released into the
other hand, arises from excessive cortisol production. pancreatic duct and then transported to the small
These conditions can have significant effects on intestine. These enzymes aid in the digestion of
bodily functions and overall health, emphasizing carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
the importance of maintaining proper adrenal gland b. Endocrine Function: Within the pancreas,
function. specific clusters of cells called the Islets of
Ovaries (in females) and Testes (in males): Langerhans function as an endocrine gland. The
Islets contain different cell types, including alpha
These reproductive organs produce sex hormones— cells that produce glucagon and beta cells that
estrogen and progesterone in females and testosterone produce insulin. These hormones are released
in males—that regulate reproductive functions and directly into the bloodstream, regulating blood
contribute to secondary sexual characteristics. sugar levels and metabolism.

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 Exercise

1. Which hormone regulates growth, cell responsible for:

reproduction, and regeneration? (a) Producing digestive enzymes
(a) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (b) Regulating body temperature
(b) Growth Hormone (GH) (c) Controlling blood sugar levels
(c) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (d) Secreting thyroid hormones
(d) Prolactin (PRL) 11. Which gland is most prominent in infants and
2. What hormone regulates uterine contractions children but gradually decreases in size and
during childbirth and influences social bonding activity with age?
and emotional behaviors? (a) Thymus gland (b) Pineal gland
(a) Oxytocin (b) Vasopressin (c) Adrenal gland (d) Hypothalamus gland
(c) Growth Hormone (d) Prolactin 12. The gland responsible for regulating milk
3. The gland that secretes and regulates melatonin, production in females after childbirth is the:
influencing the sleep-wake cycle, is the: (a) Oxytocin gland
(a) Thyroid gland (b) Adrenal gland (b) Prolactin gland
(c) Pineal gland (d) Pituitary gland (c) Vasopressin gland
4. Which hormone plays a crucial role in regulating (d) Growth hormone gland
metabolism, heart rate, and body temperature? 13. The primary function of the hypothalamus gland
(a) Thyroxine (T4) is to:
(b) Triiodothyronine (T3) (a) Regulate sleep patterns
(c) Adrenaline (b) Link the nervous and endocrine systems
(d) Cortisol (c) Produce sex hormones
5. What gland produces and secretes saliva into the (d) Control body temperature
mouth through ducts, aiding in the initial digestion 14. The part of the pituitary gland that stores and
of food? releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus
(a) Pineal gland (b) Pituitary gland is the:
(c) Salivary glands (d) Thyroid gland (a) Anterior pituitary (b) Posterior pituitary
6. The hormone responsible for controlling water (c) Medulla (d) Cortex
balance by regulating kidney function and 15. What gland secretes hormones that assist in the
affecting blood pressure is: development and differentiation of T cells, crucial
(a) Oxytocin (b) Vasopressin (ADH) for immune function?
(c) Adrenaline (d) Insulin (a) Thyroid gland (b) Thymus gland
7. The main function of the parathyroid glands is to: (c) Pituitary gland (d) Adrenal gland
(a) Regulate blood sugar levels 16. The endocrine gland found in the neck, crucial for
(b) Control water balance regulating metabolism, and producing T3 and T4
(c) Maintain calcium levels in the blood and bones hormones is the:
(d) Regulate heart rate (a) Pineal gland
8. The thymus gland plays a crucial role in: (b) Thyroid gland
(c) Parathyroid gland
(a) Digestion
(d) Thymus gland
(b) Immune system development
(c) Maintaining body temperature 17. Which gland secretes sweat onto the skin's
surface through tiny ducts, helping regulate body
(d) Regulating sleep patterns
temperature?
9. Which gland is positioned atop each kidney and
(a) Thyroid gland
produces cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenaline?
(b) Pineal gland
(a) Pituitary gland (b) Thyroid gland
(c) Salivary gland
(c) Adrenal gland (d) Thymus gland
(d) Sweat gland
10. The Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are
18. The primary hormone secreted by the adrenal

176 General Science (General Knowledge)

medulla responsible for the body's "fight or flight" 19. Which gland produces both digestive enzymes
response is: and hormones that regulate blood sugar levels?
(a) Epinephrine (Adrenaline) (a) Pineal gland
(b) Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) (b) Adrenal gland
(c) Aldosterone (c) Pancreas
(d) Cortisol (d) Parathyroid gland

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (c)

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178 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

13 Nervous System

Nervous System
The nervous system is a highly intricate and specialized
network within the human body responsible for transmitting
signals between different parts of the body.
It coordinates and regulates various functions, allowing
organisms to respond to changes in their internal and
external environments.
It’s one of the most complex systems in the body,
controlling everything from basic reflexes to intricate
cognitive processes. 1. Fore Brain (Prosencephalon): This is the ⅔ of the
total brain.It is made up of two parts.
There are three parts of nervous system which are
following (A) Cerebrum.

1. Central nervous system (B) Diencephalon.

2. Peripheral nervous system (A) Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest and most
prominent part of the human brain, occupying
3. Autonomic nervous system the uppermost portion of the cranial cavity. It’s
divided into two hemispheres (left and right),
Central nervous system connected by a bundle of nerve fibers called the
1. Central nervous system: The part of the nervous corpus callosum, facilitating communication
system that controls the entire body and itself is called between the two sides.
the nervous system.It is located on the main axis of the Structure of the Cerebrum:
body.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the cerebrum
There are two parts of the nervous system. is known as the cerebral cortex. It’s made up of
gray matter, consisting of billions of neurons
i. Brain
and glial cells. The cortex is heavily folded,
ii. Spinal cord forming grooves (sulci) and bumps (gyri), which
significantly increase its surface area, allowing for
Brain: The human brain is a complex and vital organ more significant cognitive abilities.
that serves as the control center for the body’s functions,
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. White Matter: Beneath the cerebral cortex lies
white matter, composed of nerve fibers (axons)
The brain weighs around 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds) that connect different regions of the brain, enabling
on average in adults, although this can vary among communication and transmission of information
individuals. between neurons.
The human brain is enclosed in a cavity called the cranium Functions of the Cerebrum:
which protects the brain from external shocks.There are
three parts of the brain. Sensory Processing: It processes and interprets
sensory information received from the body.
1. Forebrain. Different areas within the cerebral cortex
2. Midbrain. specialize in analyzing various sensory inputs,
such as touch, vision, hearing, taste, and smell.
3. Hindbrain.
Memory and Learning: Several areas within the

