Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

CHAPTER 1
ROTATIONAL MOTION
1.1 Rotational motion under constant angular
acceleration
1. Linear motion Angular Motion * Direction of 𝜔
⃗ and 𝛼 ⇒ Right Hand Rule
s 𝜃
v̅ = 𝜔
̅= * For an object which rotates in horizontal
t 𝑡 circle,
v+v0 𝜔+𝜔0
v̅ = 𝜔
̅= clockwise ⟹ 𝜔
⃗ points to downward
2 2
v−v0 ω−𝜔
a= α= 𝑡 0 anticlockwise ⇒ 𝜔
⃗ points to upward
𝑡
v = v0 + at 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡 rotating (speed up) ⇒ 𝜔⃗ and 𝛼 are same
direction
1 1
s = v0 t + 2 at 2 θ = 𝜔0 t + 2 𝛼t 2 rotating (slow down) ⇒ 𝜔
⃗ and 𝛼 are opposite
direction
v 2 = v0 2 + 2as 𝜔2 = 𝜔0 2 + 2αs ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
where, Examples 1.2, 1.3
displacement s (m) 𝜃 (rad) Review Exercises -
initial velocity v0 (m s-1) 𝜔0 (rad s-1) Exercises 8, 9
final velocity v (m s-1) 𝜔 (rad s-1) T.1 The diameter of the bicycle wheels is 70 cm
average velocity v̅ (m s-1) 𝜔̅ (rad s-1) and the speed of the cyclist is 6 m s-1. Find the
acceleration a (m s-2) 𝛼 (rad s-2) angular speed of the wheels.
time taken t (s) t (s) T.2 The tires on a new car have a diameter of 2 ft
m and are warranted for 60 000 miles. How
* 1 rev = 2 𝜋 rad = * rad =
m many revolutions will the tire make while
360°
under warranty?
* rpm ကိိ rad s-1 ပြ ြင််ရင် 2𝜋
60
နဲ ပြ ြက်
* start from rest ဆိိ v0 , 𝜔0 = 0 1.3 Centripetal acceleration
v2
* stop (or) comes to rest ဆိိ v , 𝜔 = 0 3. ac = or ac = rω2
r
* Rotational motion ⇒ object rotates about an axis where, aC = centripetal acceleration (m s-2)
* Circular motion ⇒ object just moves in a circle v = linear (or) tangential velocity (m s-1)
* 𝜔 is changing (speed up) ⇒ positive 𝛼 r = radius (m)
𝜔 is changing (slow down) ⇒ negative 𝛼 𝜔 = angular velocity (rad s-1, rpm, rps)
* 𝜔 changes at constant rate ⇒ constant 𝛼 4. Nonuniform circular motion
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) The magnitude of resultant acceleration,
Examples 1.1 a = √a C 2 + a T 2
Review Exercises 2 (page - 3) The direction of resultant acceleration,
Exercises 5, 6, 7 aT
tan ϕ =
aC
T.1 An aeroplane propeller slows from an initial angular speed where, a = resultant acceleration (m s-2)
of 12.5 rev s-1 to a final angular speed of 5 rev s-1. During
this process, the propeller rotates through 21 rev. What is aC = centripetal acceleration (m s-2)
the angular acceleration of the propeller in rad s-2 and the aT = tangential acceleration (m s-2)
time taken? 𝜙 = angle between ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aC and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aT (°)
1.2 Relations between linear and angular * In uniform circular motion ⇒ 𝛼 = 0 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ aT = 0
quantities and it has only ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aC .
2. s=r𝜃 * In nonuniform circular motion ⇒ It has 𝛼 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aT
v=r𝜔 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aC ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aT and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
aC are perpendicular).
aT = r 𝛼 ⟹ where, r = radius of the circular path (m)

1
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) T-1 What is the magnitude of the centripetal

Examples 1.4, 1.5 acceleration of a car following a curve of
radius 500 m at a speed of 25 m s-1? Compare
Review Exercises 2 (page - 11)
this acceleration with acceleration due to
Exercises 10, 11 gravity.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 2
FORCES IN CIRCULAR MOTION
2.1 Forces causing centripetal acceleration
1. Centripetal force Centrifugal force
mv2 * directed radially away outward from the center
Fc =
r
or Fc = mrω2
where, FC = centripetal force (N) of the circle.
m = mass (g) * It results from the effect of inertia.
v = velocity (m s-1) * It is not a real force.
r = radius (m) Rotational devices applied concept of
𝜔 = angular velocity (rad s-1, rpm) centrifugal force
2. Banking angle (i) Centrifuge
v2 (ii) Centrifugal pump (converts mechanical
tan θ = rg
energy to hydraulic energy)
where, 𝜃 = banking angle (°) (iii) Washing machine
v = speed (m s-1) (iv) Centrifugal Governor (measure and
r = radius of the path (m) regulate the speed of a machine)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s-2) Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
3. Horizontal circular motion ❖ Banking angle
2
T = FC = mvr Examples 2.1

where, T = tension (N) Review Exercises 1 (page - 17)

