The Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

The water cycle is the continuous movement of water between the

Earth's surface and the atmosphere, transforming between solid, liquid,
and gas states. It is an ongoing process, meaning water has been cycling
since Earth's formation. Key stages of the water cycle include:

1. Evaporation and Transpiration

o Water in lakes, rivers, oceans, and other bodies absorbs heat

from the sun, turning it into vapor that rises into the
atmosphere.

o Transpiration occurs when plants release water vapor into

the air, adding to atmospheric moisture.

2. Condensation

o Water vapor cools as it rises higher, condensing back into

liquid droplets.

o These droplets gather to form clouds, carried by wind and air

currents.

3. Precipitation

o Cloud particles collide, becoming heavy with water. Depending

on temperature, precipitation falls as rain, hail, snow, or
sleet.

4. Runoff and Infiltration

o Precipitated water either flows back into oceans, rivers, and

surface waters (runoff) or gets absorbed into the ground
(infiltration), replenishing groundwater.

This cycle ensures the continuous distribution and recycling of water on

Earth.
Sources of Water

Main Sources of Water: Collection, Advantages, and

Disadvantages

Source Collection Advantages Disadvantages

Method
Rainwater Collected from - Soft, pure - Limited to
roofs or special water. wet/rainy seasons.
water sheds, - Suitable for hot - Breeding grounds
stored in cisterns water systems. for mosquitoes in
or ponds. storage.
- Roofs may be
unclean.
Natural Found in lakes, - Easy to acquire - Contains bacteria,
Surface rivers, and in large organic/inorganic
Water impounding quantities. substances.
reservoirs. - Used for - Requires
irrigation, purification and
industrial treatment.
purposes, and
treated
community
supply.
Groundwater Lies beneath the - Abundant - May contain
surface, stored supply. organic matter and
in aquifers, - Requires less chemicals.
pumped using treatment due to - Treatment is often
mechanical/man natural filtering. recommended.
ual means.
Water Treatment and Purification: Contaminants

Water can become contaminated through various agents that pose health
and environmental risks. These include:

1. Pathogens

o Disease-causing organisms such as bacteria, amoebas,

viruses, and parasitic worms (eggs and larvae).

o These pathogens can lead to diseases like cholera, dysentery,

and other waterborne infections.

2. Harmful Chemicals from Human Activities

o Includes industrial wastes, pesticides, and fertilizers.

o These chemicals can leach into water sources and cause

contamination, potentially leading to serious health issues like
cancer or neurological problems.

3. Natural Chemicals and Minerals

o Elements like arsenic, salt, and fluorides from the

environment.

o While not all contaminants are harmful, some can affect the
water's taste, smell, color, or temperature, making it
unacceptable or undesirable for consumption despite being
safe.

Proper water treatment and purification processes are crucial to remove

these contaminants and ensure safe drinking water for communities.

Methods of Purification and Treatment of Water:

 Aeration: Water is sprayed into the atmosphere or passed over

rough surfaces to remove harmful gases (e.g., carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide).

 Coagulation-Flocculation:

o Coagulation: Chemicals are added to water to make small

particles clump together.

o Flocculation: Physical process where sediment particles collide

and form larger particles (floc), which are easier to remove.

 Sedimentation: The floc settles at the bottom due to gravity,

leaving clearer water above.
  Filtration: Clear water passes through filters (sand, gravel,
charcoal) to remove remaining impurities like dust, bacteria, and
chemicals.

 Disinfection/Chlorination: A disinfectant (e.g., chlorine) is added

to kill any remaining pathogens and protect water as it travels
through pipelines.

Household Water Treatment:

Categories:

1. Point-of-Entry Systems:

o Installed after the water meter.

o Treat most of the water entering the home.

2. Point-of-Use Systems:

o Treat water in batches at specific taps (e.g., kitchen or

bathroom).

Common Methods:

1. Chlorination: Adding chlorine to disinfect water.

2. Flocculant/Disinfectant Powder: A powder that combines

flocculation and disinfection processes.