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 179
 cerebrum, including the hippocampus and certain C. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain
parts of the temporal lobes, are crucial for memory beneath the occipital lobes, the cerebellum is
formation, storage, and retrieval. Additionally, the crucial for motor coordination, balance, posture,
cerebrum facilitates the process of learning and and precise movement control. It receives
adaptation to new information and experiences. sensory information related to body position and
coordinates muscle movements to ensure smooth,
(B) Diencephalon: Pineal and pituitary glands emerge
coordinated, and accurate motor functions. It
from this part.The thalamus and hypothalamus are
also plays a role in some cognitive functions,
part of this.
contributing to attention, language, and emotional
Thalamus: These are two circular structures,which regulation.
work to detect cold,heat and pain.
Spinal Cord:
Hypothalamus: it controls the hormones
The spinal cord is a vital part of the central nervous system
secreted by endocrine glands. It controls hunger,
(CNS), extending from the base of the brain through the
thirst,anger,love,hatred,blood pressure,happiness
vertebral canal of the spinal column. It plays a crucial
etc.
role in facilitating communication between the brain and
2. MidBrain (Mesencephalon): The midbrain, also the rest of the body, serving as a pathway for sensory
known as the mesencephalon, is a small yet essential information to travel to the brain and for motor commands
part of the brainstem, located between the forebrain to be transmitted from the brain to the body.
(comprising the cerebrum) and the hindbrain
●● Housed within the vertebral column, the spinal cord
(containing the pons and medulla). It’s responsible for
is cylindrical in shape and approximately 18 inches in
several crucial functions and consists of Two parts:
length in adults.
A. Corporaquadigemina: It manages head and eye
●● It’s protected by the vertebral column, cerebrospinal
orientation based on visual, auditory, and somatic
fluid, and three layers of connective tissue called
cues while also relaying auditory signals to the
meninges.
cerebral cortex’s auditory center.
●● The spinal cord coordinates rapid, involuntary
B. Cerebral Peduncles: These are fiber bundles
responses known as reflex actions. These reflexes, like
that connect the midbrain to other brain regions,
the knee jerk reflex, occur without conscious thought
serving as pathways for motor and sensory
and involve sensory neurons communicating directly
information. The cerebral peduncles contain
with motor neurons within the spinal cord. This allows
descending motor tracts that transmit signals from
for quick reactions to potentially harmful stimuli.
the cerebrum to the spinal cord, coordinating
voluntary movements. ●● The reflex action discovered by Marshal harel.
3. Hind Brain (Rhombencephalon):The hindbrain is Peripheral nervous System
one of the three major divisions of the brain, located
at the posterior part of the brainstem. It consists of Peripheral nervous System: The segment of the nervous
several structures that are crucial for fundamental system distinct from the brain and spinal cord is termed the
physiological functions and coordination of motor peripheral nervous system (PNS). It comprises nerves and
activities. The hindbrain comprises the following key ganglia that establish connections between the brain, spinal
components: cord, and the body’s various regions. The PNS functions
primarily in two ways: transmitting sensory data from the
A. Medulla Oblongata: Positioned at the base of body to the brain and spinal cord, and executing motor
the brainstem, the medulla oblongata serves as a commands from these central structures to muscles and
vital center for various involuntary functions like glands.
breathing, heart rate regulation, blood pressure
control, and reflex actions such as coughing, The peripheral nervous system operates through two
sneezing, and swallowing. It also acts as a bridge distinct components: the somatic nervous system and the
between the spinal cord and higher brain regions, autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system
facilitating communication between the body and governs voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and
the brain. processes bodily sensations like touch, pain, temperature,
and positioning. Cranial and spinal nerves, constituting
B. Pons: Positioned above the medulla, the pons are 12 pairs and 31 pairs respectively, are integral parts of the
involved in relaying signals between the cerebrum somatic nervous system, originating from the brain and
and the cerebellum. It contributes to various spinal cord.
autonomic functions, including sleep regulation,
respiratory control, and some aspects of facial The autonomic nervous system
movements. Additionally, it contains nuclei that
aid in controlling certain reflexes and coordinating The autonomic nervous system (ANS): ANS is a vital part
voluntary motor movements. of the peripheral nervous system, controlling involuntary
bodily functions essential for survival. It operates beyond

180 General Science (General Knowledge)

conscious control, managing internal processes crucial for Referred to as the “rest and digest” system, it conserves
maintaining body balance and adapting to environmental energy, encourages relaxation, and supports normal
changes. bodily functions during non stressful periods.
This system regulates organs, glands, and smooth Its role involves slowing heart rate, promoting
muscles throughout the body without conscious effort. It digestion, stimulating saliva production, and fostering
oversees critical functions like heart rate, blood pressure, relaxation.
digestion, breathing rate, body temperature, and aspects of
Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter involved
metabolism.
in signaling within this system.
Comprising two primary branches, the ANS functions
These branches often counterbalance each other’s
through:
effects on organs, maintaining overall physiological
1. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): stability. The ANS orchestrates responses using nerve
pathways, ganglia (nerve cell clusters), and various
Known for its “fight or flight” response, it readies
neurotransmitters to manage the body’s reactions to
the body for action during stressful situations by
internal and external stimuli.
mobilizing energy reserves, increasing heart rate,
widening airways, and directing blood flow to crucial Electroencephalography (EEG):
organs and muscles.
This test gauges the brain’s electrical activity using
The release of neurotransmitters like adrenaline and electrodes attached to the scalp. It assists in diagnosing
noradrenaline triggers these responses, aiding the conditions like epilepsy, brain tumors, damage, and other
body’s coping mechanisms in perceived threats. cerebral disorders by capturing the brain’s electrical
patterns.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS):

