Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

What is learner-centered teaching?

- Inverting the traditional teacher-centered teaching
- Understanding of the learning process and putting students at the center of the learning process.
- Shift the focus on the activity from the teacher to the learners
- Emphasizes what the learners do and NOT what the teachers does.
- Focuses on skills and practices in a lifelong learning, creative thinking, and independent learning.
- Insists the learners to actively construct their own knowledge.

WHY IMPLEMENT A LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING?

- There is a need to produce le
- Learners who are critical thinkers, problem solvers and creative.
- There is knowledge explosion, thus a need to make sense of it, not memorize it.
- It can improve student engagement and ownership of learning.

LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING CAN LEAD TO:

 Increase student engagement with the content

 Deep learning
 Long term retention
 Acquisition of critical thinking or creative problem-solving skills.
 Positive attitude toward the subject being taught
 Confidence in the knowledge or skills.

CHARACTERISITCS OF LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING

 Teaching and learning is personalized.
 It is gives interest, aspirations to individual students.
 Teachers have the option of structuring the learning environment that suits them and their students.
 Teachers make the optimal use of facilities available to them.
 They have learn the knowledge and skills.
 Students have the flexibility to learn.
 Learners learn “Anytime” and “Anywhere”.
 Students give opportunities to learn their own way.
 Students need to have learn a clear idea.
 Instructions must be easy to understand and comprehensive
 When students evaluate their own work it will help them mastery over the subjects.
 Students working in group they involved more in activities because ther are opportunities and assisting peer
students.
 Students can work on various activities to their own needs and interests.

BENEFITS:

 Permits opportunities to connect the content to real life.

 Provides opportunities for higher order thinking as opposed to passive listening
 Promoted greater student-faculty and student-student interaction
 Increase student retention
 Provides for improvement of social interactions skills, greater acceptance of others, and a greater sense of
“community” in the class
 Encourages alternative forms of assessments.
 Encourages alternative forms of assessments
 Encourages innovation in both teaching and student involvement.

LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING VS TEACHER-CENTERED TEACHING

 ELEMENTS TEACHER-CENTERED LEARNER-CENTERED
KNOWLEDGE Transmitted from the lecture Constructed by learners
STUDENT PARTICIPATION Passive Active
ROLE OF THE TEACHER Leader/authority Facilitator/partner in learning
ASSESSMENT Few Tests, mainly for grading Many tests, for feedback
EMPHASIS Learning correct answer Developing deeper
understanding
ASSESSMENT One-dimensional Multi-dimensional
ACADEMIC CULTURE competitive Collaborative, supportive
 TEACHING APPROACHES

1. TEACHER-CENTERED

- Teacher is the only reliable sources of information

- Teaching consists in teacher telling and prescribing what learners should do.
- Learner is passive recipient of instruction.

2. SUBJECTS-MATTER-CENTERED
- Subject Matter gains primacy over the learners.
- By all means, teacher finish subject as scheduled even if learners have not learned it.
- Sticking to course syllabi is priority.

3. TEACHER-DOMINATED
- Teacher does not what he/she planned without necessarily considering the interests, concerns, and situations.
- Teacher is the authority.

4. BANKING APPROACH
- Teacher deposits knowledge into the empty minds of students to commit memory
- Students perceived to be empty receptacles waiting to be filled.

Learner-centered means an approach that places learner at the center of learning. This means that the learner
or students is responsible for learning while the teacher is responsible for facilitating the learning. This is also known as
student-centered learning.

PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION AND INTRODUCTIONS

PHILOSOPHY
- Is a Greek word. “PHILOS” means “ Love” and “SOPHIA” means “ wisdom”. Philosophy means love of
wisdom.
- Philosophy of education is “the philosophical study of education and its problem... its central subject
matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy.
- It is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philophical approaches to address issues relating to
education.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSPHY

 METAPHYSICS: What is the nature of reality?

 Epistemology: What is the nature of knowledge? How do we come to know?
 AXIOLOGY: What values should one lived by?

Philosophy helps the teacher to reflect on key issues and concepts in education, usually through such
questions;

1. What is being educated?

2. What is good life?
3. What is nature of learning?
4. What is teaching?

Philosophers think the meaning of things and interpretation of meaning. A philosophy of education represents answers
to questions about the purpose of schooling, a teacher’s role, and what should be taught abd by what methods.
 DEFINITION:

 Philosophy is the science of sciences” – COLERIDGE

 Philosophy is the science of knowledge” = FITCHE
 Philosophy is the mother of all arts and the true medicine of mind” - CIZERO
 Philosophy is the search for comprehensive view of nature” – HENDIRSON
 Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discover the general truth that lies behind the particular facts to discern,
also the reality that lies behind appearance” – RAYMOND TALLYS

MAJOR PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION TODAY

 ESSENTIALISM –
- Essentialism emphasizes the importance of teaching basic skills and essential knowledge. Essentialists
believe that a strong foundation in core subjects like math, science, language arts, and history is essential for
success in life. They focus on a teacher-centered approach with a structured curriculum.
- JAMES D. KOERNER, H.G. RICKOVER, PAUL COPPERMAN, and THEORDORE SIZER

 PERENNIALISM
- Perennialism focuses on the importance of teaching timeless ideas and values. Perennialists believe that there
are certain universal truths that all students should learn about, regardless of their time or place. They
emphasize critical thinking and reasoning skills so that students can grapple with these big ideas.
- MORTIMER ADLER and ROBERT N. HUTCHINS

 PROGRESSIVISM
- Progressivism emphasizes the importance of student experience and inquiry-based learning. Progressives
believe that students learn best by doing, and that the curriculum should be relevant to their interests and
needs. They focus on a more student-centered approach with a flexible curriculum that can be adapted to meet
the needs of individual learners.
- JOHN DEWEY, CECIL REDDIE, JOHN LOCKE, and JEAN JAQUES ROUSSEAU.

 NATURALISM

- Believes that education should focus on the study of the natural world and the scientific method. Nature is seen
as the primary source of knowledge, and students are encouraged to learn through observation and
experimentation.
- EMILE ZOLA, and THERESE RAQUIN

 REALISM
- Emphasizes the importance of teaching practical skills and knowledge that students can use in the real world.
Realists believe that knowledge is gained through interaction with the external world, and the curriculum should reflect the
realities of life.
- ARISTOTLE, ST, THOMAS QAUINAS and JOHN OF SALISBURY

 IDEALISM
- Focuses on the importance of teaching students about moral values, ethics, and critical thinking skills. Idealists
believe that knowledge is derived from reason and reflection, and the curriculum should emphasize the great
ideas of Western civilization.
- PLATO, AUSTINE, DESCARTESS, AMD KANT& HEGEL
 -
 HUMANISM
- Places an emphasis on the individual student and their potential for growth. Humanists believe that education
should help students develop their unique talents and abilities, and the curriculum should be designed to foster creativity,
self-awareness, and social responsibility.
- PAUL KUTZ, ABRAHAM MASLOW, CAFRL ROGERS, MALCOLM KNOWLES.

 PRAGMITISM
- Focuses on the importance of teaching practical skills and knowledge that students can use to solve problems
and adapt to change. Pragmatists believe that knowledge is gained through experience and experimentation,
and the curriculum should be designed to help students think critically and creatively.
- CHARLES SANDRES PEIRCE, WILLIAM JAMES, JOW=HN DEWY, GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
-
 EXISTENTIALISM
- Emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and choice. Existentialists believe that education should help
students develop their own sense of meaning and purpose in life, and the curriculum should encourage
students to grapple with complex philosophical questions.
- SOREN KIERKEGARD, FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE, MARTIN HEIDEGGER, KARL JASPERS, EDMUND
HUSSERL.

