viii Calculus II For Dummies

Chapter 2: Dispelling Ghosts from the Past:

A Review of Pre-Calculus and Calculus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Table of Contents
Forgotten but Not Gone: A Review of Pre-Calculus ..................................38
Knowing the facts on factorials .........................................................38
Polishing off polynomials ...................................................................39
Powering through powers (exponents) ............................................39 Introduction ..................................................................1
Noting trig notation .............................................................................41
About This Book ..............................................................................................1
Figuring the angles with radians .......................................................42
Conventions Used in This Book ....................................................................3
Graphing common functions .............................................................43
What You’re Not to Read ................................................................................3
Asymptotes ..........................................................................................47
Foolish Assumptions ......................................................................................3
Transforming continuous functions .................................................47
How This Book Is Organized ..........................................................................4
Identifying some important trig identities .......................................48
Part I: Introduction to Integration .......................................................4
Polar coordinates ................................................................................50
Part II: Indefinite Integrals ....................................................................4
Summing up sigma notation ..............................................................51
Part III: Intermediate Integration Topics ............................................5
Recent Memories: A Review of Calculus I ..................................................53
Part IV: Infinite Series ............................................................................5
Knowing your limits ............................................................................53
Part V: Advanced Topics ......................................................................6
Hitting the slopes with derivatives ...................................................55
Part VI: The Part of Tens ......................................................................7
Referring to the limit formula for derivatives ..................................56
Icons Used in This Book .................................................................................7
Knowing two notations for derivatives ............................................56
Where to Go from Here ...................................................................................8
Understanding differentiation ...........................................................57
Finding Limits by Using L’Hospital’s Rule ..................................................64
Understanding determinate and indeterminate forms of limits ....65
Introducing L’Hospital’s Rule .............................................................66
Part I: Introduction to Integration .................................9
Alternative indeterminate forms .......................................................68
Chapter 1: An Aerial View of the Area Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Chapter 3: From Definite to Indefinite: The Indefinite Integral . . . . .73 Checking out the Area ..................................................................................12
Approximate Integration ..............................................................................74 Comparing classical and analytic geometry ....................................12
Three ways to approximate area with rectangles ...........................74 Discovering a new area of study .......................................................13
The slack factor ...................................................................................78 Generalizing the area problem ..........................................................15
Two more ways to approximate area ................................................79 Finding definite answers with the definite integral .........................16
Knowing Sum-Thing about Summation Formulas .....................................83 Slicing Things Up ...........................................................................................19
The summation formula for counting numbers ..............................83 Untangling a hairy problem by using rectangles .............................20
The summation formula for square numbers ..................................84 Building a formula for finding area ....................................................22
The summation formula for cubic numbers ....................................84 Defining the Indefinite ..................................................................................27
As Bad as It Gets: Calculating Definite Integrals by Solving Problems with Integration ..............................................................28
Using the Riemann Sum Formula ............................................................85 We can work it out: Finding the area between curves ....................29
Plugging in the limits of integration ..................................................86 Walking the long and winding road ...................................................29
Expressing the function as a sum in terms of i and n .....................86 You say you want a revolution ...........................................................30
Calculating the sum .............................................................................88 Understanding Infinite Series ......................................................................31
Solving the problem with a summation formula .............................88 Distinguishing sequences and series ................................................31
Evaluating the limit .............................................................................89 Evaluating series .................................................................................32
Light at the End of the Tunnel: The Fundamental Identifying convergent and divergent series ...................................32