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 Exercise

1. The part of the nervous system controlling the (c) Communicate with the hypothalamus
entire body is: (d) Manage voluntary muscle movements
(a) Forebrain 10. The part of the nervous system responsible for
(b) Central nervous system transmitting sensory data to the brain is the:
(c) Autonomic nervous system (a) Autonomic nervous system
(d) Peripheral nervous system (b) Central nervous system
2. What does the cerebrum consist of? (c) Peripheral nervous system
(a) Thalamus and hypothalamus (d) Somatic nervous system
(b) Cerebral cortex and white matter 11. Which nervous system controls voluntary
(c) Corpora quadrigemina and cerebral peduncles movements and processes touch sensations?
(d) Pons and medulla oblongata (a) Autonomic nervous system
3. The primary function of the thalamus is to: (b) Somatic nervous system
(a) Regulate hormonal secretions (c) Sympathetic nervous system
(b) Manage head and eye orientation (d) Parasympathetic nervous system
(c) Control involuntary functions like breathing 12. The autonomic nervous system primarily
(d) Detect cold, heat, and pain sensations regulates:
4. Which part of the brain regulates hunger, thirst, (a) Heart rate and blood pressure
and blood pressure? (b) Voluntary muscle movements
(a) Cerebrum (b) Hypothalamus (c) Memory formation
(c) Cerebellum (d) Thalamus (d) Touch and pain sensations
5. The function of the midbrain includes: 13. Which branch of the autonomic nervous system
readies the body for action during stressful
(a) Coordinating voluntary movements situations?
(b) Relaying signals between cerebrum and
(a) Parasympathetic nervous system
cerebellum
(b) Sympathetic nervous system
(c) Managing sensory information related to body
position (c) Central nervous system
(d) Facilitating communication between body and (d) Somatic nervous system
brain 14. What neurotransmitter triggers the sympathetic
6. What does the medulla oblongata control? nervous system's response?
(a) Heart rate regulation (a) Acetylcholine (b) Adrenaline
(b) Motor coordination (c) Dopamine (d) Serotonin
(c) Reflex actions like coughing 15. The parasympathetic nervous system is known
(d) Sensory information processing for:
7. The primary role of the pons involves: (a) Slowing heart rate and promoting digestion
(b) Increasing heart rate and energy release
(a) Sleep regulation
(c) Mobilizing energy reserves during stress
(b) Coordination of facial movements
(d) Initiating relaxation and reducing blood flow
(c) Relay of auditory signals
(d) Sensory information processing 16. What is the role of Electroencephalography
(EEG)?
8. The cerebellum is responsible for:
(a) Memory formation
(a) Sensory processing
(b) Sensory processing
(b) Memory formation
(c) Measuring brain's electrical activity
(c) Motor coordination and balance
(d) Motor coordination
(d) Controlling hormonal secretions
17. The sensory processing of touch, taste, and smell
9. The spinal cord serves to:
is primarily managed by:
(a) Protect the cerebrum
(a) Cerebellum (b) Cerebral cortex
(b) Transmit sensory information to the brain
(c) Thalamus (d) Hypothalamus

182 General Science (General Knowledge)

18. What distinguishes the cerebrum's outer layer? (c) Corpora quadrigemina
(a) Gray matter with sulci and gyri (d) Cerebellum
(b) White matter with nerve fibers 20. The part of the nervous system that includes nerves
(c) Corpora quadrigemina and ganglia connecting the brain and spinal cord
(d) Cerebral peduncles to the body is known as the:
19. The part of the brain responsible for coordination (a) Forebrain
of head and eye movements based on sensory (b) Peripheral nervous system
cues is the: (c) Midbrain
(a) Thalamus (d) Autonomic nervous system
(b) Medulla oblongata

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (b)

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184 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

Musculo Skeletal
14 System

Musculo Skeletal System Cardiac Muscle:

Study of muscles known as Myology or Sarcology. ●● It is a special type of muscle which is found only in the
heart so it is also called cardiac muscle. On the basis
Three types of muscles are found in the body. of structure it is a striated type of muscle. It is also
(i) Voluntary or skeletal muscles. cylindrical fiber. Fibers are branched. It is also Non
Fatigue type muscle.
(ii) Involuntary or smooth muscles.
●● Its contraction is not controlled by the will power of
(iii) Cardiac muscles.
the animal.
Voluntary Muscles: ●● On the basis of function it is involuntary type & control
●● Skeletal muscles constitute around 40% of adult body by pacemaker (SA, AV & Purkinje fibres). Both central
mass in an average healthy person. nerve & autonomic nerves are supplied to this type of
muscle.
●● Transverse lines are found at regular intervals. Hence
these muscles are also called striped or striated muscles. Special points:
●● Their contractions are controlled by the will power of ●● Flexor = Forearm move in upward direction. (Bend)
animals, also called voluntary muscles.
●● Bending of part over one another Eg. biceps brachii
●● The muscle fibers attached to a tough cord of
●● Extensor - Forearm moves in downward direction.
connective tissue called Tendon & Tendon are further
Straightening of bending part Eg. Triceps
attached with a bone.
●● Aryepiglotticus muscle is called Hilton muscle.
Involuntary Muscle:
●● Gastrocnemius muscle present in shank.
●● It is not related to the skeleton so also called Non
skeletal muscle. ●● Sartorius the Longest muscle of body

●● These muscles are found in the visceral organ so are ●● Gluteus maximus (Buttock muscles) – Largest muscle
called visceral muscles or smooth muscles. of the body.

●● Transverse lines are absent, also called striated muscle. ●● Stapedius – Smallest muscle of body.

●● Its contraction is not controlled by the will power of ●● In Human beings 639 muscles are found.
the animal. so it is called Involuntary muscle. ●● 634 muscles are paired and 5 muscles are unpaired.
●● Autonomic nerves are connected to this type of muscle. ●● 400 muscles are striated & most of the muscles are
●● It is spindle shaped. found in the back reason & number of back muscles
are 180.
●● Cells are connected through gap junctions.
●● Jaw muscles are strongest.
●● It contains uninucleated cytoplasm.
●● Longest smooth muscle is present in the uterus of a
●● Actin is more than myosin. pregnant lady.
●● Myofibril is a functional unit of involuntary muscle. Skeleton System:
●● Its contraction period is longer.
There are two main forms of skeleton
●● It remains in the contracted stage for a longer period
(a) Exo skeleton
due to this muscle called Non Fatigue muscle.
(b) Endoskeleton

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Exoskeleton: Shank region – Tibia and tibula – 2
This is developed from epidermis. Example Hair, Nails, Ankle region Tarsals – 7
Claws, Hoof & Horns feathers, etc.
Sole : Metatarsals – 5
Exoskeleton: is ectodermal in origin & non living.
Digits : Phalanges – 14
Mesodermal exoskeleton: occur in fish scales , crocodiles,
Femur is the Strongest, heaviest and largest bone in Human
turtles. etc.
body.
Endoskeleton:
Pectoral girdle
It is present inside the body & mesodermal in origin. In the
Each pectoral girdle consists of two bones i.e. Scapula +
vertebrate endoskeleton is formed of bone and cartilage.
Clavicle
These are living in nature.
●● Clavicle (Collar Bone) : is a weak, thin, cylindrical
Human skeleton bone.
Endo skeleton is divided into two parts. Pelvic girdle (Hip bone)
(A) Axial skeleton ●● Also called as innominate or coxal bone. Each hip
(B) Appendicular skeleton bone is made by fusion of three bones

(A) Axial skeleton ●● Superiorly – Ilium, Anteroinferiorly – Pubis.