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Imagine that every time that people entered a new environment they had to learn how to behave without the guidance of
prior experiences. Slightly novel tasks, like shopping online, would be disorienting and dependent on trial-and error tactics.
Fortunately, people use aspects of their prior experiences, such as the selections of goods and subsequent payment, to
guide their behavior in new settings. The ability to use learning gained in one situation to one another is called transfer.
 Transfer is defined as the extent to which learning in one situation influences learning or performance in another.
 Learning involves the concept of transfer. Transfer is the key to classroom learning. It takes place when
learning task A influences learning task B. When learning A facilitates learning B, positive transfer is said to have
taken place. What is learned in class is thought to transfer into later life situations so as to enable learners to earn
a living and enjoy a fuller life.
 Transfer occurs when something learned at one time and place is applied in another setting. When we teach
basic skills, we are teaching for transfer;
 Our hope is that Mathematics and Reading skills will be applied not only in other content areas, but also in
everyday life.
 When teach Science and Social Studies, we seek not only understanding of the discipline themselves, but the
application of these disciplines to the real world. Most of our efforts in teaching is aimed at transfer (Eggen &
Kauchak, 1994)

Two Types of transfer of learning

1. Positive Transfer – previous learning is likely to facilitate and enhance subsequence learning. Examples: one’s skill in
typing on a type writer is applied on a personal computer, learning to drive one type of car and using the same skills for
driving other types, and learning one pattern of sentence structure and using it as a basis for constructing other sentences.
2. Negative transfer – occurs when previous learning interferes with learning something new such as the inability to work
on other word problems outside the exercises given in class or not being able to sound correctly other English words
outside of a list.

THEORIES OF TRANSFER LEARNING

1. Theory of Mental Discipline.

 This theory asserts that skills or training gained in the study of one subject will improve the performance of the skill in
the study of another subject.
For instance, the training gained in memorizing poetry will facilitate the memorizing of other learning materials such as
names, dates, events, and other information in history. The reasoning power gained from the study of geometry and algebra
can also be used in the study of philosophy, mathematics and social sciences.

2. Theory of Identical Elements.

This theory formulated by Thorndike states that the amount of transfer depends upon the identical elements present
or are common in both learning situations.
The presence of identical elements which may be content, methods, rules or principles facilitate learning. For instance,
the study of Mathematics facilitates the study of Physics because the principles used in the solution of verbal problems in
Physics are the same principles studied in Mathematics.
A study of Latin helps in understanding many English words because many English words are derived from Latin. The
transfer is due to identity of content.

3. Theory of Generalization
In Charles Judd’s theory of generalization, experiences in one learning situation can be applied to another learning
situation. This theory is similar to the theory of identical elements. However , emphasis is placed on understanding and
recognition of relationships between the generalizations of two learning experiences involved.
An illustration of the theory is the study of English and Filipino grammar. The rules and principles of grammar are
practically the same in the two languages. A good knowledge of English grammar can be a good basis of studying Filipino
grammar.

4. Theory of Configuration.
This theory is based on the Gestalt theory of learning. It holds the transfer of learning from one situation to another is the
result of the application of the principles of configuration.
Configuration refers to the unified or total pattern of organization of a learning situation so that the components or
elements lose their identity. The learner sees the learning situation as a whole, not the parts. It is through the combination of
the elements of each learning situation that the learner can see the relationship and similarities between two learning
situations and hence, transfer of learning will take place.

LEARNING THEORIES

• Learning Theories fill the pages of book related and classroom practice, each one offering a different account of
how people learn and what constitutes as learning. Each theory presents its own definition of learning (Sotto, 2007);
yet if we understand these theories thoroughly, we can say that they relate to one another and serve as sound
teaching practices to develop a holistic learner.
• Learning Theories are sets conjectures and hypothesis that explain the process of learning or how learning takes
place. There are many learning theories that guide instruction.
• According to Akdeniz et al. (2016), the three basic approaches while dealing with learning theories are behaviorist
(behaviorism), cognitivist (cognitivism), and constructivist (constructivism). One of the famous learning theory is
Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory. This theory explains that children take an active role in the learning
process. As learners interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
• While this approaches overlap, they are independent or one approach serves as a foundation of another. This
means that the cognitive approach recognizes behaviorism because the cognitive process is seen in behaviorist
learning. Likewise, the constructivist approach anchors its principles on the cognitive approach.
• Because theories vary in their quality and rigor (Hirsch, 1996; Phillips, 1995; Sfard, 1998), it is vital that you well-
informed of the classical and current theories that are emerging in the context of education. As pointed out by
 Wilson and Peterson (2006), the Scottish physicist James C. Maxwell is credited for his saying, “There is nothing as
practical as a good theory.” You should, therefore, be critical in applying the learning theories you think is or are
most applicable in any given learning theories that you will need as future teachers.

I. Behaviorism/ Associative Learning Theory Approach

Behaviorism – depicts observable and measurable aspects of human behavior.

All behaviors are directed by stimuli. Meaning, changes in behavior are evident and will result in stimulus-response
associations. Behaviorism believes that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed.
Learners must be actively engaged and rewarded immediately for their involvement in the activity in order to achieve
learning. Nonetheless, it cannot be determined that learners respond positively to praise and that active learning follows
(Sotto, 2007).
John B. Watson – known as the Father of Behaviorism, and Burrhus Frederic Skinner are the two principal originators of
behaviorist approaches to learning.

Watson believed that human behavior is prompted by specific stimuli. On the other hand, Skinner believed that behavior is
controlled through positive and negative consequences.

Watson’s view of learning was partly influenced by Ivan Pavlov.

Pavlov – behavior is acquired through conditioning.

Conditioning – is an established manner that occurs through interaction with the environment.

Two major types of conditioning: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Parkay and Hass (2000) stated that an individual selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and
psychological drives existing at the moment of action.

Beliefs of Behaviorist Approach

 It operates on the principles of “stimulus-response.”
 Behavior is observable and measurable.
 It prefers actual behavior as an indicator of learning

1.1. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

This type of conditioning asserts that an individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned/desired response.

Features of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus - Automatically produces an emotional or psychological
response
Unconditioned response - Natural occurring emotional response
Neutral Stimuli - Stimuli that do not elicit a response
Conditioned stimuli - Evokes an emotional or physiological response after
being conditioned
Conditioned response - Learned response from a previously neutral condition

Phases of Classical Conditioning

Legend: UCS – unconditioned stimulus NS – Neutral Response
UCR – Unconditioned response R – Response
CS – Conditioned Stimulus CR – Conditioned Response

Phase 1: Before conditioning has occurred

UCS = UCR
Phase 2: The process of conditioning

NC-----UCS = R

Phase 3: After conditioning has occurred

CS= CR

Principles of Learning in Classical Implications

Conditioning

Acquisition. A process by which the A child learns to fear the dentist’s clinic by
conditioned response is acquired from the associating it with a painful tooth extraction that
experience of another person. he or she has experienced.

Stimulus-Generalization. A process by which A child tends to be anxious in all instances in

the conditioned response is transferred to other school because of the first-hand experience he
stimuli similar to the original conditioned or she has experienced with a terror teacher.
stimulus.

Stimulus-Discrimination. A process by which A child should be able to distinguish things that

a conditioned response is transferred to other seem alike but are different (b from d, p from b
stimuli different from the original conditioned or plus (+) sign from negative (-) sign).
stimulus. If generalization is a reaction to Otherwise, learning disabilities will occur.
similarities, discrimination is a reaction to
differences.

Extinction. A process by which a conditioned The anxiousness of a child toward a terror

response is lost. teacher gradually vanishes if, in the succeeding
days, he or she experiences pleasant treatment
from the teacher. Otherwise, phobias will occur.

1.2 Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

This types of conditioning stresses the use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.
Learners tend to repeat the behavior that led to favorable outcomes and suppress those that produced unfavorable results.
They are inclined to behave and are motivated when their output are properly acknowledged and rewarded.
In operant conditioning, we often hear and use the words reinforce and reinforcement. In Skinnerian terms, a reinforce is a
stimulus, whereas reinforcement is the effect of this stimulus.

