INTRODUCTION TO SAD

System - is a group of interrelated components that function together to achieve a desired result.

Information system (IS) - is an arrangement of people, data, processes, communications, and information
technology that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in a business.

Information technology - is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer technology.

Installing a system without proper planning leads to great user dissatisfaction and frequently causes the
system to fall into disuse.

Systems analysis and design - lends structure to the analysis and design of information systems

Information workers - are those workers whose jobs involve the creation, collection, processing, distribution,
and use of information.

*(sometimes called white collar workers – who incidentally outnumber blue collar workers since 1957)

Knowledge workers - are a subset of information workers whose responsibilities are based on a specialized
body of knowledge.

*(oftentimes degreed or credentialed in some special subject area – called (subject matter experts) smes
e.g. Engineers, scientists, accountants, etc.)

System owners - are the information system’s sponsors and chief advocates. They are usually responsible for
funding the project to develop, operate, and maintain the information system.

*Sometimes called the ‘client’

*These are the guys who PAY for the system.

System users - are the people who use or are affected by the information system on a regular basis—
capturing, validating, entering, responding to, storing, and exchanging data and information.

*Growth of web is driving increases in both remote and external users.

System designers - translate system users business requirements and constraints into technical solutions. They
design the computer files, databases, inputs, outputs, screens, networks, and programs that will meet the
system users’ requirements.

*Generally, a ‘systems analyst’, designer, etc.

System builders - construct the information system components based on the design specifications from the
system designers. In many cases, the system designer and builder for a component are one and the same.

*Generally, a ‘programmer’

Systems analyst - studies the problems and needs of an organization to determine how people, data,
processes, communications, and information technology can best accomplish improvements for the business.
(may have nothing to do with computers)

When information technology is used, the analyst is usually responsible for:

 o The efficient capture of data from its business source,

o The flow of that data to the computer,

o The processing and storage of that data by the computer,

o The flow of useful and timely information back to the business and its people.

Business analyst (BA) - is a systems analyst that specializes in business problem analysis and technology-
independent requirements analysis.

*(becoming more popular because of the number of end-users and other knowledge workers being
assigned to systems analysts roles in organizations.

Other synonyms for systems analyst include:

o Systems consultant

o Systems architect

o Systems engineer

o Information engineer

o Systems integrator

Much of what we do involves problem solving:

1. Identify the problem

2. Analyze and understand the problem.

3. Identify solution requirements or expectations.

4. Identify alternative solutions and decide a course of action.

5. Design and implement the “best” solution.

6. Evaluate the results. If the problem is not solved, return to step 1 or 2 as appropriate.

Traditional IS Services Organization

* Important: analysts, programmers permanently assigned to specific business functions, areas.

* Typically, teams assigned to specific functional areas.

Contemporary IS Services Organization

* Nowadays, note that analysts, programmers, and other specialists are ‘pooled’ for dynamic and
temporary assignments to project teams as needed.
Business Trends and Drivers

• Total quality management (TQM) - a comprehensive approach to facilitating quality improvements and
management within a business.

• Continuous process improvement (CPI) - the continuous monitoring of business processes to effect
small but measurable improvements to cost reduction and value added.

*Essentially the opposite of business process redesign; however,

*CPI can and frequently does complement BPR.

*Legacy systems - are older information system applications that have become crucial to the day-to-day
operation of a business and that may use technologies considered old or outdated by current standards.

*Business Process Redesign (BPR) - is the study, analysis, and redesign of fundamental business processes to
reduce costs and/or improve value added to the business.

*BPR is an important concept.

• Globalization of the economy

• Information technology problems and opportunities

o Enterprise resource planning (ERP) - software product is a fully integrated information system
that spans most basic business functions required by a major corporation.

*An important concept.

*Examples of ERP software vendors include.

*Baan

*J. D. Edwards

*Oracle

*Peoplesoft

*SAP

*Systems analysts who work on ERP projects are almost always called systems integrators.

o Electronic commerce (EC or E-commerce) - involves conducting both internal and external
business over the Internet, intranets, & extranets.