Posteroinferiorly – ischium.
●● In Human : 80 Bones are present in axial skeleton
●● Pubis & ischium are separated by a large opening
●● It lies along the longitudinal axis of the body. It (=obturator foramen)
includes -
Sternum (15 cm long)
(1) skull
It is a 15 cm long flat bone. It is divided into three segments
(2) vertebral column – Manubrium, body and xiphoid process.
(3) Ribs The Ribs
(4) Sternum. ●● 12 ribs on each side
(B) Appendicular Skeleton : ●● First 7 ribs which are connected through cartilage to
●● It includes bones of the limbs and girdles. the sternum are called True Ribs. (Vertebrosternal ribs)

●● It is made of: 126 bones in Man ●● Remaining 5 are False Ribs

Man: late foetal age - 306 The Vertebral Column

at birth - 270 ●● Made of 33 vertebrae or 26 bones

after birth - 206 (in adult stage) ●● Formula = C7 T12 L5 S(5) C(4)

Rabbit: 128 + 132 = 260 ●● 24 movable or true vertebrae and (5) + (4) = 9 fused or
false vertebrae (immovable)
Ap. Ax.
●● Body of the vertebrae is called the centrum.
Bone of forelimb:
Skull
Total number of bones in each forelimb : 30
Skull consist of 29 bones
Arm bone : Humerus – 1
(i) Cranium –8
Forearm : Radius and Ulna – 2
(ii) Face – 14
Wrist bones : Carpals – 8
(iii) Ear ossicles – 3 + 3 = 6
Palm : Metacarpals – 5
(iv) Hyoid –1
Digits : Phalanges – 14
All skull bones (except mandible & ear ossicles) are
There are 14 phalanges in each hand. 3 for each finger & 2 immovable.
for the thumb.
The Rabbit’s skull is formed of 53 bones.
Digital formula = 23333
Joints
Total Number of Bones in hind limb: 30
(A) Structural Classification:
Thigh bone : Femur – 1
(i) Fibrous joints (Immovable): also called
Knee bone : Patella – 1

186 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Synarthrosis. e.g. Skull, inferior tibio fibular Resistance : Weight of the facial bone of skull.
joints, tooth in its socket
Class II lever:
(ii) Cartilaginous joints: (Slightly movable) also
Here resistance is between effort & fulcrum.
called Amphiarthrosis. e.g. Symphysis pubis,
intervertebral disc, between rib and sternum. Example : Human body resting on toe.
(iii) Synovial joints: (Most mobile) also called Fulcrum : Is the toe
Diarthrosis.
Effort : Is contraction of calf muscle.
(1) Plain synovial or gliding joint: Permit slight gliding
Resistance : Is body Weight .
movement e.g., joint between zygapophysis, between
carpals, between tarsals processes of vetebrae. Class III lever:
(2) Hinge Joint: Movements are permitted in one plane Here effort is between resistance and fulcrum.
around the transverse axis e.g. elbow joint, ankle Example : Flexing movement of the elbow of forearm.
joint, interphalangeal joint, knee joint.
Fulcrum : Is the elbow joint.
(3) Pivot Joint: Articular surfaces comprise of
Effort : Is contraction in Biceps muscle.
● a central bony pivot
Resistance : Weight of distal part of hand.
● Surrounded by osteoligamentous ring movement
are permitted in one plane around the vertical axis. Disorders of Bones :
eg. radioulnar joint, median atlanto axial joint. 1. Arthritis: It is caused by the inflammation of the
(4) Condylar joints: Articular surfaces include two joints. This is of several types, e.g., rheumatoid
distinct condyles Movement are permitted in both arthritis, osteoarthritis and gouty arthritis.
transverse & vertical axis. Rt.& left - Jaw joint, Knee (i) Rheumatoid arthritis : It is diagnosed by
joint, Atlanto-Occipital joint. the presence of rheumatoid factor (a type of
(5) Ellipsoid joint: Movement are permitted in both axis, immunoglobulin IgM). It is the primary symptom
but articular surfaces are not in the form of condyles of inflammation of the synovial membrane. If it
e.g. Wrist joint, Metacarpophalengeal joint. is left untreated, then the membrane thickens
and synovial fluid increases, exerting pressure
(6) Saddle Joint: Articulating surfaces are reciprocally that causes pain. The membrane then starts
concavo convex. these are improperly developed ball secreting abnormal granules, called pannus,
& socket joints e.g. first carpometacarpal joint. which after accumulating on the surface of the
(7) Ball & socket joint: Here one articular surface is like cartilage, cause its erosion. As a result, the fibrous
a ball and other of the shape of socket. Movements are tissues are attached with the bones and become
around infinite axises. e.g. Shoulder & Hip joint. ossified, making the joints immovable. Its
treatment concentrates on reduction of pain and
Role of muscles and bones in movement
inflammation by heat treatment and physiotherapy
Movement of an organ occurs due to the pulling of the and, in extreme cases, replacement of the damaged
bones caused by the force generated by contraction in joints.
muscles. Movements take place along the joints which act
(ii) Osteoarthritis : Is a degenerative joint disease
as fulcrum of the Lever.
characterized by the degeneration of the articular
Three types of lever functioning can be observed in cartilage and proliferation of new bones. Usually,
movements of human joints. afflicted joints are the spine, knees and hands.
Class I lever: (iii) Gouty arthritis or gout : It is caused either due
to excessive formation of uric acid, or inability
Here Fulcrum is between effort & resistance.
to excrete it. It gets deposited in joints as
Example: Joint between the first vertebra (ATLAS) and monosodium salt.
occipital bone of skull.
2. Osteoporosis: It is an age-related disorder characterized by
Fulcrum : is the joint. decreased bone mass and increased changes of fractures.
Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.
Effort : Is contraction of back muscles.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 187
 Exercise