Types of Reinforcer
1. Primary reinforce. A stimulus that is related to both biological and psychological needs such as food, clothing, shelter,
warmth, human touch, etc.
2. Secondary Reinforce. A stimulus that reinforces a behavior after being previously associated with a primary reinforce. It
includes money, grades in schools, tokens, etc.
3. Positive reinforce. A stimulus is added to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.
4. Negative reinforce. A stimulus is withdrawn to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Fixed Ratio (FR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant number of desired behavior.
2. Fixed Interval (FI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant amount of desired time.
3. Variable Ration (VR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of trials.
4. Variable Interval (VI). The reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of time.

TYPES OF REINFORCEMNT
1. Verbal. Learners excel more when they are given praise for performing well in the examination. On the other hand,
learners who did not perform well in the examination are encouraged to study harder and do better net time.
2. Physical. Learners feel proud when given a pat on shoulder or hug for doing great in their “Sabayang Bigkasan.”
However, physical reinforcement must be used with caution because of the issue of sexual harassment. Still,
human touch has been found to be an effective tool to increase the confidence of learners.
3. Nonverbal. Learners feel relaxed and comfortable when they are given smiles or warm looks during a discussion.

4. Activity. Learners enjoy the class discussions more if varied games or any related class activities are incorporated in
them.
5. Token. Learners appreciate their efforts when given corresponding points or tokens
6. Consumable. Learners find it satisfying when given consumable rewards like chocololates, candies, and crackers by the
teacher.

Principles of Learning in Operant Examples

Conditioning
Principles of Contracts. The relevant • A learner is misbehaving in class.
behavior is identified, then the teacher and The teacher and learner devise a
the learner decide on the terms of the behavioral contract to minimize
contract. distractions. Provisions include that the
learner will be punctual, will sit in front of
the class, will raise a hand when he or she
has questions or comments, and will not
leave his or her seat without permission.
Principle of Consequences. • Smiling at the learner after a
Consequences happen after the “target” correct response
behavior occurs. It could be: • Giving commendation to learners
• Positive or negative; for their accomplishments.
• Expected or unexpected; • Selecting learners for a special
• Immediate or long term; task.
• Extrinsic or intrinsic; • Praising the learners’ ability to
• Material or symbolic (a failing their parents.
grade);
• Emotional/interpersonal; and
• Unconscious
 •

Principle of Reinforcement. Negative • Obtaining a score of 80% or higher

reinforcement increases the probability of makes the final exam optional.
a response that removes or prevents an • Submitting all assignments on time
adverse condition. results in the lowest grade being
dropped.
• Perfect attendance is rewarded with
a “homework pass”.

Principle of Extinction. Punishment • Learners involved in fighting are

involves presenting a strong stimulus that immediately referred to the
decreases the frequency of a particular principal.
response. Punishment is effective in • Late assignments are given a grade
quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. of “O.”
• Three records of tardiness in
attending class results to dialogue
with parents.
• Failure to do homework results in
after-school detention (the privilege
of going home is removed).

Premack Principle or “Grandma Rule.” • Learners can go home only after

Less derived activities can be increased by accomplishing the given task or
looking at them to do more desired tasks for the day.
activities • Stress to the learners that there is
time for play, study, and sleep.

1.3. Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism.

It means selecting and connecting constitute learning. Prior to Skinner’s operant conditioning, which reinforces behavior,
Thorndike has classified concepts related to reinforcement-based learning (Doolite, 2001). Thorndike calls this
connectionism instrumental conditioning, which explains that there is probability for a behavior to occur again when followed
by a positive experience. This idea is also explained in Thorndike’s main tenet, the “Law of Effect.” However, it should be
remembered that Skinner focused on the association between the response and the reinforcement, while Thorndike
focused on the connection between the stimulus and the response.

Principles of Learning in Implication

Connectionism
Multiple Responses. This refer to a A child tries multiple responses to solve a
variety of responses that would lead certain problem.
to a conclusion or arrival of an
answer.

Law of Set and Attitude. This Giving homework and advanced reading
explains that prior prepares the child well in class.
instruction/experience affects a given
task.

Law of Readiness. This law Asking a child to write the letters of the
explains that interfering with oral alphabet when he or she does not yet know
directed behavior causes frustration. the basic strokes of writing will only lead to
It further explains that making frustration and disappointment.
someone to do something that he or
she does not want to do is also
frustrating, Below are the three
tenets of the law of readiness.
• When someone is ready to
execute some act, doing it is
satisfying and results in a
feeling of happiness.
• When someone is ready to
execute some act, not doing
it is annoying and
disappointing.
• When someone is not ready
to execute some act, getting
forced to do it is annoying
and frustrating.
Law of Exercise. This explains Teachers should provide learners with varied
learning by doing. Below are the enhancement activities, exercise, or seatworks
two tenets of the law of exercise. for practice.
• Law of Use – connections
between stimulus and
response are reinforced as
they are used.
• Law of Disuse –
connections between
stimulus and response are
weakened when practice is
discontinued.

Law of Effect. This law explains Teachers should recognize the achievement of
that reward reinforces a behavior, learners and encourage others to perform
whereas punishment decreases better.
its occurrence.

Halo Effect. This law describes the Good looking and beautiful learners are
 “physical attractiveness outright perceived to be smart and intelligent.
stereotype” and the “what is Thus, teachers should evaluate learners
beautiful is good” principle. It according to their performance and not on
means that the teacher’s their physical appearance.
impression of the learner’s
physical attributes influences how
he or she feels and thinks about
the learner’s character.

II. Cognitivism Approach

Behavioral psychology is based upon on factual and procedural rules, rewards, and punishment. It gives way to cognitive
psychology, which it based on models for making sense of real –life experiences and how we receive and interpret
information (Lesh & Lamon, 1992).
In cognitivist approach, cognitive processes and activities such as processing information, mental representations, guesses,
and expectations are accepted as bases in the interpretation of learning.

Beliefs of Cognitivist Approach

• It focuses on memory as the storage and retrieval of information.
• It prefers to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes.
• It considers schema as essential in learning

2.1 Edward Chance Tolman’s Latent Learning – Place Learning

This theory was first introduced by Hugh Blodgett, who made use of the paradigm of learning without reinforcement.
Tolman, on the other hand, captured the idea and developed studies on “latent learning.”
Learning occurs in situations where there is no certain reward because of the presence of “cognitive maps.”
Living organisms organize a map in their minds about their physical environment. An example of this is a human being’s
innate need to know where and how to go to places that will provide food when he or she is hungry, not because of the
connection of stimulus-response.
This is the reason why Tolman emphasized that organisms organize behavior around a purpose, which he calls the theory
of “purposive behaviorism.”

2.2 David Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory.

David Ausubel’s theory focuses on the verbal learning method.
Learners learn new information – whole to pieces – through direct exposure to information rather than discovery. In short,
learning is gained through deductive reasoning. Information organized by the teacher is presented and readily received by
the learners. Hence, meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what learners already know.
Two Dimensions of Learning Processes

Reception Learning Discovery Learning

In reception learning, learners receive the information from In discovery learning, learners focus on identifying the
the teacher; therefore, the teacher should present ideas or key ideas and work out to store this information on
concepts to the learners in a well-organized manner. their own. Therefore, the teacher should expose
learners to varied activities.

2.3 Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory/Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction

This theory, as opposed to Ausubel’s theory of meaningful verbal learning, emphasizes that learning is more meaningful to
learners when they have the opportunity to interact among themselves and with their environment through conducting
experiments, exploring and manipulating materials and equipment, wrestling with questions, and finding solutions to their
questions.
2.4 Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/Problem-solving Theory.
This is rooted in Gestalt theory, where an individual evaluates information as a whole rather than receiving it in isolation
(“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts”). This theory also emphasizes that learners have the capacity to determine
and understand the nature of any given phenomenon in a bigger view that involves exploring, analyzing, and structuring
perception until a solution is found, where mostly problem is solved through the “cognitive trial and error” method.