3. Solar Disinfection: Using sunlight to kill pathogens in water.

4. Ceramic Filtration: Water is passed through porous ceramic

material to remove contaminants.

5. Slow Sand Filtration: A filtration method using sand to remove

particles and pathogens gradually.

Water Quality Problems and Corrections

PROBLEMS CAUSE EFFECTS CORRECTIONS

1. Acidity Contains Carbon Corrosion of Passing the
Dioxide non-ferrous water
pipes through a bed of
Clogging and crushed
rusting of marble or
steel pipes limestone to
achieve
alkalinity or
adding sodium
silicate
2. Hardness Presence of Clogging of steel Boiling
 magnesium pipes Introduction of
and calcium Impaired water
salts laundry and softeners made
cooking of zeolite

3. Turbidity Silt or mud in Discoloration Filtration

surface or Bad taste
in ground
4. Color Presence of iron Discoloration of Chlorination or
and fixtures ozonation
manganese and laundry and file filtration
5. Pollution Contamination Disease Chlorination
by
organic matter
or
sewage

Objectionable elements and reasons & methods for their

treatment

OBJECTIONABLE REASONS FOR TREATMENT

ELEMENT
Calcium, Magnesium Produces hardness
Sulfur Bad taste & odor, highly corrosive to
plumbing, stains clothing, etc.
Salt Bad tastes, highly corrosive
Iron Stains clothing and plumbing fixtures,
interferes with water
softeners, from bacteria clogs pipes
Pathogenic germs Unhealthy; may cause poliomyelitis
Acid Highly corrosive, picks up lead, stains
clothing
Algae Bad taste and color
OBJECTIONABLE METHODS OF TREATMENT
ELEMENT
Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen Aeration
Sulfide
Suspended Material Coagulation and Settling Process
Bacteria Chemicals and Sand Filtration
Calcium and Magnesium Addition of water softeners
Iron Iron Filters
Sulfur Chlorination
Pathogenic Germs Disinfection
Acid Marble or Limestone Filtration

The Demand of Water in different activities and their water

supply requirements.
DEMAND REQUIREMENT
Drinking, Cooking, Must be pure, sterilized and
Dishwashing protected from
contamination. Supplies taken
direct from mains or
from exclusive storage.
Personal Washing and Similar but moderated to allow cold
Domestic Cleaning and hot supplies to
be drawn from main storage tank
or cistern via
distribution
network.
Laundry Generally clean and wholesome,
soft and free form
Iron and Manganese staining.
Fire Fighting High Pressure. Connections must
not permit
contamination of mains water.
Swimming Clean, filtered and sterilized with
free chlorine residue
for post-sterilization. Can be
recirculated.
Boilers and Heating Plants Soft treated water, stored and
circulated separate from
domestic supplies.
Irrigation No special requirement, except
reasonably free from
solids and slit (result in blocked
pipes and nozzles) and
undecomposed material
(pollution).
Basic Plumbing Fixtures and Accessories

Definition:

 Plumbing Fixtures: Receptacles or devices supplied with water or

receiving liquid wastes, discharging them into the drainage system.
(Section 217.10 NPC 1999)

Classifications:

1. Soil Fixtures: Water closets, urinals

2. Scullery Fixtures: Kitchen sinks, laundry tubs, slop sinks, bar sinks
3. Bathing Fixtures: Lavatories, bathtubs, shower baths, bidets,
shower receptors, floor drains

1. Soil Fixtures

A. Water Closet

 Purpose: Receives human excrement and discharges it through a

waste pipe.

Types by Design/Flushing Actions:

o Siphon Washdown: Least expensive, noisy, less efficient due

to small amount of standing water.
o Reverse Trap: More expensive, eliminates bulge at the front.
o Siphon-Jet: Expensive, efficient, large standing water to
prevent fouling.
o Siphon-Vertex: Quietest, most efficient, swirling action
through diagonal rim holes.
o Direct Flush Valve: Used where water is abundant, high
pressure, no flush tank needed.

Types by Flush Tank:

o Flush Tank: Holds 5-6 gallons of water for flushing.

o Flush Valve: Supplies fixed water quantity directly, requires
10-20 psi pressure.

