Nuclear physics

1
Properties of nuclei
Nucleon number A number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) in the nucleus
Radius of nucleus
3 1
0
A R R =
fm 2 , 1 m 10 2 , 1
15
0
= =

R
kg 10 ) 28 ( 66053886 , 1 u 1
27
=
3
0
3
4
3
3 4
R
R
A
V
m
t
t
= = =
All nuclei have approximately the same density
The nucleon number is also called the mass number because it is the nearest whole
number to the mass of the nucleus measured in unified atomic mass units u.
Nuclides and isotopes
2
Atomic number Z number of protons in a nucleus.
Neutron number N number of neutrons in a nucleus.
A = Z + N
a single species having values of both Z and N is called a nuclide.
Isotopes of the element are the nuclides which have the same Z but different N.
General format for element El is
El
A
Z
Isotopes of chlorine
Cl
35
17
Cl
37
17
chlorine-35 chlorine-37
Nuclear binding
3
Because energy must be added to a nucleus to separate it into individual protons
and neutrons, the total rest energy E
0
of the separated nucleons is greater than the rest
energy of the nucleus.
The energy that must be added to separate the nucleons is called the binding energy E
B
.
2
) ( c M N ZM E
A
Z m H B
n
+ =
mass defect
M
A
Z
mass of the neutral atom
H
M
mass of the hydrogen atom
H
1
1
H
2
1
deuterium
Deuteron nucleus consisting of a proton and a neutron
E
B
= (1,007825 u + 1,008665 u 2,014102 u)(931,5 MeV/u) = 2,224 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon E
B
/A.
(2,224 MeV)/(2nucleons)=1,112 per nucleon.
Binding energy per nucleon
4
A
E
B
/A (Mev/nucleon)
The curve reaches a peak at about 8,8 MeV/nucleon at A = 62, corresponding to
element nickel.
The spike at A = 4 shows unusual stability of the structure He
4
2
The nuclear force
5
Strong interaction
1. It does not depend on charge.
2. It has a short range, of the order of nuclear dimension 10
-15
m.
3. The nearly constant density of nuclear matter and the nearly constant
binding energy per nucleon of larger nuclides show that a particular nucleon
cannot interact simultaneously with all nucleons in a nucleus, but only with
those in its immediate vicinity.
This limited number of interactions is called saturation.
4. The nuclear force favors binding of pairs of protons or neutrons with opposite
spin and of pair of pairs.
The liquid drop model
6
all nuclei have nearly the same density
the individual nucleons are analogous to molecules of a liquid, held together by
short-range interactions and surface-tension effects.
1. An individual nucleon interacts only with a few of its nearest neighbors C
1
A
2. The nucleons on the surface of the nucleus are less tightly bound than those
in the interior -C
2
A
2/3

3. Every one of Z protons repels every one of (Z-1) other protons C
3
Z(Z-1)/A
1/3

4. To be a stable, low-energy state, the nucleus must have a balance between
the energies associated with the neutrons and with the protons. |N-Z| C
4
(A-2Z)
2
/A

5. The nuclear force favors pairing of protons and of nucleons. This energy term
is positive (more binding) if both Z and N are even, negative (less binding) if both
Z and N are odd, and zero otherwise. C
5
A
-4/3