2.5. George A. Miller’s Theory of Data Processing

This theory is grounded on Edward C. Tolman’s latent learning, claiming that learning is a complex and internal process that
occurs with some mental processes. This theory emphasized that information is the basic means of learning and explains
learning in terms of the memory system. It focuses on how information goes into the memory and how it is stored and
retrieved as the need arises.

Three Main Elements of Information Processing

1. Information stores. It refers to the places where information is stored. It is composed of the following three
different types of memory:
1.1. Sensory record. It is the stage where the first-hand information is received using the different senses.
1.2 Short-term memory (processor). It is the stage where information is processed and tuned into behavior before it is
transferred to long-term memory.
1.3 Long-term memory. It is the stage where information is continually stored and has three different parts where different
types of information are kept as:
1.3.1 Semantic memory. It is the storage of verbal information such as concepts, principles, and generalizations in solving
problems.
1.3.2 Recollectional memory. It is the storage of records and events, phenomena, time, and places which have a
memorable impact on the learners.
1.3.3 Operational memory. It is the storage of skills and ordinal, applied, and methodological information needed to
complete a task.

2. Cognitive Processes. It refers to mental activities that help in transferring information from one memory to another such
as:
2.1 Attention. It is the power to focus on selective information. Efficient learning depends on the selective ability of the
learner.
2.2 Perception. It is the process of describing the information received.
2.3 Repetition. It is the process of storing repetitive information for it to stay longer in the short-term memory.
2.4 Coding. It is the process of deducing or using codes when transferring information from the short term memory to long-
term memory. In other words, learners need to filter information that is necessary for learning.
2.5 Storing. The process is anchored on Anderson and Bower’s Model that information is established on verbal units
including structures of subject and verb rather than perception. This means that the learners’ stored information are reliable
and sufficient to stand the test of time.
2.6. Retrieving. It is the process of looking for, finding, and activating information when needed.
3.6. Executive cognition or cognition information. It refers to the harmonization between information stores and
cognitive processes for data processing.

Information Processing Model

2.6 Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory
This theory describes how information is processed into memory so that learners get the best out of the stored information.
Memory is the central point for learning, which is the ability to store information that can be used at a later time. Hence,
learners learn when the human mind takes information (encoding), performs an operation in it, stores the information
(storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval)

Stages of Human Memory

1. Sensory Memory (SM). This stage utilizes all the different senses such as olfactory, auditory, signht, smell and touch in
capturing information.
2. Short-term Memory (STM). This stage selects information through processes of attention and perception transferred by
the sensory memory.
3. Long-term Memory (LTM). It is the permanent storage of information related to the different areas of life and is activated
when information is needed.

Three Components of LTM According to Tulving (1993)

1. Episodic. It is the recall of the particular time and place, events, and taste of one’s personal experience.
2. Procedural. It is the recall of specific skills or steps in completing a task or refers to “knowing how.”
3. Semantic. It is the recall of general facts, principles, and concepts needed to answer standard questions.
Causes of Forgetting
1. Retrieval Failure – it explains that forgetting is due to the inability to recall information.
2. Decay Theory – It explains that forgetting is due to the failure of using information.
3. Interference Theory – it explains that forgetting is due to the influence of other learning.

Guidelines to Help Effectively Process Information (Zhou and Brown, 2015)

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Summarized

1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of
words)
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and
numerical patterns)
3. Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly)
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully)
5. Musical intelligences (ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber) 6. Interpersonal intelligence
(capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others)
6. 7. Intrapersonal (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes)
7. 8. Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature)
8. 9. Existential intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence such as,
“What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get here?”

Gardner (2013) asserts that regardless of which subject you teach—“the arts, the sciences, history, or math”—you should
present learning materials in multiple ways. Gardner goes on to point out that anything you are deeply familiar with “you can
describe and convey … in several ways. We teachers discover that sometimes our own mastery of a topic is tenuous, when
a student asks us to convey the knowledge in another way and we are stumped.” Thus, conveying information in multiple
ways not only helps students learn the material, it also helps educators increase and reinforce our mastery of the content.

Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory can be used for curriculum development, planning instruction, selection of course
activities, and related assessment strategies. Gardner points out that everyone has strengths and weaknesses in various
intelligences, which is why educators should decide how best to present course material given the subject-matter and
individual class of students. Indeed, instruction designed to help students learn material in multiple ways can trigger their
confidence to develop areas in which they are not as strong. In the end, students’ learning is enhanced when instruction
includes a range of meaningful and appropriate methods, activities, and assessments.

Taxonomy of Objectives

Successful Intelligence Theory

by Robert Sternberg

1. Memory Skills
2. Analytical Skills
3. Creative Skills
4. Practical Skills

Theories of Motivation
1. Attribution Theory
2. Self-efficacy, Self-determination and Self-regulation
3. Choice Theory
4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Attribution Theory
We attribute our success or failures to events or factors.
For example, over the course of a typical day, you probably make numerous attributions about your own behavior
as well as that of the people around you. When you get a poor grade on a quiz, you might blame the teacher for not
adequately explaining the material, completely dismissing the fact that you didn't study.

Self-Efficacy - the belief that one has the capabilities to perform a task.

Enhanced self-efficacy = more intrinsic motivation one's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or
accomplish a task. One's sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and challenges
Self-Determination- the belief that one has control over the things that they do and the decisions that they make

Self-Regulation- the ability to master oneself set standards monitor/evaluate behavior I mpose consequence -

Choice Theory - by William Glasser “We are born with needs that we must satisfy.The strength of each need varies
from person to person.”

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - by Abraham Maslow “We are born with a series of needs that we strive to satisfy.
We must satisfy needs in the lower levels before satisfying higher-level needs.”

Self-actualization

Self-worth and competence

Love and belongingness

Safety and security

Physiological needs

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Presented by: Ms. Gene Rose T. Bocol
Question to Ponder: What are the learner-centered psychological principles and how are these applied in teaching
and learning?
LEARNERS ARE EXPECTED TO:
 Explain the learner – centered psychological principles and
 Cite concrete learning situations to apply the different learner-centered psychological principles.

You, the learner, are the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around you.

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together the American Psychological Association. The following 14
psychological pertain to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:
They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.

The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective, (3)
development and social, and (4) individual differences factors influencing learners and learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to administrators, to parents, and to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive factors

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing
meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit formation in motor learning and learning that
involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that student can use to construct meaning from
information, experiences and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume personal responsibility to their own
learning.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guide, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-oriented.
To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life-span, students must generate and pursue personally-relevant goals.
Initially, students’ short term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can
be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so
that they can reach longer-term goals.
Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and
educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and experiences and
their existing knowledge base.
Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been
shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking
 The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving and concept
learning.
They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to
apply their knowledge in novel situations.
They can also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which
work well for them, receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate
models.
Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying and assessing their
strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select
potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.
In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely
progress toward a goal.
Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can
enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional practices.

Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Cultural or group influences on students impact many educationally relevant
variables: motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be
appropriate for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can enhance or
interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.
Students’ belief about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Positive
emotions generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mid anxiety can also enhance learning and
performance by focusing the learner’s attention on a particular task.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing
for personal choice and control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners’
intrinsic motivation to learn.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills
demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort,
along with persistence over time.

Developmental and Social factor

10. Developmental influences on learning
 learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across physical, intellectual, emotional,
and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable
and interesting way.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and
interesting way.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on
instructional tasks.
Setting that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking, and social competence can
enhance learning.

Individual Differences Factor

12. Individual differences in learning

Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.

13. Learning and diversity

the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
Language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all influence learning.
14. Standards and assessment
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the learning
process.
Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both learners
and teachers about progress towards the learning goals.