1. Largest muscle is :- (c) Tetanic contraction

(a) Gluteus maximus (d) None
(b) Sartorius 13. Smallest muscles in rabbit & man :-
(c) Stapedius (a) Gluteus maximus
(d) Biceps muscle (b) Stapedius
2. Papillary muscle found in :- (c) Sartorius
(a) Heart (b) Liver (d) Masseter
(c) Kidney (d) Lung 14. Immediate source of energy for muscle contraction
3. Contraction of shortest duration is of :- is:-
(a) Heart (b) Eyelids (a) Glucose (b) GTP
(c) Arm (d) Jaws (c) ATP (d) Creatine phosphate
4. Total No. of muscles in our body is :- 15. We move our hands while walking for :-
(a) 256 muscles (b) 600 muscles (a) Faster movement
(c) 400 muscles (d) 421 muscles (b) Balancing
(c) Increasing blood circulation
5. Longest smooth muscles are :-
(d) Relieving tension
(a) Intestine
16. The muscle fatigue occurs due to accumulation
(b) Stomach
of:-
(c) Uterus (Pregnant)
(a) CO2
(d) Urinary bladder
(b) Lactic acid
6. Strongest muscles :-
(c) Creatine phosphate
(a) Thigh muscle (b) Leg muscle (d) Myosin ATPase
(c) Arm muscle (d) Jaw muscle
17. Least blood supply will be present in :-
7. Cardiac muscles Fibers :-
(a) Skeletal muscle (b) Cardiac muscle
(a) Involuntary (b) Non-fatigue (c) Smooth muscle (d) All of the above
(c) Striated like (d) All
18. In camel number of cervical vertebra is :-
8. Belly is :-
(a) 6 (b) 7
(a) Upper part of muscle (c) 8 (d) 9
(b) Middle part of muscle
19. In human joint between bones of skull is :-
(c) Lower part of muscle
(a) Fibrous joint (b) Hinge joint
(d) None
(c) Synovial joint (d) None
9. Striated muscle fibers found in :-
20. Smallest bone in Rabbit & Man is ;-
(a) Trachea (b) Lung
(a) Nasal (b) Patella
(c) Leg (d) Gall bladder
(c) Stapes (d) Palatine
10. Smooth muscles fibers are :-
21. Total number bone in Appendicular skeleton of
(a) Spindle shaped human :-
(b) Unbranched & Involuntary
(a) 126 (b) 80
(c) UniNucleated
(c) 44 (d) 33
(d) All of above
22. Total number of bone in Appendicular skeleton of
11. Chemical Ions responsible for muscles contraction
rabbit :-
:-
(a) 128 (b) 120
(a) Ca++ & K+ (b) Na+ & K+
(c) 80 (d) 37
(c) Na+ & Ca++ (d) Ca++ & mg++ Ions
23. Longest bone of human skeleton :-
12. Muscle length doesn't changes :-
(a) Femur (b) Humerus
(a) Isotonic contraction
(c) Tibia (d) Radius
(b) Isometric contraction

188 General Science (General Knowledge)

24. Elbow joint is :- 25. Total number of skull skeleton bones in human :-
(a) Ball & socket (b) Pivot (a) 29 (b) 49
(c) Gliding (d) Hinge (c) 39 (d) 19
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (a)

STUDENT'S NOTES

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 STUDENT'S NOTES

190 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

15 Classification

They have tubes for carrying water and food. They

Classification also make cones that have male and female parts
The plant kingdom consists of various groups of living for making seeds. Examples of gymnosperms are
organisms that have some common features such as being conifers, cycads, and ginkgo, such as Pinus, Cycas,
made of many cells, having a nucleus in each cell, making and Ginkgo .
their own food, and having a cell wall made of cellulose. ●● Angiosperms: These are the most advanced and
The plant kingdom is divided into five main groups based common plants that make seeds that are covered
on how complex the plant body is, whether they have tubes by a fruit that have a complex plant body with real
for carrying water and food, and how they reproduce. roots, stems, and leaves. They have tubes for carrying
These groups are: water and food. They also make flowers that have
male and female parts for making seeds. Examples of
angiosperms are flowering plants, such as mustard,
pea, and mango .
The following table shows the main characteristics and
examples of each group of the plant kingdom:

Group Characteristics Examples

Thallophyta No complex plant Spirogyra,
body; mostly water- Chara,
●● Thallophyta: These are the most simple and ancient living; make new Ulothrix
plants that do not have a complex plant body. They plants by spores or
mostly live in water and have a body that may look breaking into pieces
like a thread, a colony, a branch, or a single piece. They
make new plants by spores or breaking into pieces. Bryophyta Simple plant body; Riccia,
Examples of thallophytes are algae, such as Spirogyra, land-living; no tubes Funaria,
Chara, and Ulothrix . for water and food; Marchantia
make new plants by
●● Bryophyta: These are the first plants that live on land spores; need water for
that have a simple plant body with parts that look like making new plants
roots, stems, and leaves. They do not have tubes for Pteridophyta Complex plant body; Marsilea,
carrying water and food. They are often called the land-living; have tubes Equisetum,
amphibians of the plant kingdom because they need for water and food; Lycopodium
water to make new plants by spores. Examples of make new plants by
bryophytes are mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, spores; have sporangia
such as Riccia, Funaria, and Marchantia .
Gymnosperms Complex plant body; Pinus, Cycas,
●● Pteridophyta: These are the oldest plants that have
land-living; have tubes Ginkgo
tubes for carrying water and food that have a complex
for water and food;
plant body with real roots, stems, and leaves. They
make seeds without
make new plants by spores that are made in special
fruits; have cones
structures called sporangia. Examples of pteridophytes
are ferns, horsetails, and club mosses, such as Marsilea, Angiosperms Complex plant body; Mustard, Pea,
Equisetum, and Lycopodium . land-living; have Mango
●● Gymnosperms: These are the first plants that make tubes for water and
seeds that are not covered by a fruit that have a food; make seeds with
complex plant body with real roots, stems, and leaves. fruits; have flowers