Types by Mounting:

o Floor Mounted/Free-standing
o Wall Mounted/Wall Hung

Types by Make (Manufacture):

 o One-Piece Water Closet: Bowl and flush tank molded as a
single unit.
o Closed-Coupled Water Closet: Separate flush tank
attached to the bowl.
o Pail Flush Water Closet: No flush tank, flushing with water
poured from a pail.
o Squat Type: User assumes a squatting position.

B. Urinal

 Purpose: Fixture for urination, often found in public toilets.

Types:

o Wall-Hung: Mounted on the wall, equipped with flush valves

and traps.
o Pedestal: Rests on a pedestal, uses direct flush valves and
integral traps.
o Trough: Tub-like versions.
o Stall: Large and tall, prone to fouling, may have overhead
tanks.

2. Scullery Fixtures

A. Kitchen Sinks

 Purpose: Fixture for meal preparation or washing household goods.

o Types: Various designs, typically with a basin and water
supply.

B. Laundry Tubs

 Materials: Cement, cement with tiles, or porcelain.

C. Bar Sinks

 Purpose: Smaller sinks often used in bars for various tasks.

D. Slop Sinks

 Purpose: Used for cleaning and disposing of mop water by

maintenance personnel.

Bathing Fixtures

1. Bathtub
  Definition: Long, rectangular container for bathing.

Types:

o Alcove or Recessed Bathtub: Set into a wall, surrounded on

three sides; often combined with a shower.
o Corner Bathtub: Designed to fit into a corner.
o Drop-in Bathtub: Installed in a pre-formed opening, with the
tub sitting on top of the surrounding deck.
o Free-standing Bathtub: Not attached to walls; supported on
its own base.
o Walk-in Bathtub: Includes a door for easier access, suitable
for seniors or people with mobility issues. Can be a tub and
shower combo.
o Garden Tub: Luxurious, often oval, and installed in spacious
bathrooms; resembles a spa tub.
o Jetted Tub: Features jets for massage; includes whirlpool and
air bathtubs.

2. Bidet

 Definition: Fixture for bathing external genitals and posterior; has

hot and cold water.

3. Floor Drains

 Purpose: Carry contaminated water to sanitary or storm sewers.

Types:

o With Water Seal: Required for sanitary sewers by code.

o Without Water Seal: Used for other purposes.

4. Shower Receptor

 Definition: Floor of a shower; also known as shower tray, base, or

pan.
 Materials: Typically made of hard acrylic or ABS sheets.

5. Shower

 Definition: Plumbing fixture with one or more heads; can be a

stand-alone unit or part of a bathtub.

6. Lavatory

 Definition: Basin or bowl for washing hands and face.

7. Faucets
  Definition: Controls water flow for sinks and baths; most commonly
used fixture in homes.

8. Drinking Fountain

 Definition: Provides drinking water; commonly found in public

places.

Plumbing Unit

Definition:

 A standard set of plumbing fixtures that discharge waste into a

plumbing system.

Components:

 Water Meter: Measures water usage.

 Water Closet: Toilet fixture.
 Lavatory: Sink for washing hands and face.
 Shower Head and Drain: For bathtubs or shower stalls.
 Kitchen Sink: Sink for kitchen use.
 Laundry Tray: Sink for laundry purposes.
 Floor Drains: Typically three; carry wastewater.
 Faucets/Hose Bibbs: Four fixtures controlling water flow.

Fixture Unit Value:

 Purpose: Measures waste load for determining pipe sizes and

computing demand (except for storm drains).

Basic Plumbing Fixtures and Accessories

Definition: Plumbing fixtures are approved devices or appliances that are
supplied with water or receive liquid or liquid-borne wastes, discharging
them into the drainage system.

Classifications:

1. Soil Fixtures:
o Water Closets:
 Siphon Washdown: Least expensive, noisy, small
amount of standing water.
 Reverse Trap: More expensive, eliminates bulge at
front.
 Siphon-Jet: Expensive, efficient, large amount of
standing water.
 Siphon-Vertex: Quietest, most efficient, sanitary with
swirling action.
  Direct Flush Valve: Uses high water pressure;
common in commercial setups.