Theorem of Calculus .................................................................................89 Advancing Forward into Advanced Math ..................................................33
Multivariable calculus ........................................................................33
Differential equations ..........................................................................34
Fourier analysis ...................................................................................34
Numerical analysis ..............................................................................34
x Calculus II For Dummies Table of Contents ix
Integrating by Parts with the DI-agonal Method .....................................140 Understanding the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus ...........................91
Looking at the DI-agonal chart .........................................................140 What’s slope got to do with it? ..........................................................92
Using the DI-agonal method .............................................................140 Introducing the area function ............................................................92
Connecting slope and area mathematically .....................................94
Chapter 7: Trig Substitution: Knowing Seeing a dark side of the FTC .............................................................95
All the (Tri)Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 Your New Best Friend: The Indefinite Integral ..........................................95
Introducing anti-differentiation .........................................................96
Integrating the Six Trig Functions .............................................................151
Solving area problems without the Riemann sum formula ............97
Integrating Powers of Sines and Cosines .................................................152
Understanding signed area ................................................................99
Odd powers of sines and cosines ....................................................152
Distinguishing definite and indefinite integrals .............................101
Even powers of sines and cosines ...................................................154
Integrating Powers of Tangents and Secants ...........................................155
Even powers of secants with tangents ...........................................155
Odd powers of tangents with secants ............................................156
Part II: Indefinite Integrals .......................................103
Odd powers of tangents without secants ......................................156
Even powers of tangents without secants .....................................156 Chapter 4: Instant Integration: Just Add Water (And C) . . . . . . . . . .105
Even powers of secants without tangents .....................................157 Evaluating Basic Integrals ..........................................................................106
Odd powers of secants without tangents ......................................157 Using the 17 basic anti-derivatives for integrating .......................106
Even powers of tangents with odd powers of secants .................158 Three important integration rules ..................................................107
Integrating Powers of Cotangents and Cosecants ..................................159 What happened to the other rules? ................................................110
Integrating Weird Combinations of Trig Functions .................................160 Evaluating More Difficult Integrals ............................................................110
Using identities to tweak functions .................................................160 Integrating polynomials ....................................................................110
Using Trig Substitution ...............................................................................161 Integrating rational expressions ......................................................111
Distinguishing three cases for trig substitution ............................162 Using identities to integrate trig functions ....................................112
Integrating the three cases ...............................................................163 Understanding Integrability .......................................................................113
Knowing when to avoid trig substitution .......................................171 Understanding two red herrings of integrability ...........................114
Understanding what integrable really means ................................115
Chapter 8: When All Else Fails: Integration
with Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 Chapter 5: Making a Fast Switch: Variable Substitution . . . . . . . . .117
Strange but True: Understanding Partial Fractions ................................174 Knowing How to Use Variable Substitution .............................................118
Looking at partial fractions ..............................................................174 Finding the integral of nested functions .........................................118
Using partial fractions with rational expressions .........................175 Finding the integral of a product .....................................................120
Solving Integrals by Using Partial Fractions ............................................176 Integrating a function multiplied
Setting up partial fractions case by case .......................................177 by a set of nested functions .........................................................121
Knowing the ABCs of finding unknowns .........................................181 Recognizing When to Use Substitution ....................................................123
Integrating partial fractions .............................................................184 Integrating nested functions ............................................................123
Integrating Improper Rationals .................................................................187 Knowing a shortcut for nested functions .......................................125
Distinguishing proper and improper rational expressions ..........187 Substitution when one part of a function
Recalling polynomial division ..........................................................188 differentiates to the other part ....................................................129
Trying out an example ......................................................................191 Using Substitution to Evaluate Definite Integrals ...................................132