Metacognition

PREPARED BY: GENE ROSE T. BOCOL, MAEd

• Metacognition -“Thinking about thinking”

- Metacognition and development
- Teaching Strategies to develop metacognition
- Metacognition Knowledge and Variables
- Application of Metacognition leads one to be an expert learner
- Characteristics of Expert Learners
- Learners who do not use metacognition remain to be novice learners
- Characteristics of a novice learners

• The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of
both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is “Thinking
about thinking” or “learning how to learn”.
• It refers to higher order thinking involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning.
• Metacognitive knowledge – refer to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to
control cognitive processes.
• Flavell divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:
• a.) knowledge of person variables c.) strategy variables
 • b.) Task variables
• *Person variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of a person variables
refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of
one’s own learning processes.
• E. g. You may be aware that you study more effectively if you study very early in the morning than late in the
evening, and that you work better in a quiet library rather than at home where there are a lot of things that make it
hard for you to focus and concentrate.
• Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished,
gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you.
• E.g. You may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational philosophy
than it is for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and
evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of various
strategies and try out to see if it will help you learn better,

• Meta-attention – is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or
task at hand.
• Meta – memory – is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
These three variables all interacts as you learn and apply metacognition.
Ormod includes the following strategies that work best for you:
• Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities.
• Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time.
• Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
• Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
• Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new materials
• Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension. In other words, knowing when information has been
successfully learned and when it’s not
• Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
• Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met.
• E.g. A student may be use knowledge in planning how to do homework: “I know that I (person variable), have
more difficulty with my Science assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable) so I will
do my homework in science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan.(strategy variable)”
• If one is only aware about cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task but does not use this to
guide or oversee his/her own learning, then NO metacognition has been applied.

Huitt beleves that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following types of questions:

• What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?

• Do I know what I need to know?
• Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
• How much time will I need to learn this?
• What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to lean this?
• Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
• How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
• How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?

Metacognition strategies to facilitate learning

 • The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities that would build your students’ capacity
to reflect on their own characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the tasks they are to do (task knowledge) and
the strategies they can use to learn (strategic knowledge).
• Metacognition inTeaching strategies to develop metacognition:volves knowledge and skills which you and your
students can learn and master.

Teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a student monito a peer’s
learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)

II. Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR – This can be taught to younger students (primary grades.) It is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story
or presentation.
T is for Tune in. It is first important for a learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention, and that he is already to
learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about what he will soon learn.
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts efforts to listen. He becomes aware if he is momentarily detracted and
goes back to listen again.
• R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.
PQ4R – This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit or
chapter.
P – Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for outlines or
advance organizers that will give you an idea about the important topics and ideas in the chapter.
Q – Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about the topic.
R – Read. Check out sub headings as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed in bold/italized. Find out the
meanings of words that are not clear to you.
R – Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R – Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in order to understand better.
R – Reflect. Think about what you read.

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important to have relevant knowledge structures
well learned.)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what’s going on around them (Have you asked a
good question today?)
6. Help students to know when to ask for help.
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks.

Novice and expert learners

• Expert learner employ metacognitive strategies in the learning. They are more aware of their learning process as
they read, study, and do problem solving. Expert learners monitor their learning and consequently adjust their
strategies to make learning more effective.

Differences between novice and expert learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert learners

Knowledge in different subject Have limited knowledge in the Have deeper knowledge in different
areas different subject areas subject areas because they look for
interrelationships in the things they
 learn.
Problem Solving Satisfied at just scratching the surface; First try to understand the problem,
hurriedly gives a solution to the look for boundaries, and create a
problem mental picture of the problem.
Learning/Thinking Strategies Employ rigid strategies that may not Design new strategies that would be
be appropriate to the task at hand appropriate to the task at hand
Selectivity in Processing Attempt to process all information they Select important information to
Production of output receive process; able to breakdown information
Do not examine the quality of their to manageable chunks
work, nor stop to make revisions Check their errors and redirect their
efforts to maintain quality output

FACILITATING LERANER- CENTERED TEACHING NOTES

Theorists/Proponent: Jacob Kounin
1. Accountability – The teacher holds all members of the class responsible for their learning and behavior.
2. Dangles – The teacher continues to find materials, review lesson plans, and talks with individual students when the
class as a whole is ready for instruction.
3. Desists – The teacher engages to stop a misbehavior.
4. Flip tops – The teacher is engaged in one activity and then returns to a precious activity that the students thought
they had finished.
5. Fragmentation – The engages in a type of slowdown.
6. Group Focus – The teacher keeps the attention of all members of the class at all times, which assists in maintaining
an efficient classroom and reducing student’s misbehavior.
7. Jerkiness – The teacher fails to develop a consistent flow of instruction, thus causing students to feel lesson
momentum jerks from slow to fast.
8. Movement Management - the teacher keeps lessons and groups engaged at an appropriate pace, with smooth
transitions and varying activities.
9. Over – Dwelling – The teacher dwells on an issue and engages in a stream of talk clearly longer than the time
needed for students’ understanding.
10. Overlapping – the teacher supervises and attends to more than one group activity at the same time.
11. Ripple Effect – the teacher corrects one student or calls attention to one student for his or her misbehavior and it
ripples to other students causing them to behave better.
12. Satiation – The students have focused on one learning aspect too long and begin to lose interest, make more
mistakes and misbehave.
13. Slowdowns – The teacher, when teaching, moves too slowly and stops instruction too often. Thus, the students lose
interest or learning momentum.
14. Stimulus Bound – The teacher has the students engaged in a lesson and then something attracts his or her
attention, she or he loses the instructional focus and momentum while dealing with the other issue.
15. Thrust – The teacher teaches too slowly or too fast or switches back and fourth, thus failing to acquire and hole an
appropriate momentum for students to learn.
16. Truncation – The teacher engages in a dangle, yet fails to resume the original, dropped activity.
17. Wittiness – The teacher perceives everything in all areas of the classroom at all times.

MEANINGFUL THEORY By: DAVID P. AUSUBEL

Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory

According to David Ausubel's meaningful verbal learning is when new knowledge is received directly from the teacher in a
form in which it can be received by students.A learner absorb new information by tying it to existing concept and ideas that
they have already acquired.
Rather than building an entirely new cognitive structure they are able to relate it to information that is already present within
their minds.

Why is meaningful learning theory useful?

The most important factor in learning is the which the learner already know.It occurs when the learner interprets,
relates,and incorporate new information with existing knowledge and applies the new information.

Ex.
Mapping out information allows students to use the connections between concept so that Individual ideas seem to be part of
a larger whole.Studies also found that when students collaborate when making a concept map they engage in more
meaningful learning than making one individually.

Abstraction/Generalization
The main theme of Ausubel's theory is that knowledge is hierarchycally organized;the new information is
meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already know.

FOUR PROCESSES
1.Derivative Subsumption
-described the situation in which the new information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already learned.

2.Correlative Subsumption
-it enriches the higher level of concept through expanding or changing the concept given to include the possibility of idea.

3.Superordinate Learning
-a learning by which we already knew a lot of example of concept.But did not know the concept itself until it was
taught to us.

4.Combinatorial Learning -
is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concept.

ADVANCE ORGANIZER
TWO BENEFITS:
1.You will easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic.
2.You can readily see how the concept in a certain topic are related to each other.

Four Types of Organizer

1.Expository -describe the new concept.

2 .Narrative -present the new information in the form of a story to students.

3.Skimmy- is done by looking over a new material to gain a basic overview

(Act of reading
through a text or a documents fast and going through important details.)
 4.Graphic Organizer - visual to set up or outline the new information.include pictograph, descriptive patterns, concept
patterns, concept map

DISCOVEERY LEARNING BY: JERMOE BRUNER: A LEARNING THEORIST

- Was introduced by Jerome Bruner.