Types by Flush Tank:

 Flush Tank: Holds 5-6 gallons of water.

 Flush Valve: Supplies water via pressure, requires 10-
20 psi.

Types by Mounting:

 Floor Mounted: Free-standing.

 Wall Mounted: Hung on the wall.

Types by Make:

 One-Piece: Bowl and tank molded together.

 Closed-Coupled: Separate tank attached to the bowl.
 Pail Flush: Bowl only; flushing via pail.
 Squat Type: Eastern style, user squats.
o Urinals:
 Wall-Hung: Mounted to the wall, common type.
 Pedestal: Rest on a pedestal, more expensive.
 Trough: Tub-like versions.
 Stall: Large, prone to fouling, older versions with
overhead tanks.
2. Scullery Fixtures:
o Kitchen Sinks: Basin with water supply, connected with a
drain.
o Laundry Tubs: Cement or porcelain; used for washing
clothes.
o Bar Sinks: Small sinks for bar areas.
o Slop Sinks: Used for cleaning and maintenance.
3. Bathing Fixtures:
o Bathtub:
 Alcove or Recessed: Recessed into a wall, often
combined with a shower.
 Corner: Fits into a corner.
 Drop-in: Sits on top of surrounding deck.
 Free-standing: Not attached to walls.
 Walk-in: Includes a door for easier access; can be a
tub/shower combo.
 Garden Tub: Luxurious, often oval, spa-like.
 Jetted Tub: Includes jets for massage; types are
whirlpool and air bathtubs.
o Bidet: Used for bathing external genitals and posterior; has
hot and cold water.
o Floor Drains: Carry wastewater to sewers; may or may not
have a water seal.
 Shower Receptor: Floor of the shower; made from hard
o
acrylic or ABS sheets.
o Shower: Stand-alone or part of a bathtub, can have multiple
heads.
o Lavatory: Basin for washing hands and face.
o Faucets: Controls water flow for sinks and baths.
o Drinking Fountain: Provides drinking water, usually in public
places.
4. Plumbing Unit:
o Definition: A standard set of fixtures that discharge waste
into the plumbing system.

Components:

o Water Meter
o Water Closet
o Lavatory
o Shower Head and Drain
o Kitchen Sink
o Laundry Tray
o Floor Drains (3)
o Faucets/Hose Bibbs (4)

Fixture Unit Value: Measures waste load for determining pipe

sizes and computing demand.

Plumbing Unit
Definition: A Plumbing Unit is a standard set of plumbing fixtures that
discharge waste into a plumbing installation. According to Section 217.13
NPC 1999, a minimum plumbing unit includes:

 1 Water Meter
 1 Water Closet
 1 Lavatory
 1 Shower Head and Drain (for a bathtub or shower stall)
 1 Kitchen Sink
 1 Laundry Tray
 3 Floor Drains
 4 Faucets/Hose Bibbs

Purpose:

 Fixture Unit Value: Represents the waste load used for

determining the size of pipes (excluding storm drains) and
computing maximum and probable demand.
Types of Pipe Materials for Water
Distribution
1. Mild Steel Pipes

 Characteristics:
o Fewer joints due to longer lengths.
 o Durable and resistant to high internal pressure; suitable for
long-distance high-pressure piping.
o Flexible for certain curves.
o Lightweight and easy to transport; minimal damage during
transport.
 Drawbacks:
o Prone to rust and requires higher maintenance.
o Time-consuming repairs.
o Not ideal for distribution piping.
 Specifications:
o Diameter: 150-250 mm.
o Length: 4-7 m.
o Thickness: 2.6-4.5 mm.
o Joined with flanged joints or welding.

2. Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes

 Characteristics:
o Inexpensive and lightweight.
o Easy to join.
o Affected by acidic or alkaline water.
o Suitable for distribution systems.
o Available in light (yellow), medium (blue), and heavy grades
(red).
 Specifications:
o Medium-grade pipes are used for water supply.
o Diameter: 15-150 mm.
o Length: 3 m.
o Joined with lead putty on threaded ends.
o Suitable for non-corrosive water with pH > 6.5.

3. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipes

 Characteristics:
o Economical and lightweight.
o Rigid and durable.
o Corrosion-resistant and tough against chemical attacks.
o Good electric insulation.
o Less resistance to heat and sun exposure.
 Specifications:
o Diameter: 20-315 mm.
o Pressure Classes: 2.5, 4, 6, 8, 10 kg/cm².
o Lengths: 2, 3, 4, 6 m.
o For solvent cement jointing, effective length is measured by
subtracting the socket length from the overall length.

4. Polypropylene Random Copolymer (PPR) Pipes

 Characteristics:
 o Straight and rigid, produced through extrusion.
o Commonly green or white.
o Superior jointing, high chemical and temperature resistance.
 Uses:
o Hot and cold water systems.

5. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipes

 Characteristics:
o Lightweight and flexible.
o Black in color.
o Suitable for underground piping; withstands heavy traffic.
o Durable, corrosion-resistant, and allows free water flow.
o Does not support microbial growth.

6. Ductile Iron (DI) Pipes

 Characteristics:
o Improved tensile strength compared to cast iron.
o High impact and wear resistance, good corrosion resistance.
o Cement mortar lining on the inside provides a smooth surface
and chemical barrier.
o Bituminous or zinc paint coating on the outside.
 Specifications:
o Diameter: 80-1000 mm.
o Length: 5.5-6 m.
o Thickness: Class K7 and K9 (5-13.5 mm).
o Pressure Classes: C25, C30, C40, etc.
o 30% lighter than cast iron pipes; reduces pumping costs due
to lower frictional resistance.

7. Copper Pipes

 Characteristics:
o Durable and highly corrosion-resistant.
o Easy to install with a smooth interior surface.
 Types:
o K Type: Heaviest; recommended for underground
installations.
o L Type: Lighter; available in rigid and flexible forms; suitable
for residential water supply and radiant heating.
o M Type: Thinnest; available only in rigid form; for small water
supply lines and radiant heating installations.

Types of Pipe Materials for Sanitary Lines

1. Cast-Iron Soil Pipe
  Characteristics:
o Popular and widely used, especially in the 60s and 70s.
o Durable, easy to install for buildings up to 25 stories.
 Specifications:
o Length: 600 cm.
o Diameters: 50-150 mm.
 Drawbacks:
o Prone to corrosion from acids formed by carbon dioxide, sulfur
oxide, and methane gases.
 Types:
o SV Type: Standard, used for building installations.
o XV Type: Extra duty, used for underground installations.

2. Acid Resistant Cast Iron Pipe

 Characteristics:
o Made of an alloy of cast iron and silicon.
o Used in chemical laboratories and industries where acid
wastes are present.
 Drawbacks:
o Brittle and prone to cracking; horizontal runs need support at
every 1.5 meters to prevent sagging.

3. Asbestos Pipe

 Characteristics:
o Made of asbestos fibers and portland cement.
o Suitable for soil, waste, ventilation pipes, and downspouts.
o Good for concrete embedment due to similar properties.

4. Bituminous Fiber Sewer Pipe

 Characteristics:
o Cheapest option, lightweight, slightly flexible.
o Can handle slight soil movement without cracking.
 Drawbacks:
o Can be softened or damaged by excessive hot water or
chemical flow.

5. Vitrified Clay Pipe

 Characteristics:
o One of the oldest materials used for sewer lines.
o Highly resistant to most acids.
 Drawbacks:
o Brittle, can crack when laid on unstable ground.
o Made in short lengths of 750 mm.

6. Lead Pipe
  Characteristics:
o The oldest pipe material used.
o Highly resistant to acid.
 Drawbacks:
o Poisonous and injurious; not recommended for drinking water.

7. Galvanized Steel Pipe

 Characteristics:
o Made from mild steel, expected lifespan of 15-25 years.
o Subject to salt and lime deposits which can cause FHL
(Friction Head Loss).
 Sizes:
o 10 (3/8”), 13 (1/2”), 20 (3/4”), 25 (1”), 32 (1¼”), 38 (1½”), 50
(2”), 75 (3”), 100 (4”).