3 4
5
2
4
3 1
3
3 2
2 1
) 2 ( ) 1 (

= A C
A
Z A
C
A
Z Z
C A C A C E
B
C
1
= 15,75 MeV
C
2
= 17,80 MeV
C
3
= 0,71 MeV
C
4
= 23,69 MeV
C
5
= 39 MeV


Semiempirical mass formula
2
c
E
Nm ZM M
B
n H
A
Z
+ =
The shell model
7
We picture each nucleon as moving in a potential that represents the averaged-out
effect of all the other nucleons.
We consider each proton to interact with a sphere of uniform charge density, with
radius R and total charge (Z-1)e.
We can use concept of filled shells and subshells and their relationship to stability.
If N or Z is 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126, the resulting structure is unusually stable,
it has an usually great binding energy. These numbers are called magic numbers.
He
4
2
O
16
8
Ca
40
20
Pb
208
82
Doubly magic nuclides
Ca
48
20
Ni
48
28
Nuclear stability
8
Radioactivity a process in which
an unstable structures decay
to form other nuclides by emitting
particles and electromagnetic
radiation.
Alpha decay
9
An alpha particle is a
4
He nucleus, two proton and two neutrons bound together.
When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its N and Z values each decrease
by 2 and A decreases by 4.
Alpha decay is possible whenever the mass of the original atom is greater than the
sum of the masses of the final neutral atom and the neutral helium-4 atom.
He Rn Ra
4
2
222
86
226
88
+
(226,025403 u (222,017571 u + 4,002603 u))(931,5 MeV/u) =
(0,005229 u) (931,5 MeV/u) = 4,871 MeV
Beta decay
10
Beta-minus decay
-
(electron)
e
v + +

| p n
For nuclides with too large N/Z ratio. Z increases by 1.
Beta-minus decay can occur whenever the mass of the original neutral atom is larger
than that of the final atom.
Beta-plus decay
+
(positron)
For nuclides with too small N/Z ratio. Z decreases by 1.
Beta-plus decay can occur whenever the mass of the original neutral atom is at least
two electron masses larger than that of the final atom.
e
v + +
+
| n p
Electron capture
e
v + +

n p |
Electron capture can occur whenever the mass of the original neutral atom is larger
than that of the final atom.
Z decreases by 1.
Gamma decay
11
Transition of an excited state to a ground state by emission of one or
more photons called gamma rays or gamma ray photons.
In both and decay, the Z value of a nucleus
changes and the nucleus of one element becomes
the nucleus of a different element.
In decay, the element does not change;
the nucleus merely goes from an excited state
to a less excited state.
Natural radioactivity
12
o + Th U
234 238
e
v + +

|
* 234 234
Pa Th
Pa Pa
234 * 234

parent
nucleus
daughter
nucleus
Other decay series in nature:
Pb Th
Pb U
208 232
207 235

Activity
13
N(t) - the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample at time t.
dN(t) the negative change in that number during a short time interval.
- dN(t) /dt - the decay rate or the activity of the specimen.
) (
) (
t N
dt
t dN
=
The constant is called the decay constant, and it has different
values for different nuclides.
can be interpreted as the probability per unit time that any
individual nucleus will decay.
t
e N t N

=
0
) (
where N(0) = N
0

A common unit of activity is the curie Ci, which is defined to be 3,70 10
10
decays per
second. This is approximately equal to the activity of one gram of radium.
The SI unit of activity is the becquerel Bq. One becquerel is one decay per second.

1 Ci = 3,70 10
10
Bq = 3,70 10
10
decays/s
Half-life
14
The half-life T
1/2
is the time required for the number
of radioactive nuclei to decrease one-half the original number N
0
.
2
1 ) (
0
=
N
t N
2 1
T t =
2 1
2
1
T
e

=

693 , 0 2 ln
2 1
= = T
The mean lifetime T
mean
, generally called the lifetime:
693 , 0 2 ln
1
2 1 2 1
T T
T
mean
= = =

Lets set:
t
e N t N

=
0
) (
We take logarithms of both sides
and solve for T
1/2

Radioactive dating
15
The dating of archaeological and geological specimens by measuring the concentration
of radioactive isotopes.
Carbon dating
N
14 14