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 191
 ●● They are mostly parasitic and cause diseases in
Animal Kingdom humans and animals. Examples of platyhelminthes are
flatworms, such as tapeworm and liver fluke .
●● Nematoda: These are the animals that have a body that
can be divided into identical left and right parts by only
one plane and a round body.
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm,
and mesoderm.
●● They have a fake body cavity or pseudocoelom that is
not covered by mesoderm.
●● They have a complete digestive system with a mouth and
an anus. They are mostly parasitic and cause diseases such
as elephantiasis and ascariasis. Examples of nematodes
are roundworms, such as Ascaris and Wuchereria.
●● Annelida: These are the animals that have a body that
The animal kingdom consists of various groups of living
can be divided into identical left and right parts by only
organisms that have some common features, such as
one plane and a body that is divided into segments.
being made of many cells, having a nucleus in each cell,
depending on other sources of food, and being able to move. ●● Each segment has a pair of parts called parapodia that
The animal kingdom is divided into several major groups help in moving and breathing.
based on how organized the body is, how symmetrical the
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm,
body is, whether they have a body cavity or not, whether
and mesoderm.
the body is divided into segments or not, and whether they
have a notochord or not. These groups are: ●● They have a real body cavity or coelom that is covered
by mesoderm.
●● Porifera: These are the most simple and ancient
animals that do not have a fixed shape or symmetry. ●● They have a complete digestive system with a mouth
and an anus. They have a closed circulatory system
●● They mostly live in water and have a body with many holes.
with blood vessels and a heart.
They do not have any tissues, organs, or organ systems.
●● They are found in marine, freshwater, and land habitats.
●● They make new animals by spores or growing out of
Examples of annelids are earthworms, leeches, and
a part. Examples of poriferans are sponges, such as
polychaetes, such as Pheretima and Hirudinaria .
Spongilla and Sycon .
●● Arthropoda: These are the animals that have a body
●● Cnidaria: These are the animals that have a body that
that can be divided into identical left and right parts by
can be divided into equal parts by any plane that passes
only one plane and a body that is divided into segments.
through the center of the body
●● They have a hard outer covering or exoskeleton made
●● They have a hollow body cavity and a mouth that has
of chitin.
tentacles around it.
●● They have parts that are joined together that help in
●● They have two layers of cells: an outer layer called
moving, eating, and sensing.
ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm.
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm,
●● They have special cells called cnidocytes that can sting
and mesoderm.
or catch prey.
●● They have a real body cavity or coelom that is small
●● They make new animals by sexual or asexual methods.
and filled with blood.
Examples of cnidarians are jellyfish, corals, and sea
anemones, such as Hydra and Aurelia . ●● They have an open circulatory system with a heart
and hemolymph. They have a well-developed nervous
●● Platyhelminthes: These are the animals that have a
system with a brain and a nerve cord that runs along
body that can be divided into identical left and right
the belly.
parts by only one plane.
●● They are the most diverse and common group of
●● They have a flat body that is squeezed from top to bottom.
animals. Examples of arthropods are insects, spiders,
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm, crustaceans, and centipedes, such as cockroach, honey
and a middle layer called mesoderm. bee, crab, and scorpion .
●● They do not have a real body cavity or coelom. ●● Mollusca: These are the animals that have a body that
can be divided into identical left and right parts by only
●● They have a simple digestive system with one opening
one plane and a body that is not divided into segments.
that acts as both mouth and anus.

192 General Science (General Knowledge)

●● They have a soft body that is protected by a hard shell ●● They have a simple nervous system with a nerve cord
made of calcium carbonate. and groups of nerve cells. They are marine and live in
holes or tubes. Examples of hemichordates are acorn
●● They have a muscular part that helps in moving, a part
worms and pterobranchs, such as Balanoglossus and
that contains the internal organs, and a part that makes
Cephalodiscus .
the shell.
●● Chordata: These are the animals that have a body that can
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm,
be divided into identical left and right parts by only one plane
and mesoderm.
and a notochord, a flexible part that supports the body.
●● They have a real body cavity or coelom that is small
●● They also have a hollow nerve cord that runs along
and limited to the heart and gonads.
the back, gill slits that help in breathing, and a tail that
●● They have an open circulatory system with a heart extends beyond the anus.
and hemolymph. They have a well-developed nervous
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm,
system with a brain and groups of nerve cells.
and mesoderm.
●● They are mostly water-living and have a scraping
●● They have a real body cavity or coelom that is well-
organ called radula for eating. Examples of molluscs
developed.
are snails, clams, squids, and octopuses, such as Pila,
Unio, Loligo, and Octopus . ●● They have a closed circulatory system with a heart and
blood vessels.
●● Echinodermata: These are the animals that have a
body that can be divided into equal parts by any plane ●● They have a well-developed nervous system with a
that passes through the center of the body as adults and brain and a spinal cord.
a body that can be divided into identical left and right
●● They are divided into three smaller groups: Urochordata,
parts by only one plane as larvae.
Cephalochordata, and Vertebrata. Examples of
●● They have a skin that is spiny and supported by an chordates are tunicates, lancelets, and vertebrates, such
internal covering made of calcium carbonate. as Herdmania, Amphioxus, and Fish.
●● They have a system that uses water for moving, eating, The following table shows the main characteristics and
and breathing. examples of each group of the animal kingdom:
●● They have body parts that are divided into five parts Group Characteristics Examples
that are arranged around a central part. Porifera No fixed shape or Spongilla,
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm, symmetry; water-living; Sycon
and mesoderm. body with holes; no
tissues, organs, or organ
●● They have a real body cavity or coelom that is large
systems; make new
and filled with fluid.
animals by spores or
●● They have a simple nervous system with a ring of growing out of a part
nerves and nerves that run along the body parts. Cnidaria Body that can be divided Hydra,
●● They are only found in marine habitats and have an amazing into equal parts by any Aurelia
ability to grow back parts. Examples of echinoderms are plane; water-living;
starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and brittle stars, such hollow body cavity;
as Asterias, Echinus, Holothuria, and Ophiura. mouth with tentacles; two
layers of cells; cnidocytes;
●● Hemichordata: These are the animals that have a body make new animals by
that can be divided into identical left and right parts by sexual or asexual methods
only one plane and a body that looks like a worm. Platyhelminthes Body that can be divided Tapeworm,
●● They have a hollow nerve cord that runs along the into identical left and Liver fluke
back, a notochord-like part called stomochord, and gill right parts by only one
slits that help in breathing. plane; flat body; three
layers of cells; no coelom;
●● They have three parts of the body: proboscis, collar, simple digestive system
and trunk. with one opening; mostly
●● They have three layers of cells: ectoderm, endoderm, parasitic
and mesoderm. Nematoda Body that can be divided
●● They have a real body cavity or coelom that is divided into identical left and
into three parts. right parts by only one
plane and round body;
●● They have an open circulatory system with a heart and three layers of cells;
blood vessels. pseudoco