- It is a method of Inquiry-based Instruction.
- This popular theory encourages
- to build on past experience and knowledge, use their intuition, imagination and creativity and search for new
information to discover facts, correlations and new truths.

In his theory learners go from a tangible, action-oriented stage of learning to a symbolic and abtract stage of learning. By
using this theory, learners can build new knowledge upon knowledge they’ve previously learned. This can lead to a better
understanding of what students are learning. The discovery learning method is a constructivist theory, meaning it is based
on the idea that students construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experience.

THE FIVE PRINCIPLES OF DISCOVERY LEARNING MODEL

Principle 1: PROBLEM SOLVING

- Instructor should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining existing and newly acquired
information and simplify knowledge.

Principle 2: LEARNEER MANAGEMENT

- Instructor should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn at their own pace. This flexibility
makes learning the exact opposite of static sequencing of lessons and activities, releves learners from unnecessary
stress and makes them feel they own learning.
-
Principle 3: IMNTEGRATING AND CONNECTING
- Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and encourage them to connect to the
real world. Familiar scenarios become the basis of new information, encourage learners to extend what they know
and invent something new.
Principle 4: INFORMATION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
- Discoveryl earning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on the assumptions that learning is
not mere a set of facts. Learners should in fact learn to analyze and interpret the acquire information, rather than
memorize the correct answer.

Principle 5: FAILURE AND FEEBDACK

- Learninfg does not only occur when we find the right answer, It also occurs through failure. Discovery learning does
not focus on finding the right end result, but the new things we discover in the process, an it’s the instructors
responsibility to provide feedback, since without it learning is incomplete.

EDWARDS LEE THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM “PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING IN CONNECTIONISM” Prepared by:

ABADIA, ROCSAN B. BPED-1A

What is Edward Thorndike's theory of connectionism?

- Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist that lived from 1874-1949. Thorndike developed a theory of
connectionism that explained that learning resulted from S-R bond formation. S-R bonds are connections between
 stimuli and rewarding or satisfactory responses. Thorndike's theory consisted of the law of effect, the law of
exercise, and the law of readiness.

How does connectionism work?

- Connectionism is a learning theory that explains learning as a result of connections between stimuli and responses.
A stimulus is a specific occurrence that spurs action, and a response is a reaction. In connectionism, learning is
often visible and apparent.

What is Connectionism?
- Connectionism is an influential learning theory in the fields of cognitive science and psychology. The foundational
premise of connectionism is that creatures can create connections between stimuli and responses through learning.
A stimulus is a thing or occurrence that influences or brings about an activity or result. A response is a reaction or
outcome that occurs after the stimulus occurs. In connectionism, learning happens when a connection is made
between a stimulus and a rewarding response through trial and error.

Thorndike’s Theory consisted of Law namely:

1.THE LAW OF READINESS

2. THE LAW OF EXERCISE
3. THE LAW OF EFFECT

1) Law of Readiness
This law states that learning can only take place when a person is ready to learn. When employees feel ready, they
learn more effectively and with greater satisfaction than when not ready. It is your job as an instructional designer to create
an eLearning course that helps create this readiness to learn. This can be done by:
• Hook the learners before they ever begin the course. This can be done via a pre-work activity or a short
video introducing the content. By creating anticipation, you are building learner excitement and motivating
them before they ever even access the content.
• Let workers know why it is important to learn a subject and what can they expect from the course. By
sharing with the learners what they will learn, you are already motivating the students to meet the
standards set forth. Be very clear about how the content will be organized and lay out the expected
outcomes. This removes some anxiety and begins to get the learners excited about accomplishing tasks
set forth.
Designing a course that is not only interesting, but also gives the learner a measurable sense of what can be accomplished,
and why, you have followed this law!

2). Law of Exercise

This law is simple. The more a person practices something, the better he or she is able to retain that knowledge.
Remember back in school when the teacher would have you write spelling words three times each and then use them in a
sentence? Your teacher was practicing this law.
Part two of this law states that knowledge not used becomes weakened and disappears from memory. "Use it or lose it" isn't
just a random saying: when it comes to learning, it is completely accurate.Your eLearning design should take this into
account and provide learners the opportunity to use new information so that it sticks. This means repeating the information,
applying it immediately, or connecting the new information to existing knowledge.

3). Law of Effect

In simple terms, this law states three things:
• Learning is strengthened when associated with a pleasant or satisfying feeling. Learning is more likely to
happen again in the future.
• Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling, becoming less likely for learning to
occur again in the future. Learners will try to avoid it.
• Learning occurs when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
Therefore, we can say students are more likely to learn when they feel satisfied or are rewarded for learning, rather than
punished for not learning. They need to feel good in order to retain momotivation.
Thorndike’s additional Laws and Principles:

* Multiple responses - Any given situation, An individual might react in a variety of ways if the initial reaction does not
immediately lead to a satisfy results.

*Set of attitudes - Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way, these reactions are unique for species or groups of
related species

*Prepotency of Elements - Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a particular situation and respond only to
significant parameters that directly affect this situation.

*Response by analogy - Reaction from a previously experienced situation might be transferred to a new one, this is also
called theory of Identical Elements.

*Associative Shifting - Sometimes a Reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to different one.

Four Key Principles of Connectionism Theory

1. Learning involves both practice and reward system.( Based upon a Law of Effect )
2. Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are part of the same action sequence. ( Based upon the Law of
readiness).
3. The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations that have been previously experienced by the individual.
4. Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations have been learned and / or acquired.

SITUATED LEARNING BY: MARY JESABELLE A. GAVITO BPED 1A

WHAT IS SITUATED LEARNING?

- Situated Learning is an instructional approach developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990’s,
and follows the work of Dewey, Vygotsky, and others who claim that students are more inclined to learn by activity
participating in the learning experience.

Examples of Situated Learning Activities:

• Field trips where students actively participate in an unfamiliar environment.
• Laboratories are used as classroom in which students are involved in activities which replicate actual work settings.
These examples illustrate that students are activity involved in addressing real world problems.
Lave and Wenger assert that situated learning “ Is not and educational form, much less a pedagogical strategy”.
 Analysis Design
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Traditional Vs Situated

Traditional learning occurs from abstract, out of context experiences such as lectures and books.

Situated learning, on the other hand, suggests that learning takes place through the relationships between people and
connecting prior knowledge with authentic, informal, and often unintended contextual learning. Situated Learning involves
students in cooperative activities where they are challenged to use their critical thinking and kinesthetic abilities.
These activities should be applicable and transferable to student’s homes, communities, and workplaces.

Wolfgang Kohler's
Insight of Learning

What is Insight of Learning?

• Insight Learning refers to the sudden understanding of the relationship between a problem and its solution. By
learning with the help of insight, the correct and desired solution not only appears seemingly out of nowhere and
suddenly, but also repeated readily in subsequent presentations of that problem. Once solved, no matter how many
times the problem gets repeated, it will no longer be a problem.
 • Insight learning theory is all about those "lightbulb moments" we experience when we suddenly
understand something. Instead of slowly figuring things out through trial and error, insight theory says we
can suddenly see the solution to a problem in our minds.

Wolfgang Kohler
• Kohler's Learning by insight theory is associated with the cognitive type of theory of learning. Wolfgang
Kohler, a German psychologist, advocated insight learning in 1925. This theory is also called Gestalt's
theory of insightful learning. First of all, Kohler used the term - insight, to describe the learning of apes. In
the Learning by Insight Theory, Kohler conducted his experiment on chimpanzees.
• In one of his experiments, Kohler caged a chimpanzee named Sultan. There was a banana bunch hanging
from the ceiling and a long stick that was beyond reach outside the cage, and a short stick inside the cage.
Sultan took the short stick and tried to reach the bananas with it.
• But the short stick was designed in such a way that it was too short. After several unsuccessful attempts,
Sultan dropped the idea and started playing. Then suddenly, Sultan jumped up, took the short stick again,
but this time, used it to pull in the longer stick. He then used these sticks to reach the fruit by fitting the
longer stick together with the shorter one. This action showed Sultan's cognition.
• In another situation, Kohler placed a bunch of bananas hanging from the roof, which was again out of reach
of Sultan. This time, there were three boxes that Sultan had to stack on top of one another. They were kept
inside in the cage to reach the banana bunch. Sultan tried to reach the bunch by climbing on just one box,
and failed.
• After many unsuccessful attempts at jumping and trying to reach the bunch, Sultan finally appeared to
survey the situation. A while later, he solved the problem with the correct solution. He brought the boxes
together, stacked them on top of one another, used the boxes as steps, climbed on them, and finally got to
the bunch of bananas.
• In conclusion, Sultan used the useless boxes and sticks in a useful manner, through the cognition of
insight.