*Three basic types of electronic commerce applications include:

 • Marketing

• Business-to-consumer (B2C)  Know this

• Business-to-business (B2B)  Know this

See these abbreviations a lot in the literature.

• System Analysts:

o Hosts of skills

• Work with varieties of people with varying perspectives on the application

• Must communicate effectively with all of these

• Must be a people person

• Must be a good communicator – written and orally

• More involved in representing the corporation

o Programmer

• Usually, can work with a well-defined peer group

• Does not require the diversity of people skills and communication skills required by an
SA

• Does require more technical skills

• Often scope of responsibilities is clearly defined

System Analysts as a Facilitator

 Steering committee
 Information Technology vendors
 Applications programmers
 Network Administrator
 Interface Design Expert
 Database Administrator
 Management/System owner
 User N
 User 2
 User 1
Skills Required by Systems Analysts

• Working knowledge of information technology

• Computer programming experience and expertise

• General business knowledge

• Problem-solving skills

• Interpersonal communication skills

• Interpersonal relations skills

• Flexibility and adaptability

• Character and ethics

• Systems analysis and design skills

Computer Ethics

The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics

1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.

2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work.

3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's computer files.

4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.

5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.

6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.

7. Thou shalt not use other people's computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.

8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people's intellectual output.

9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are
designing.

10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that insure consideration and respect for your fellow
human
INFORMATION SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS

Data are raw facts about the organization and its business transactions.

 raw facts
 no context
 just numbers and text

Information is data that has been refined and organized by processing and purposeful intelligence.

 data with context

 processed data
 value-added to data
* summarized

*organized

*analyzed

Types of System

• Transaction Processing System

• Management Information System

• Decision Support System

• Executive Information System

• Expert System

• Communication and Collaboration System

• Office Automation System

Transaction processing systems are information system applications that capture and process data about
business transactions.

 data maintenance - which provides for custodial updates to stored data.

Examples of TPS

 ATMs use computer programs to process bank transactions

 Point-of-sale systems capture purchase information, update inventory, and finalize transactions
 Online shopping process order details, verify payment, and update inventory
 Stock exchanges match buyers and sellers, update stock prices, and settle transactions
 Hotel reservation systems accept customer details, payment, and update hotel records
 Payroll systems process employee salaries at the end of a period

Management Information System (MIS) is an information system application that provides for management-
oriented reporting.
Examples of MIS

 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems

 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software
 Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems
 Human Resource Information System (HRIS) managing employee information and payroll.

Decision Support System (DSS) - an information system application that provides its users with decision-
oriented information

Applied to executive managers, systems are sometimes called executive information systems (EIS).

Data Warehouse read-only, informational database populated with detailed, summary, and exception data and
information generated by other transaction and management information systems.

Examples of DSS

• Healthcare

• Agriculture

• Weather Forecasting

• Real Estate

• Navigation

Expert System is a programmed decision-making information system

Examples of an ES

• Medical diagnosis systems like MYCIN (diagnosing bacterial infections)

• DENDRAL (predicting molecular structures in chemistry)

• PXDES (predicting lung cancer severity)

• A financial analysis system like FINEVA,

• Intelligent tutoring systems used in education

Office Automation (OA) systems support the wide range of business office activities

 Personal information systems are those designed to meet the needs of a single user. They are
designed to boost an individual’s productivity.
 Work group information systems are those designed to meet the needs of a work group.
They are designed to boost the group’s productivity.
Examples of an OAS

 Email management systems,

 document management tools
 scheduling applications
 Microsoft Office Suite (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook)
 Google Workspace (Docs, Sheets, Slides, Gmail)
 Systems for automated data entry
 Report generation

Executive Information System tailored to the unique information needs of executive

Communication and Collaboration System enhance communication and collaboration between people, both
internal and external to the organization

Examples of a CCS

• Google Meet

• Zoom

• Google Workspace (including Docs, Sheets, Slides)

• Dropbox

• Microsoft Teams

Perspectives or Stakeholders

– Roles NOT Job Titles

• System owners pay for the system to be built and maintained.

