Introduction

Ethiopia from Tewodros II to Menilek II

The 19th century was a crucial period in the Ethiopian history, characterized by significant
political, social and military developments. During the period of Zemene Mesafint Ethiopia
faced serious fragmentations, the interregional balance of power changed from central authority
to decentralized or multi-centered political structure. Kasa Hailu emerged in that period of
decentralization and internal strife. He started his career as an assistant to his half-brother
Dejjazmach Kinfu of Dembiya, who died in 1839. The governor of Yejju ruling class Ras Ali
gave Qwara to his mother Etege Menen. Kasa was annoyed by this and became a bandit. Kasa
then became a major concern to the Yeju ruling house, who decided to pacify him. Kasa was
married to Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali, and he was appointed to the governor of Qwara.
Kasa still felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and Etege Menen, and resumed his
shiftnet(bandit). A serious of battles then followed. After many battles he was crowned by Abune
Salama, on 9 February 1855, taking the throne name Tewodros II (r.1855-1868).
Tewodros II wanted to create a strong central government by appointing individuals who
would be accountable to him. He was also aimed to modernize Ethiopia through various
administrative and military reforms. However in his aim of centralization and modernization of
Ethiopia he faced many challenges internally and externally. Internally the rebellion of regional
lords and the opposition from Ethiopian Orthodox Church due to his church reform were the
major challenges. Externally from Britain due to his imprisonment of Europeans, who happened
to be in Ethiopia, provoked the British to send a huge military expedition. His army was defeated
at the battle of Maqdela, on April 13, 1868. While his reforms look impulsive and uncoordinated,
they established the ground work for his successors to advance these pivotal national endeavors.
Kasa Mircha of Tigray, Wagshum Gobeze Gebremedhin of Lasta and Menilek of Shewa
emerged as contenders to the throne. Wagshum Gobeze immediately assumed the throne as
Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II, but he only ruled for 3 years (1868-1871). Defeating Tekle-Giorgis at
the battle of Assam in July 1871, Kasa Mircha crowned as Emperor Yohannes IV in July 1872.
Yohannes IV attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration, permitting
regional rulers to exercise considerable autonomy. A good example of this was his recognition of
Menilek as negus of Shewa by the Liche agreement in 1878. Similarly Yohannes designated Ras
Adal Tesema of Gojjam as negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kaffa in 1881. Yohannes also
sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC and to bring about religious unity in the
country as a whole. Due to his conflict against the Mahdist forces from Sudan, Emperor
Yohannes IV died on March 9, 1889 at the battle of Metemma. The throne was then assumed by
negus Menilek of Shewa, who became Emperor Menilek II (r. 1889-1913).
Emperor Menilek made the most successful territorial expansion in the 19th century due to
the reasons that; his access to modern firearms, his control of resource-rich areas that enabled
him to build military, and the dedication of his generals. The process of territorial expansion of
Menilek can be divided into three phases; when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from his
coronation to the battle of Adwa (1889-1896) and the Adwa aftermath (1896-1900).
 Foreign policy

Foreign policies are the objectives that guide the activities and relationships of one state in
its interactions with other states. They are often considered as a function of their (military and
economic) power, their interests, or their role on the international scene. The development of
foreign policy is influenced by domestic considerations, the policies or behavior of other states,
or plans to advance specific geopolitical designs. Every country creates a foreign policy to
achieve certain goals on the global stage. This policy is not just based on the personal desires of
leaders. Leaders must carefully consider many factors known as the determinants of foreign
policy when making foreign policy decisions. Some of the most important determinants of
foreign policy are; population, economic resources, ideology, political leadership, quality of
diplomacy, technological advancements, international law and institutions, crisis and immediate
events, history and geographical location.

Foreign policy sets short term, middle term and long term goals and objectives to be
achieved in proportion to a state‘s capability. Such classifications of foreign policy objectives is
based on the combination of the three criteria:(1) the value placed on the objective; (2) the time
element placed on its achievement; and (3) the kind of demands the objective imposes on other
states in international system. Based on these criteria, the objectives can be classified as: (1) core
values and interests, to which states commit their very existence and that must be preserved or
extended at all time; (2) middle range goals, which normally impose demands on several others
states (commitments to their achievement are serious and time limit is also attached to them);
and (3) universal long range goals-which seldom have definite time limits. In practice leaders
rarely place the highest value on long range goals and it‘s very much dependent on the capability
and ideology of the state.

Overview of Foreign Policy of Emperor Tewodros and Menilek

Making of the modern Ethiopian state was started by Emperor Tewodros. His reign
from1855 to 1868 was marked as a significant turning point in Ethiopian history. He wanted to
create a united Ethiopia, but only partially succeeded. In his aim to modernize Ethiopia he tried
to develop a dynamic foreign policy. Making diplomatic ties with European Christian powers,
preserve Ethiopians sovereignty from foreign control, request military and technical assistance
from Europe, limit foreign missionary and diplomatic activities, tried to modernize the army
using foreign knowledge, and firmly respond to neglect or disrespect to his requests were some
of his policies.

While Tewodros II initiated the vision for a unified and modern Ethiopia, it was under
Menilek II that significant and tangible modernization efforts were realized. Menilek II establish
many diplomatic activities with the aim of modern and sovereign Ethiopia including diplomatic
engagement with European powers (France, Germany, Britain) to counterbalance Italy,
acquisition of modern weapons, promoting foreign investments and trade, and construction of
infrastructures like the Ethio-Djibouti rail way to strengthen international trade and diplomacy
are some of his policies.