|
C
y 5730
2 1
= T
Potassium dating
Ar K
40 40

+
|
y 10 26 , 1
9
2 1
= T
for
40
K
y 10 4 , 2
8
2 1
= T
for
40
Ar
Natural radiation
16
Cosmic radiation positively-charged ions from protons to iron nuclei. This
radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains
down, including x-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons,
and neutrons (8%).
External terrestrial sources - the major radionuclides of concern for terrestrial
radiation are isotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium (8%).
Internal radiation sources - All Earthly materials that are the building-blocks
of life contain a radioactive component. As humans, plants, and animals consume food,
air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (11%).
Radon-222 is a gas produced by the decay of radium-226. Both are a part
of the natural uranium decay chain. Uranium is found in soil throughout the world
in varying concentrations. Since radon is a gas, it can accumulate in homes.
Accumulation is dependent upon home location as well as building methods.
Among non-smokers, Radon is the number one cause of lung cancer and, overall,
the second leading cause (55%).
Artificial sources (12%)
Biological effects of radiation
tissue - tkanka
17
Radiation radioactivity (alpha, beta, gamma, and neutrons) and electromagnetic
radiation as x rays.
Ionizing radiation when particles having high energy ( or liberating high energy)
pass through matter they lose energy, removing electrons from atoms, breaking
molecular bonds, and producing ions and free radicals (chemically active species
with unpaired electrons).
Neutrons cause ionization indirectly through collisions with nuclei or absorption
by nuclei with subsequent radioactive decay of the resulting nuclei.
Free neutrons undergo beta decay with a mean lifetime of approx. 15 minutes (881.51.5 s).
Exposure to radiation, including sunlight, x rays, and all the nuclear radiations, can
destroy tissues. In mild cases it results in a burn, greater exposure can cause very
severe illness or death by a variety of mechanisms, including massive destruction
of tissue cells, alterations of genetic material, and destruction of the components
in bone marrow that produce red blood cells.
Radiation doses
18
Radiation dosimetry is the quantitative description of the effect of radiation on living tissues.
The absorbed dose of radiation is defined as the energy delivered to the tissue per unit mass.
The SI unit of absorbed dose, the joule per kilogram, is called the gray Gy.
1 Gy = 1 J/Kg
The relative biological effectiveness (RBE), also called the quality factor (QF).
The biological effect is described by the product of the absorbed
dose and the RBE of the radiation the biologically equivalent
dose, or equivalent dose. The SI unit is the sievert Sv.

Equivalent dose (Sv) = RBE Absorbed dose (Gy)
Beneficial uses of radiation
19
Nuclear medicine
Radiation therapy ,radiation oncology, or radiotherapy
Cancer treatment
Radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis.
The Bragg peak is a pronounced peak on the Bragg
curve which plots the energy loss of ionizing radiation
during its travel through matter. For protons, -rays,
and other ion rays, the peak occurs immediately before
the particles come to rest.
The phenomenon is exploited in particle therapy of cancer,
to concentrate the effect of light ion beams on the tumor
being treated while minimizing the effect on the
surrounding healthy tissue.
Nuclear reactions
20
Rearrangements of nuclear components that result from bombardment by a particle
rather than a spontaneous natural process.
H O N He
1
1
14
8
14
7
4
2
+ +
Conservation laws
charge
momentum
angular momentum
energy (including rest energies)
number of nucleons (but not separately)
The total initial mass does not equal the total final mass.
Reaction energy Q
21
E = mc
2

A + B C + D
2
) ( c M M M M Q
D C B A
+ =
To balance the electrons we use the neutral atomic masses.
Q positive, the mass decreases, the total kinetic energy increases, exoergic reaction
Q negative, the mass increases, the total kinetic energy decreases, endoergic reaction
The treshold energy the minimum kinetic energy to make an endoergic reaction go.
Neutron absorption
22
Neutron absorption - atomic nucleus collides with one or more neutrons and
they merge to form a heavier nucleus.
1. Nucleosynthesis of heavy elements (transuranic elements).
2. Neutron activation analysis
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a decay process in which an unstable nucleus splits into two
fragments of comparable mass.
Yield (%)
A
Induced fission resulting from neutron absorption.
Spontaneous fission without initial neutron absorption.
n 3 Kr Ba U n U
1
0
89
36
144
56
* 236
92
1
0
235
92
+ + +
n 2 Sr Xe U n U
1
0
94
38
140
54
* 236
92
1
0
235
92
+ + +
Nuclear fission
23
Fission fragments always have too many neutrons to be stable. They undergo
a series of
-
decays (each of which increases Z by 1 and decreases N by 1)
until a stable values of N/Z is reached.
Ce La Ba Cs Xe
140
58
140
57
140
56
140
55
140
54