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 193
 Exercise

1. Which of the following is a characteristic of plants (a) Bryophyta (b) Pteridophyta

in the Thallophyta group? (c) Gymnosperms (d) Angiosperms
(a) They have tubes for carrying water and food 10. The production of flowers for reproduction is a
(b) They reproduce by seeds characteristic feature of:
(c) They mostly live in water (a) Pteridophytes (b) Gymnosperms
(d) They make flowers for reproduction (c) Angiosperms (d) Thallophytes
2. Bryophytes are often referred to as the amphibians 11. What is a common characteristic of animals in the
of the plant kingdom because they: Porifera group?
(a) Have tubes for carrying water and food (a) Symmetrical body
(b) Need water to reproduce (b) Hollow nerve cord
(c) Are found in dry, arid regions (c) Hard exoskeleton
(d) Have a complex plant body structure (d) Lack of tissues, organs, or organ systems
3. Pteridophytes reproduce by: 12. Which group of animals has a body that can be
(a) Seeds divided into identical left and right parts by only
(b) Cones one plane, a flat body squeezed from top to bottom,
(c) Spores produced in sporangia and causes diseases in humans and animals?
(d) Flowers (a) Nematoda (b) Platyhelminthes
4. Gymnosperms differ from angiosperms in that (c) Annelida (d) Arthropoda
gymnosperms: 13. Animals in the Cnidaria group have special cells
(a) Produce seeds covered by fruits called cnidocytes that:
(b) Lack tubes for carrying water and food (a) Produce shells
(c) Have flowers for reproduction (b) Sting or catch prey
(d) Produce seeds not covered by a fruit (c) Form tentacles
5. Angiosperms are distinguished by their ability to (d) Secrete enzymes for digestion
produce seeds that are: 14. The group of animals known for their hard outer
(a) Not covered by any protective structure covering made of chitin, joined body parts, and a
well-developed nervous system with a brain is:
(b) Covered by a fruit
(c) Exposed directly to the environment (a) Echinodermata (b) Mollusca
(d) Enclosed in cones (c) Arthropoda (d) Chordata
6. Which plant group possesses a body structure that 15. What is a characteristic feature of animals in the
may resemble a thread, a colony, a branch, or a Annelida group?
single piece? (a) Hard exoskeleton
(a) Bryophyta (b) Gymnosperms (b) Body divided into segments
(c) Angiosperms (d) Thallophyta (c) Soft body protected by a shell
7. The oldest plants with tubes for carrying water (d) Hollow nerve cord
and food belong to the group: 16. Hemichordates are animals that:
(a) Thallophyta (b) Bryophyta (a) Have a body divided into equal parts
(c) Pteridophyta (d) Angiosperms (b) Resemble worms and live in marine habitats
8. What distinguishes gymnosperms from other (c) Possess a hard exoskeleton
plant groups? (d) Lack a notochord
(a) They lack tubes for carrying water and food 17. Animals in the Echinodermata group are unique
(b) They produce cones for reproduction in having:
(c) They have a simple plant body (a) Tentacles for prey capture
(d) They do not reproduce by spores (b) A flexible notochord
9. Which group of plants is considered the most (c) A skin that is spiny
advanced and common? (d) A closed circulatory system

194 General Science (General Knowledge)

18. Which group of animals has a body that can be (a) Porifera (b) Cnidaria
divided into identical left and right parts by only (c) Mollusca (d) Hemichordata
one plane, a notochord, and a tail that extends
20. What is a common characteristic of animals in the
beyond the anus?
Chordata group?
(a) Porifera (b) Nematoda
(a) Lack of a notochord
(c) Chordata (d) Platyhelminthes
(b) Open circulatory system
19. The group of animals mostly found in water, (c) Tail extending beyond the anus
having a scraping organ called radula for eating, (d) Absence of gill slits
and a soft body protected by a hard shell made of
calcium carbonate is:

ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (c)

STUDENT'S NOTES

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 STUDENT'S NOTES

196 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Chapter

16 Economic Zoology

- Silk production in India is 2,969 tonnes per year

Economic Zoology- at a glance….
- India ranks 3rd in the production of silk. Mysore
●● Huskies are thick fur coated dogs and used by Eskimos (Karnataka) is the leading silk producer state.
to draw their sledges.
●● Silk is secreted by larva & silk is obtained from pupa
●● India ranks first in milk output in the world. or cocoon.
●● Common silk is mulberry silk. ●● Natural silk is protein but artificial silk is usually
●● Mulberry specially grown for silkworms is called carbohydrate.
moriculture. In India the largest lac producing state is Jharkhand,
●● Marine animals are richer in Iodine followed by MP, West Bengal & Maharastra. India produces
75% of the total world production.
●● Shark Liver oil and cod liver oil are very good sources
of vitamin A and D. Economic Botany - at a glance
●● Aquaculture is the rearing and management of useful ●● Basmati rice is mainly cultivated in U.P. and Haryana
aquatic plants and animals like fishes, oyster, prawns in India.
mussel etc.
●● The millets were the first cereals to be domesticated.
●● Pisciculture is the rearing, catching and management
of fishes. ●● Highest cultivation and production of cotton takes
place in China,2nd ® USA,3rd ® India. In India it is
●● Culture fishery is the raising of the fishes in tanks and cultivated in Gujarat, 2nd ® Punjab.
ponds.
●● Highest cultivation and production of jute fiber is in
●● Capture fishery is management of catching of fish West Bengal of India. India is the largest producer of
without actually raising them. jute.
●● Broiler :- Chickens reared exclusively for meat. ●● Brazil is the largest producer of sugarcane.
●● Angoora wool :- It is obtained from Angoora rabbit. ●● About 80 % of sugarcane of India is grown in North
●● NDRI (National Dairy Research Institute) was India (mainly in U.P)
established during first five year plan at Karnal ●● India produces about 90% of gram (Chick pea) of the
(Haryana). world.
●● Hissardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab ●● China is largest producer of groundnut (China > India)
by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams. It is a
cross breeding. ●● Richest plant food - Soyabean [36.5% protein, 17.5%
fat]
Sericulture is the rearing of silk worms for the
production of raw silk.) ●● Bajra seeds infected with ergot [Claviceps purpurea]
may cause abortion in cattles due to aflatoxin produced
- First of all the silkworm was discovered in china by Claviceps purpurea.
by LOTZU EMPRESS of KWANG Ti in 2697
B.C. ●● Largest wheat producing country is the European
Union.
- In India sericulture is an ancient industry dating
back at least to the second century B.C. ●● Botanical name of Pop-corn - Zea mays var. everta.
- In India major silk producing centers are in ●● Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute is
Assam, Bengal, Madras, Punjab, Kashmir and located at Jhansi.
Karnataka ●● The principal cereal crop in India is – wheat.