Kohler's theory highlights that insight learning involves four stages:

1. Preparation: Introducing the problem and materials needed to solve it.
2. Incubation: The subject seemingly gives up on the problem but continues to think about it
subconsciously.
3. Insight: A breakthrough moment when the subject realizes the solution to the problem.
4. Verification: Testing the theory generated from the insight phase to confirm if the solution works.

 Wolfgang Kohlers insight in learning, as demonstrated through his experiments with apes, emphasized the
cognitive aspects of problem solving and the sudden realization of solutions without a prolonged trial and
error process, contributing significantly to our understanding of how insight influences learning
processes.

INFORMATION
PROCESSING
MODEL
 A framework used by cognitive psychologist to explain the mental process.
 Provides us theory on how human process information.
 Information Processing is just like a computer.

ATKINSON and SHRIFFIN’S STAGE THEORY

 This theory presenting a sequential method of
Input-Processing-Output .
  This model is the process of how we learn; the idea explain the process of learning is due to an input, decision
making, output, and feedback.

DECISION
INPUT OUTPUT
MAKING

FEEDBACK
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
1. The information is made by the environment which is process by the processing system.
2. This processing system is transform information in systematic way.
3. The aim is to specify the process that underlie cognitive performance.
4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computer.

The Information Processing Models assume serial processing a stimulus inputs.

1. Serial Processing
Effectively means one process has to be completed before the next starts.
2. Parallel Processing
Assumes some or all processes involved in a cognitive task(s) occur at the same time.

STAGES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

1. SENSORY MEMORY
 It provides us initial screening and processing stimuli.
 It deals with any information we perceived through five senses.
 It interacts with all the coming stimuli and help decide what is important and to pay attention.
 Limited capacity and duration, 3-7 units, and 0.5-3 sec. before information is forgotten.
2. WORKING MEMORY
 It provides temporary storage which being processed.
 Longer capacity than sensory.
3. LONG TERM MEMORY
 It provides permanent storage of information which later to be retrieved.
 Long capacity storage and having permanent duration in it.

TYPES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

• Transfer of learning occurs when learning in one context or with one set of materials impacts on
performance in another context or with other related materials.
 • Transfer of learning occurs when learning in one context enhances (positive transfer) or undermines
(negative transfer) a related performance in another context.

TWO TYPES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

1. Positive Transfer – previous learning is likely to facilitate and enhance subsequence learning. Examples: one’s skill in
typing on a type writer is applied on a personal computer, learning to drive one type of car and using the same skills for
driving other types, and learning one pattern of sentence structure and using it as a basis for constructing other sentences.

2. Negative transfer – occurs when previous learning interferes with learning something new such as the inability to work on
other word problems outside the exercises given in class or not being able to sound correctly other English words outside of
a list.

SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE THOERY

BY ROBERT STERNBERG

A WRITTEN REPORT

PRESENTED BY:

JOHN ZHEL LUNA

Student, BPED I
CENTRAL PHILLIPINE STATE UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Subject Requirement for

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 3

JUNE 2024

ABSTRACT
This paper examine Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence that challenge the traditional view of
intelligence. His theory make a significance to philosophy and education and other various areas and fields. This theory
proposed that successful intelligence is accomplishing your goals in life by utilizing a combination of memory, analytical,
creative and practical skills by providing the knowledge base to draw from. Sternberg’s theory emphasizes that intelligence
is not just about problem-solving but also about adapting to your environment and shaping your needs. This theory of
successful intelligence developed and tested by Robert Sternberg attempts to predict success in life across analytic,
creative, and practical dimensions. This written report presents the theory of successful intelligence as a useful framework
for incorporating various psychotherapy techniques. Application of this theory has effective trained teachers to enhance
children and adolescents, as well as adults in real world setting.

I. INTRODUCTION
Various definition of intelligence have been proposed all over, but most are in agreement that intelligence used in
purpose of adaptation to environment. Traditional intelligence often focus on narrow range of abilities, primarily
analytical skills measured through standardized test or assessment. However Robert Sternberg’s theory encompasses
multiple purpose into a broader view, encompassing not just analytical skills but also creative and practical skills
(Sternberg, 1997). This framework suggests that success in life is achieved through a combination of these diverse
cognitive abilities.
Sternberg’s theory moves beyond simply assessing factual knowledge and problem solving abilities. It acknowledge
the crucial role of memory, creativity, and being analytical and practical in life, In which the role of creativity is
generating new or novel ideas, analytical skills is evaluating those ideas or information, and practical skills is
implementing them. Through this it highlights the importance of a well-rounded skill set for navigating the complexities
of life.
Now, let’s explore the groundwork for a deeper exploration of Sternberg’s theory. The following section can delves into
detailed definitions of each components (memory, analytical, creative, and practical skills) and how they interact to
achieve success. Additionally, you can explore how memory, while not explicitly include in Sternberg’s core framework,
can play a supportive role in these different skillsets.

II. BACKGROUND
Robert Sternberg is an American psychologist who currently worked in Cornell University. He is best known for his
intelligence theory, which states that there are four aspects to intelligence. These are memory, creative, analytical, and
practical intelligence. He define intelligence as the mental processes used to navigate daily lives. People use these
processes or “thinking components” to solve problem. He argue that there is more than one part of intelligence. Since
humans are diverse and complex, he and other argue that intelligence must be as well. According to him that there is no
completely intelligent or unintelligent person. He also argued that intelligence is a complicated phenomenon that differs
based on the individual.
This theory is a simplified versions of the Tiarchic Theory. It focuses on how these skills are used to be successful
in life. In traditional form, intelligence are well known in measuring tests that are mostly focus on memory and analytical
skills. But in Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence it goes beyond to its comfort zone but it should be
balance is more aspects. That is why he suggest this key concepts that balance the successful life; memory, analytical,
creative, and practical skills.

III. DISCUSSION

A. MEMORY SKILL/INTELLIGENCE
Memory within the context of successful intelligence theory, refers to the ability to encode, store, retrieve, and
manipulate information. It encompasses various memory systems, including short term (working) memory, long-term
memory (episodic and semantic) and procedural memory.
Memory serves as foundation. It views that memory is the underlying support system for intelligent behavior. Just like a
building that needs as strong foundation, strong memory skills are crucial for the other aspects of intelligence to function
effectively. It recognizes the existence of different memory system that work together to process and store information.

FOUR MEMORY SYSTEM

1. SHORT-TERM MEMORY
This act like a temporary holding area, allowing you to work with a limited amount of information for brief period. It’s
essential for immediate task like following instructions, solving a math problems, or holding a phone number in mind
while dialing.
2. LONG-TERM MEMORY
 This when where information is stored for extended periods. It can be further divided into two types; episodic memory
and semantic memory.
a. Episodic Memory – this stores memories of specific event and experience from your life, like your graduation,
ceremony, or a memorable vacation,
b. Semantic Memory – this stores general knowledge and facts about the world such as historical events or dates,
scientific concepts, or meaning of words.

3. PROCEDURAL MEMORY
This memory system stores skills and procedures that allows you to perform task without having to think consciously
about them, like riding a bike, typing, or playing a musical instruments.