Nuclear reactors
24
Chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes
additional reactions to take place.
Electric
power
Generator
Turbine
Coolant in
Coolant out
Steam condenser
Water (low pressure)
Secondary loop Primary loop
Contron rods
Reactor
core
Reactor
pressure vessel
Water
(cool)
Water (high pressure)
Pump
Pump
Steam
generator
Water
(hot)
Steam (high pressure)
Steam (low
pressure)
Moderator is a medium that reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning them
into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235
Slow neutrons
E < 1 eV
U
U
238
235
0,7% 3%
Nuclear fussion
25
In a nuclear fussion reaction, two or more small light nuclei come together, or fuse,
to form a larger nucleus.
Proton-proton chain
H H He He He
He H H
H H H
1
1
1
1
4
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+

v
e
Mass of four protons 4,029106 u
Mass of
4
He 4,002603 u
Mass difference 0,026503 u = 24,69 MeV
Electron positron anihilation 4(0,511 MeV) = 2,044 MeV
The total energy release (24,69 + 2,044)MeV = 26,73 MeV
Photoelectric effect
26
vacuum
aperture
monochromatic
light
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons
when light strikes a surface.
The minimum amount of energy an individual
electron has to gain to escape from a particular
surface is called the work function .
No electrons are emitted unless the frequency of light
was greater than some minimum value called the
threshold frequency.
The stopping potential V
0
is the voltage required to
stop the outward movement of electrons emitted from
the surface.
0
2
max max
2
1
eV mv K = =
A beam of light consists of small packages of energy called photons or quanta.

hc
hf E = =
| = hf eV
0

h
c
hf
c
E
p = = =
Energy levels of atoms
27
Each atom can have an amount of internal energy equal to any possible energy levels.
An atom can make transition from one energy level E
i
to a lower level E
f
by emitting
a photon with energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final level.
f i
E E
hc
hf = =

The hydrogen spectrum

\
|
+ =
2 2
1
2
1 1
n
R

Energy levels of the hydrogen atom

\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
n
n
R
n
n
R
n
n
R
n
n
R

Lyman series
Paschen series
Bracket series
Phund series
The Bohr model
revolve - krci
29
The electrons revolve in orbits about the nucleus, just as planets revolve around the sun.
BUT! According to classical electromagnetic theory, any accelerating electric charge
radiates electromagnetic waves. The energy of an orbiting electron should therefore
decrease continuously, its orbit should become smaller and smaller, and it should
spiral rapidly into the nucleus.
Bohr suggested that an electron in an atom can move around the nucleus
in certain stable orbits, without emitting radiation.
An atom radiates energy only when it makes a transition from one of these
orbits to another. The energy is radiated in the form of a photon with energy
and frequency given by hf = E
i
E
f
.
The magnitude of the electrons angular momentum is quantized:
,...) 3 , 2 , 1 (
2
= = = n
h
n mvr L
t
where n is the principal quantum number.
The Bohr model
30
,...) 3 , 2 , 1 (
2
= = = n
h
n r mv L
n n n
t
n
n
n
r
mv
r
e
2
2
2
0
4
1
=
tc
2
2 2
0
me
h n
r
n
t
c =
nh
e
v
n
2
1
2
0
c
=
Bohr radius m
me
h
a
11
2
2
0 0
10 29 , 5

= =
t
c
Coulomb force = centripetal force
Centripetal force a force that makes a body follow a curved path.
Energy levels in Bohr model
31
2 2
4
2
0
2
8
1
2
1
h n
me
mv K
n n
c
= =
2 2
4
2
0
2
0
4
1
4
1
h n
me
r
e
U
n
n
c tc
= =
2 2
4
2
0
8
1
h n
me
U K E
n n n
c
= + =
c h
me
R
3 2
0
4
8c
=
and
1 7
m 10 097 , 1

= R
The ionization energy of the hydrogen atom is the energy required to remove
the electron completely. Ionization corresponds to a transition from the ground level
(n = 1) to an infinitely large orbit radius (n = ).
Substituting the constants into equation below we get 13,606 eV.
The ionization energy can be also be measured directly, the result is 13,60eV.
Nuclear motion and the reduced mass of an atom
32
The proton and electron both revolve in circular orbits
about their common center of mass.


We must therefore substitute the electron mass in Bohrs
equations with the reduced mass.
2 1
2 1
m m
m m
m
r
+
=
m
m m
m m
m
r
99946 , 0
2 , 1836
) 2 , 1836 (
=
+
=