• System users use the system to perform or support the work to be completed.

• System designers design the system to meet the users’ requirements.

• System builders construct, test, and deliver the system into operation.

• Systems analysts facilitate the development of information systems and computer applications

• IT vendors and consultants sell hardware, software, and services to businesses for incorporation into
their information systems.

Focuses for Information Systems

• Data the raw material used to create useful information.

• Processes the activities

 • Interfaces how the system interfaces with its users and other information systems.

The DATA Focus

• System owners’ perspective

o Business knowledge is the insight that is gained from timely, accurate, and relevant
information. (Recall that information is a product of raw data.)

• System users’ perspective

o Data requirements are a representation of users’ data in terms of entities, attributes,

relationships, and rules.

• System designers’ perspective

o Database schema

• System builders’ perspective

o Database management system

The PROCESS Focus

• System owners’ perspective

o Business functions are ongoing activities that support the business.

o Cross-functional information system supports relevant business processes from several

business functions

o Business processes are activities that respond to business events.

o Process requirements are a representation of the users’ business processes in terms of

activities, data flows, or work flow.

o Policy is a set of rules that govern a business process.

o Procedure is a step-by-step set of instructions and logic

The INTERFACE Focus

– places with stakeholders

• System owners’ perspective

• System users’ perspectives

 o Interface requirements are a representation of the users’ inputs and outputs.

• System designers’ perspective

o User dialogues describe how the user moves from window-to-window

• System builders’ perspective

o Middleware is a layer of utility software that sits in between application software and systems
software

The Role of the Network in IS

 DATA Building Blocks

 PROCESS Building Blocks
 INTERFACE Building Blocks

THE SYSTEMS DELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

System Development Process is a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated tools
that stakeholders use to develop and maintain information systems and software.

Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a framework to assess the maturity level of an organization’s information
system development and management processes and products.

It consists of five levels:

o Level 1—Initial: System development projects follow no prescribed process.

o Level 2—Repeatable: Project management processes and practices are established to track
project costs, schedules, and functionality.

o Level 3—Defined: A standard system development process (sometimes called a “methodology”)

is purchased or developed, and integrated throughout the information systems/services unit of
the organization.

o Level 4—Managed: Measurable goals for quality and productivity are established.

o Level 5—Optimizing: The standardized system development process is continuously monitored

and improved based on measures and data analysis established in Level 4.

System Life Cycle divides the life of an information system into two stages, systems development and systems
operation and support.
System Development Methodology is a very formal and precise system development process.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

 PLANNING
1. Project Initiation

 Develop a system request

 Conduct a feasibility analysis

2. Project Management

 Develop work plan

 Staff the project

 Control and direct the project

 ANALYSIS
1. Develop analysis strategy
2. Gather requirements
3. Develop a system proposal

 DESIGN
1. Develop a design strategy
2. Design architecture and interfaces
3. Develop databases and file specifications
4. Develop the program design

 IMPLEMENTATION
1. Construct system
2. Install system
 Implement a training plan for the users
3. Establish a support plan

Project Identification and Initiation

• Problems are undesirable situations that prevent the organization from fully achieving its purpose,
goals, and/or objectives.

• Opportunities are chances to improve the organization even in the absence of specific problems.

• Directives are new requirements that are imposed by management, government, or some external
influence.
The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework

 PIECES is a useful way to characterize all problems.

 Can use PIECES to analyze requirements and solutions as well.

P the need to improve performance

I the need to improve information (and data)

E the need to improve economics, control costs, or increase profits

C the need to improve control or security

E the need to improve efficiency of people and processes

S the need to improve service to customers, suppliers, partners, employees, etc.