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 197
●● The cheapest high energy fruit crop of India is - banana. ●● Center origin of arhar / pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is
south - east asia.
●● Botanical name of Indian rye - Brassica juncea.
●● Jute is the largest fiber crop of East India.
●● Centre of origin of rice - India. [South-East Asia]
●● RR – 21 (Rust resistance variety) is a high yielding ●● Center origin of groundnut is Brazil.
variety of wheat. ●● Rabi crops are those which grow in winter eg-Wheat,
●● Vegetable crop cultivation is known as horticulture. Gram, Barley.

●● Cereals are a major source of carbohydrates. ●● Kharif crops are those which grow in summer eg-
Maize, Bajra, Moong.
●● ‘Margarine’ is prepared from Groundnut.
●● India produces the maximum amount of gram (90%)
●● Sugarcane Breeding Research Institute (SBRI) is
in the world.
situated at Coimbatore.
●● 95% of the world crop of red gram (pigeon pea) is
●● Fish net is prepared from Linum usitatissimum.
produced in India.
●● The largest fibre crop of East India is - Jute.
●● About 90% of the world’s mango crop is grown in
●● Jute Agriculture Research Institute (JARI) is situated India.
at Barrackpore (West Bengal)
●● India is the largest producer of cardamom.
●● Commercial jute is morphologically bast fibre.
●● Oat (Avena sativa) is the most nutritious among all
●● Largest newspaper industry is situated at Nepanagar. cereals, because of their high fat, protein and mineral
●● Long fibers of cotton seed are known as lint. contents.
●● The coir industry in India is concentrated in Kerala. ●● Russian federation > Canada > USA leads the world in
production of oats.
●● “Gingelly oil” or “Til oil” is obtained from the seeds of
Sesamum indicum. ●● Urease enzyme is obtained from arhar/pigeon pea/ red
gram/ Cajanus cajan which is used in estimation of
●● In ground nuts (Arachis hypogea) , oil is stored in
urea in urine and blood.
cotyledons.
●● Highest cultivation of groundnut in India is in Gujrat. ●● India is the largest exporter of jute and jute products.

●● Essential oils are those which are used in perfumes ●● Jute is a bast fiber and obtained from the secondary
phloem.
●● Sugarcane Breeding Research Institute, Coimbatore
has developed a red rot resistant variety as Co-527. ●● Max. production of Tea-China > India.
●● Highest crop of sugarcane is grown in the world in ●● Essential oils or volatile oils are those, which evaporate
Brazil, 2nd ® India. in contact with air and have a pleasant fragrance.
●● The family, which possesses the plants which are Coal & petroleum plants:
responsible for the formation of liquid fuel is -
Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae. Chemically petroleum is a liquid of varying composition.
Kerosene, gasoline, benzene and paraffin are some
●● Central Rice Research Institute is situated at Cuttack. important petroleum products. Melvin Calvin was first to
●● Industrial toxicology Research Centre situated at identify a few petroleum plants – the plants whose products
Lucknow. can be used in place of petrol and oil. Most of such plants
belong to families - asclepiadaceae, euphorbiaceae, and
●● ‘Metha Jahar‘ which is useful in rheumatism is apocynaceae. These plants are able to convert a substantial
obtained from Aconitum napellus. amount of hydrocarbons into latex.
●● Chhattisgarh is also known as “Dhaan Ka Katora” ●● Euphorbia lathyris contains a mixture like terpene,
●● Central Drug Research Institute is situated at Lucknow. which can be converted into gasoline.
●● Isbgol is obtained from seeds of Plantago ovata. ●● Mango (Mangifera indica, fam - Anacardiaceae) : It is
good source of vitamin A, C and K,
●● LSD is obtained from claviceps.
●● Banana (Musa paradisiaca sub sp - sapientum, fam -
●● IARI, New Delhi is the main center of wheat breeding musaceae) : It is one of the oldest fruits called ‘Adam’s
and research in India. fig’ and ‘apple of paradise’. Banana is the cheapest
●● National Botanical Research Institute is located at energy rich fruit having high content of carbohydrates,
Lucknow. some fats and proteins.

198 General Science (General Knowledge)

 Exercise

1. Which animal product is known for being a good 9. What is the primary source of margarine?
source of Vitamin A and D? (a) Vegetable oil
(a) Shark liver oil (b) Cod liver oil (b) Soybean
(c) Both a and b (d) None of the above (c) Sesamum indicum
2. Where is NDRI (National Dairy Research (d) Palm oil
Institute) located? 10. Which state in India is known for Basmati rice
(a) Punjab (b) Haryana cultivation?
(c) Uttar Pradesh (d) Karnataka (a) Uttar Pradesh
3. What is the primary source of silk? (b) Punjab
(a) Larva (b) Pupa (c) Haryana
(c) Cocoon (d) Adult moth (d) All of the above
4. In India, which state produces the largest amount 11. What is the largest cereal crop in India?
of lac? (a) Wheat (b) Rice
(a) West Bengal (b) Madhya Pradesh (c) Maize (d) Millet
(c) Jharkhand (d) Maharashtra 12. Which family contains plants responsible for the
5. What is the primary component of natural silk? formation of liquid fuel?
(a) Fibroin (b) Carbohydrate (a) Fabaceae (b) Euphorbiaceae
(c) Lipid (d) Fiber (c) Solanaceae (d) Poaceae
6. Which animal's breed is known for Angora wool? 13. Which state has the largest coir industry in India?
(a) Sheep (b) Goat (a) Kerala (b) Karnataka
(c) Rabbit (d) Alpaca (c) West Bengal (d) Tamil Nadu
7. Where is the Indian Grassland and Fodder 14. What is the primary source of wool ?
Research Institute located? (a) Silk (b) cotton
(a) Punjab (b) Rajasthan (c) Cocoon (d) lac
(c) Uttar Pradesh (d) West Bengal 15. Where is the Central Drug Research Institute
8. Which country produces the most sugar cane? situated?
(a) India (b) China (a) Kolkata (b) Lucknow
(c) Brazil (d) United States (c) Mumbai (d) Delhi

ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b)

SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO-SI, JE, Railways and Other Competitive Exams 199
 STUDENT'S NOTES

200 General Science (General Knowledge)