8. Galvanized Wrought Iron Pipe

 Characteristics:
o Better than steel pipes for plumbing.
o More resistant to acid waste.

9. Plastic or Synthetic Pipe

 Characteristics:
o Developed in Germany in 1935.
o Produced from synthetic resins, lighter, cheaper, and easy to
cut.
 Types:
o Rigid Pipes: PVC, Chlorinated PVC, Unplasticized PVC,
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polypropylene (PP),
Styrene Rubber Plastic (SR).
o Flexible Tubing: Polyethylene (PE) coil form (30 m long),
Polybutylene (PB) coil form (30 m to 150 m long).

Types of Pipe Fittings

1. Elbow

 Function: Connects two pipes of the same diameter at an angle,

usually 90 degrees.

2. Tee

 Function: Connects two straight pipes with an outlet at a right

angle.

3. Sanitary Wye
  Function: Creates branch lines with three openings, Y-shaped.

4. Union

 Function: Joins two pipe ends that cannot rotate. Used in long
stretches of pipe and near appliances with stop valves.

5. Reducer

 Function: Connects pipes of different diameters, reducing pipe size.

Can be a socket, elbow, or tee.

6. Nipple

 Function: Tubular fitting used to extend a pipeline. Typically 300

mm in length.

7. Coupling

 Function: Connects pipes of the same diameter; useful for broken

pipes or leakage.
o Types:
 Full Coupling: For small bore pipes.
 Half Coupling: Has a socket or thread end on one side.
 Reducer Coupling: Ends of different sizes.
 Compression Coupling: For joining existing PVC pipes
or tubes.
 Slip/Repair Coupling: Allows repair by removing up to
2 inches of PVC pipe.

8. Plug

 Function: Plugs the flow of water at dead ends.

9. Cap

 Function: Similar to a plug but with female threads. Screws onto

the male thread of a pipe. Available in materials like rubber, copper,
steel, plastic.

10. Adaptors

 Function: Make non-threaded pipes threaded. Used for copper and

PVC pipes. Can be male or female adapters.

11. Bushing
  Function: Reduces the diameter of a pipe fitting. Makes an abrupt
change in diameter and takes little space.

Types of Controls & Valves

1. Gate Valve

 Function: Used to completely open or close a water line. It does not

regulate flow; instead, it either allows full flow or no flow.
 Best Suited For: Main supply and pump lines where infrequent
operation is expected.
 Types:
o Wedge Shape or Tapered Disc: Common design with a
wedge-shaped disc that slides between two seats.
o Double Disc Valve: Features two discs that work together to
block or allow flow.

2. Globe Valve

 Function: Controls the flow of water with a movable spindle and

can reduce water pressure through throttling. It has only one inlet
side.
 Types:
o Plug Type Disc Valve: Designed for throttling applications,
regulating flow by adjusting the position of a plug-shaped disc.
o Conventional Disc Valve (Ball Type): Used primarily for
shutting off flow; the ball rotates to open or close the valve.
o Composition Disc Valve: Suitable for steam and hot water
applications, with a design that handles higher temperatures
and pressures.

3. Check Valve

 Function: Prevents backflow or reversal of flow in the piping

system. It ensures that fluid flows in only one direction.

4. Angle Valve

 Function: Operates similarly to a globe valve but is designed to

make a 90° turn in a line. This reduces the number of joints and
fittings required.
 Design: Uses a disc and seat mechanism for flow control.

5. Foot Valve

 Function: Located at the lower end of pumps to prevent loss of

priming and maintain pump efficiency. It acts as a check valve by
preventing backflow when the pump is not operating.
  Also Known As: Retention Valve.

6. Safety Valve

 Function: Used to protect systems from excessive pressure. It

automatically releases pressure when it exceeds a preset limit to
prevent damage to the system.
 Applications: Commonly used in water systems, heating systems,
compressed air lines, and other pipelines subject to high pressure.