BUSINESS VALUE

 TANGIBLE VALUE
 INTANGIBLE VALUE

ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM REQUEST

 Project sponsor
 Business need
 Business requirements
 Business value
 Special issues

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

 Guides the organization in determining whether to proceed with a project

 Identifies the project’s risks that must be addressed if the project is approved
 Major components:
o Technical feasibility
o Economic feasibility
o Cost-Benefit Analysis
o Organizational feasibility

 Project portfolio management

 o A process that optimizes project selection and sequencing in order to best support business
goals

o Business goals are expressed in terms of

 Quantitative economic measures

 Business strategy goals

 IT strategy goals

METHODOLOGY is a formalized approach to implementing the SDLC

• Well-known methodologies include:

o Waterfall development

o Parallel development

o V-model

o Rapid application development

o Agile development

Categories of Methodologies

• Structured Design

o Waterfall Development

o Parallel Development

• Rapid Application Development

o Phased

o Prototyping

o Throwaway Prototyping

• Agile Development

o extreme Programming

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

• Attempt to balance emphasis on data and process

• Uses Unified Modeling Language (UML)

 • Characteristics of OOAD:

o Use-case Driven

o Architecture Centric

o Iterative and Incremental

Unified Process specific methodology that maps out when and how to use the various Unified Model
Language techniques for object-oriented analysis and design

Unified Process Phases

• Inception

• Elaboration

• Construction

• Transition

Engineering Workflows

• Business modeling

• Requirements

• Analysis

• Design

• Implementation

• Testing

• Deployment

Supporting Workflows

• Project management

• Configuration and change management

• Environment

• Operations and support

• Infrastructure management
Unified Modeling Language

• Provides a common vocabulary of object-oriented terms

• Version 2.0 has 14 diagrams in 2major groups:

o Structure diagrams

o Behavior diagrams

UML Structure Diagrams

• Represent the data and static relationships in an information system

o Class

o Object

o Package

o Deployment

o Component

o Composite structure

USE CASE depicts a set of activities performed to produce some output result.

ACTOR a person or another system that interacts with and derives value from the system.

ASSOCIATION RELATIONSHIP use cases are connected to actors through association relationships.

DESIGN PROCESS

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN: PROJECT MANAGEMENT

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

o Many methodologies emphasize software and system modelling

o We will employ a methodology called “Unified Process” (UP)

o UP methodology, it’s iterative and divides a project into four phases:

 o Inception (a.k.a. Proposal)

o Planning

o Construction

o Transition

Managing the e-Project

o The e-Team
o Managing the team
o Managing the client-consultant relationship
o Communicating with the team and the client

PROCESS a methodological series of steps taken to achieve a goal.

ROLES the responsibilities of each member of a project team, and the interfaces between these team
members

TEAM and SKILLS a number of people work together on a typical project.

o A broad set of skills required relative to traditional software projects, eg:

 Graphic Design (Images, interactive elements)

 Web Development (HTML, jscript etc)

 Software Development (eg Java, Perl)

 Business Analysis (Requirements)

 Training

 Client/Account Management

A Project Manager must:

 Follow a process

 Innovate

 Empower a team

 Communicate

Building the Client-Consultant Relationship

 Discovery
  Requirements Analysis

 Solution Definition

 Project Proposal

CCR Success Factors:

o Commitment (to journey, to project)

o Trust

o Inspiration

o Responsibility

o Education

o Working Practices-professional, think up a more efficient way of doing things

Project Specification Document

Often the PSD includes:

1. Introduction and Project Objectives

2. Project Description

3. Total Cost of Ownership for Infrastructure

4. Actors and Use Case

5. Site Map. Content Plan

6. Testing Plan, site updates and maintenance

7. Budget

8. Appendices

Project Risks

• Privacy

• Copyright Infringement

• Licensing changes

• Legal liabilities (project dependent)

• Lack of human resources - skills

• Lack of funding

• Changes in the marketplace

• Entry barriers for competitors

• Changes in prices