Memory support the intelligence in a way that each type of memory plays a key role in the different aspects of
intelligence as proposed by this theory. For example, strong episodic memory allows you to recall past problem-solving
strategies you’ve used, while semantic memory provides the factual knowledge base for analyzing information and making
sound judgments. Memory plays a vital role in generating new or novel ideas. Accessing and combining the existing
knowledge from long-term memory forms the foundation of creative thinking. Additionally, procedural memory allows for
the exploration of different problem-solving approaches, techniques and strategies in a creative way.
The importance of memory skills is to serves as the cognitive bedrock for successful intelligence. It provides the
foundation for knowledge acquisition wherein strong memory skills allows us to retain information, essential; for building
knowledge and expertise in any field. It also very efficient retrieval on relevant from out memory like it is crucial from
problem-solving, decision making and creative thinking. Memory skills serves an experienced-based learning that inform
future actions and decision-making, contributing to practical intelligence.

B. ANALYTICAL SKILL
This are the cognitive skills/intelligence that allows you to break down information into its component parts, identify
relationship between them, and evaluate their significance. Analytical skills is the ability to questions assumptions, identify
biases, and evaluate the strength if evidences. Often we need to use our analytical skills to determine or identify what is the
problem, develop solutions, and evaluate the effectives of those solutions. This ability to weigh the pros and cons of
different options and make sound decisions. The ability to gather information evaluate its credibility and use it to support
your conclusions. This ability to clearly and concisely communicate your findings and recommendations.
According to Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence theory, analytical skills are one of the four key
components of intelligent behavior. It defines analytical intelligence as the ability to analyze, evaluate, and critique
information. (Sternberg, 1985, p.44)
A. FOCUSES ON LOGICAL AND REASONING: Analytically intelligent individuals excel at using logical reasoning to
solve problems and make sound judgments. They can be identify patterns analyze, arguments, and evaluate the
strength and weaknesses of different approaches.
EXAMPLES:
 A doctor sees her/his students with a complex set of symptoms. They analytically consider the patient’s medical
history, test results, and current complaints. By reasoning through the possibilities and identify patterns in the data,
the can arrive at a specific diagnosis and recommend the most appropriate treatments course.
 The teacher sees her/his students struggle in learning the new lesson. That is why the next they he/she incorporate
new teaching strategies.

B. CRITICAL THINKING: Analytical thinking are heavily reliant on critical thinking. People with strong analytical
abilities can be questions assumptions, identify biases, and assess the validity of evidence.
EXAMPLES:
 CLASS DISCUSSIONS: Engage critical thinking during class discussions and encourage students not to parrot
information but to questions assumptions, analyze arguments presented by classmates or the teacher and defend
their own ideas using evidences.
Analytical intelligence are fundamental for making sense of information and effectively navigating complex situations. By
analyzing information thoroughly, considering different viewpoints, and identifying potential flaws, analytical skills empower
you to make well-informed decisions backed by evidence and logic. Analytical skills allows you to approach situations from
multiple and consider various possibilities. This fosters adaptability in changing environment and can spark innovative
solutions. This skill or level of intelligence is really valuable across various fields from business and science, healthcare and
even education. They equip individuals to think critically, solve problems effectively and make sound decisions in an
increasingly complex world.

C. CREATIVE SKILL
Creativity is about generating new and valuable ideas. It’s about bringing fresh perspectives and unique solutions. This
“thinking outside the box” approach is crucial for progress in all aspects in life. It fuels innovations, problem-solving and the
creation of art, music, and scientific breakthrough. In short creativity is what allows us to imagine and build a better future.
Creative skills, according to Sternberg, involve the ability to generate new and original ideas. Elaborate on those ideas
to from effective solutions and evaluate their usefulness and practicality. This skills are crucial for successfully navigating
life’s challenges and achieving one’s goals. Successful intelligence, as Sternberg defines it, is about achieving success in
your life. Creative skills are essential for tackling real-world problems and making appositive impact on the world around
you.

FOR EXAMPLE: IN CLASSROOM SETTING

1. BRAINSTORMING ACTIVITIES: Present a topic or problem and let the students come up with as many ideas as
possible. This allows for wild ideas and encourage students to think outside the box.
2. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNING: Let the students create their own knowledge or information that is related to the
lesson or topic, giving them freedom to explore their unique ideas.
3. WHAT IS SCENARIOS: Pose thought-provoking questions that encourage students to imagine alternative realities
or solutions. This sparks creativity and challenges them to think beyond the present.
4. ROLE-PLAYING: This allows students adapt their ideas and communication styles based on the solution.
5. DEBATES AND DISCUSSIONS: This strengthens their ability to make their ideas relevant and convincing.
In essence, creative skills are the driving force behind progress, problem-solving and personal growth. They empower
individuals to achieve success in their own unique way, making them a vital components of Sternberg Successful
Intelligence Theory.

D. PRACTICAL SKILLS

Practical Skills refer to the ability to adapt to shape, and select environments to achieve one’s goals (Sternberg, 1996).
Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence conjures a broader perspective, emphasizing the role of practical skills
alongside analytical and creative skills.
Practical skills, often referred to as “street smarts”. They are not simply about possessing knowledge rather they
represent the ability to translate that knowledge into action. When faced challenges, individual with honed practical skills
can analyze the situations, identify potential solution and implement the most effective course of action. Additionally,
practical skills encompass adept decision-making. Gather information, evaluating options and making sound choices are all
crucial aspects of navigating life’s complexities.

FOR EXAMPLES: IN CLASSROOM SETTING

1. PROJECT-BASED LEARNING (PBL): Task students with real-world problems or challenges. The must research,
analyze, plan , and execute solution, employing practical skill like problem solving, decision making,
resourcefulness, and adaptability.
2. CASE STUDIES: Analyzing real-world scenarios and proposing solutions and proposing solutions together in class.
This helps students understand how to apply theoretical knowledge and practical situations.

The importance of practical intelligence or skills cannot be overestimated. They are the bridge of knowledge and action,
allowing us to manage task and responsibilities effectively. Furthermore, these skills are instrumental in building and
maintaining positive relationship. Effective communications, conflict resolutions, and social awareness are all foundational
elements of practical intelligence.
Successful Intelligence Theory broadens our understanding of intelligence by highlighting the significance of practical
skills. These skills are not mere complements to analytical and creative skills but they are driving force behind our abilities
to navigate challenges in our daily life. By actively developing practical skills we empower ourselves to achieve greater
success in both our personal and professional endeavors. Investing in these capabilities equip us not just with knowledge
but with the know-how to translate the knowledge into meaningful action paving the way for a more fulfilling and successful
life.

CONCLUSIONS

Robert Sternberg theory of successful intelligence offer a refreshing departure from traditional, narrows views of
intelligence. While acknowledging the importance of memory and analytical skills, which successful intelligence emphasizes
the crucial role of creative and practical skills.
This framework acknowledges the complexities of real-world situations. Memory and analytical skills provide the
foundation, but it’s the ability to think creatively and apply knowledge practically that empowers individuals to navigate
challenges, adapt to changing environment and achieve successful in life. By fostering these skills, educators can empower
students to become well-rounded individuals equipped to thrive not just in academic settings but also in the dynamic world
beyond the classroom.
Successful intelligence offers valuable framework for understanding and nurturing intelligence in its multifaceted
forms. By acknowledging the importance of memory, analytical thinking, creativity and practical skills. It provides a roadmap
for fostering individuals who are not just knowledgeable but also resourceful, adaptable, and successful in achieving their
life goals.

REFERENCE:
Sternberg, R.J. (1996). Successful Intelligence: How practical and creative skills intelligence determine success in life.
Simon and Schuster.
Sternberg, R. J. (1997). A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence, Newell, Inc.
Sternberg, R. J (n.d). Successful Intelligence. (Website). http://www.robertsternderg.com/succcessfulintelligence.