Chapter 6: Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

Part III: Intermediate Integration Topics ...................195 Introducing Integration by Parts ...............................................................135
Reversing the Product Rule .............................................................136
Chapter 9: Forging into New Areas: Solving Area Problems . . . . . .197 Knowing how to integrate by parts .................................................137
Breaking Us in Two .....................................................................................198 Knowing when to integrate by parts ...............................................138
Improper Integrals ......................................................................................199
Getting horizontal .............................................................................199
Going vertical .....................................................................................201
xii Calculus II For Dummies Table of Contents xi
Chapter 12: Where Is This Going? Testing for Solving Area Problems with More Than One Function ..........................204
Convergence and Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261 Finding the area under more than one function ............................205
Finding the area between two functions ........................................206
Starting at the Beginning ............................................................................262 Looking for a sign ..............................................................................209
Using the nth-Term Test for Divergence ..................................................263 Measuring unsigned area between curves with a quick trick .....211
Let Me Count the Ways ...............................................................................263 The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals ....................................................213
One-way tests .....................................................................................263 Calculating Arc Length ...............................................................................215
Two-way tests ....................................................................................264
Using Comparison Tests .............................................................................264 Chapter 10: Pump up the Volume: Using Calculus
Getting direct answers with the direct comparison test ..............265 to Solve 3-D Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
Testing your limits with the limit comparison test .......................267
Two-Way Tests for Convergence and Divergence ...................................270 Slicing Your Way to Success ......................................................................220
Integrating a solution with the integral test ..................................270 Finding the volume of a solid with congruent cross sections .....220
Rationally solving problems with the ratio test ............................273 Finding the volume of a solid with similar cross sections ...........221
Rooting out answers with the root test ..........................................274 Measuring the volume of a pyramid ...............................................222
Alternating Series ........................................................................................275 Measuring the volume of a weird solid ..........................................224
Eyeballing two forms of the basic alternating series ....................276 Turning a Problem on Its Side ...................................................................225
Making new series from old ones ....................................................276 Two Revolutionary Problems ....................................................................226
Alternating series based on convergent positive series ..............277 Solidifying your understanding of solids of revolution ................227
Using the alternating series test ......................................................277 Skimming the surface of revolution ................................................229
Understanding absolute and conditional convergence ................280 Finding the Space Between ........................................................................230
Testing alternating series .................................................................281 Playing the Shell Game ...............................................................................234
Peeling and measuring a can of soup .............................................235
Chapter 13: Dressing up Functions with the Taylor Series . . . . . . . .283 Using the shell method .....................................................................236
Knowing When and How to Solve 3-D Problems .....................................238
Elementary Functions .................................................................................284
Knowing two drawbacks of elementary functions ........................284
Appreciating why polynomials are so friendly ..............................285
Representing elementary functions as polynomials .....................285
Part IV: Infinite Series ..............................................241
Representing elementary functions as series ................................285
Power Series: Polynomials on Steroids ....................................................286 Chapter 11: Following a Sequence, Winning the Series . . . . . . . . . .243
Integrating power series ...................................................................287 Introducing Infinite Sequences ..................................................................244
Understanding the interval of convergence ..................................288 Understanding notations for sequences ........................................244
Expressing Functions as Series .................................................................291 Looking at converging and diverging sequences ..........................245
Expressing sin x as a series ..............................................................291 Introducing Infinite Series ..........................................................................247
Expressing cos x as a series .............................................................293 Getting Comfy with Sigma Notation ..........................................................249
Introducing the Maclaurin Series ..............................................................293 Writing sigma notation in expanded form ......................................249
Introducing the Taylor Series ....................................................................296 Seeing more than one way to use sigma notation .........................250
Computing with the Taylor series ...................................................297 Discovering the Constant Multiple Rule for series .......................250
Examining convergent and divergent Taylor series ......................298 Examining the Sum Rule for series ..................................................251
Expressing functions versus approximating functions ................300 Connecting a Series with Its Two Related Sequences ............................252
Calculating error bounds for Taylor polynomials .........................301 A series and its defining sequence ..................................................252
Understanding Why the Taylor Series Works ..........................................303 A series and its sequences of partial sums ....................................253
Recognizing Geometric Series and P-Series .............................................254
Getting geometric series ..................................................................255
Pinpointing p-series ..........................................................................257
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Part V: Advanced Topics ...........................................305
Chapter 14: Multivariable Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
Visualizing Vectors ......................................................................................308
Understanding vector basics ...........................................................308
Distinguishing vectors and scalars .................................................310
Calculating with vectors ...................................................................310
Leaping to Another Dimension ..................................................................314
Understanding 3-D Cartesian coordinates .....................................314
Using alternative 3-D coordinate systems ......................................316
Functions of Several Variables ..................................................................319
Partial Derivatives .......................................................................................321
Measuring slope in three dimensions .............................................321
Evaluating partial derivatives ..........................................................322
Multiple Integrals ........................................................................................323
Measuring volume under a surface .................................................323
Evaluating multiple integrals ...........................................................324

Chapter 15: What’s so Different about Differential Equations? . . . .327

Basics of Differential Equations ................................................................328
Classifying DEs ...................................................................................328
Looking more closely at DEs ............................................................330
Solving Differential Equations ...................................................................333
Solving separable equations ............................................................333
Solving initial-value problems (IVPs) ..............................................334
Using an integrating factor ...............................................................336

Part VI: The Part of Tens ...........................................341

Chapter 16: Ten “Aha!” Insights in Calculus II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
Integrating Means Finding the Area ..........................................................343
When You Integrate, Area Means Signed Area ........................................344
Integrating Is Just Fancy Addition ............................................................344
Integration Uses Infinitely Many Infinitely Thin Slices ...........................344
Integration Contains a Slack Factor ..........................................................345
A Definite Integral Evaluates to a Number ...............................................345
An Indefinite Integral Evaluates to a Function ........................................346
Integration Is Inverse Differentiation ........................................................346
Every Infinite Series Has Two Related Sequences ..................................347
Every Infinite Series Either Converges or Diverges ................................348