4. Vertical circular motion Exercises 8, 10
(a) At the bottom (T and v are largest) ❖ Horizontal circular motion
mv2
FC = T − mg = r Exercises 7, 9
(b) At the top (T and v are smallest) T-1 A string can withstand a force of 135 N before
FC = T + mg = r mv2 breaking. A 2 kg mass is tied to the string and
whirled in a horizontal circle with a radius of
To be minimum possible speed, T = 0 1.1m. What is the maximum speed that the
mv2
r
= mg mass can be whirled at before the string
* Centripetal force → directed towards axis of breaks?
rotation (or) center of curvature
❖ Vertical circular motion
Different forms of centripetal force Examples 2.2
(i) Tension force (T) Exercises 6
(ii) Gravitational force (FG) T-1 You are riding your bike on a track that forms
(iii) Electric force (Fe) a vertical circular loop. If the diameter of the
(iv) Frictional force (Ff) loop is 10 m, what is the minimum speed
required for you to make it around the loop?
(v) Normal force (FN)
(vi) Upward thrust (Lifting force) on ❖ Centripetal force
a plane (FL) Example - 2.3 Exercise - 11
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

CHAPTER 3
FLUID DYNAMICS
3.1 Laminar and turbulent flow 3.4 Manifestations of Bernoulli’s Theorem
Motion of fluid (i) laminar flow (eg. sea breeze) 1. Lift on the Wings of an Aeroplane
(smooth and streamline) 2. Insect Sprayer
(ii) turbulent flow (eg. storm) 3. Magnus Effect on a Spinning Ball
(irregular and chaotic) 4. The Roof of Houses can fly away during
3.2 Equation of continuity for fluid Cyclones
1. Volume flow rate 3.5 Viscosity (Fluid Friction)
V 4. Viscosity
= Av (SI unit, m3 s-1)
t

where, V = volume (m3), t = time taken (s) F⁄A

η = − dv⁄dy where,

A = area (m2), v = velocity (m s-1) 𝜂 = coefficient of viscosity of the fluid (Pa s)

2. Continuity equation for fluid flow F = shear force (N)
A1v1 = A2v2 A = area of the fluid layer (m2)
where, A1 = larger cross-sectional area (m2) dv
= velocity gradient (s-1)
dy
A2 = smaller cross-sectional area (m2) * ိစဆြတွက် လွ်င္ force, shear stress ဆို အနိုတ္ယူ
v1 = speed of fluid at A1 (m s ) -1 2gr2 (ρ 1 −ρ2 )
η= where,
v2 = speed of fluid at A2 (m s-1) 9v

* The larger the area, the slower is the speed. 𝜂 = coefficient of viscosity of the fluid (Pa s)
* The smaller the area, the faster is the speed. g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s-2)
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) r = radius of the sphere (m)
Examples 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 𝜌1 = density of the sphere (kg m-3)
Review exercises 2 (page - 27) 𝜌2 = density of the liquid (kg m-3)
Exercises 4 v = terminal velocity (m s-1)
3.2 Bernoulli’s equation * 𝜌1 = အရာ၀တၳဳရဲ့ desity
3. Bernoulli’s equation * 𝜌2 = medium ရဲ့ density
1 1
p1 + 2 ρv1 2 + ρgh1 = p2 + 2 ρv2 2 + ρgh2 ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

where, p1, p2 = pressure (Pa) Examples 3.9, 3.10

𝜌 = density of liquid (kg m-3) Exercises 6, 7, 8
h1, h2 = height (m) 5. Stokes’ Law
v1, v2 = velocity (m s-1) F= 6πηrv where,
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) F = drag force (N)
Examples 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 𝜂 = coefficient of viscosity of the fluid (Pa s)
Review exercises 2 (page - 30), 2 (page - 33) r = radius of the sphere (m)
Exercises 3,5 v = terminal velocity (m s-1)
T.1 Water is flowing in a fire hose with a velocity of ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
1 ms-1 and a pressure of 2×105 Pa. At the nozzle Exercises 9
the pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure
1.01×105 Pa, there is no change in height. 3.6 Surface tension and capillarity
Calculate the velocity of the water exiting the 6. Surface tension
nozzle. (density of water 𝜌 = 1000 kg m-3) F
γ= where, 𝛾 = surface tension (N m-1)
𝑙

3
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) 7. Height to which the liquid can be lifted

Examples 3.11, 3.12,3.13 2γ cos θ
h= where,
ρgr

Review exercises 2 (page - 39) h = height to which the liquid can be lifted (m)
T.1 A water strider is observed on the lake. The 𝛾 = surface tension (N m-1), 𝜃 = contact angle
water strider has a length of 2 cm. The surface 𝜌 = density of liquid (kg m-3)
tension of the water was determined to be
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s-2)
20N m-1. What is the force applied by the water
strider? r = radius of the tube (m)
* Surface tension ⇒ due to cohesion ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
* Capillary action ⇒ due to intermolecular forces, Examples - 3.14, 3.15 Exercise - 15
cohesion and adhesion

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 4
SOURCES OF ENERGY AND
ENVIROMENTAL IMPACTS
4.1 Energy Demand and crisis
Energy demand * coal, oil, natural gas
* consumption of energy by human activities * carbon is the main constituent
* It depends on population, urbanization, (ii) Nuclear energy
industrialization, net capital income and * Uranium fuels are used in the nuclear fission
development of technologies, etc., reaction
Energy crisis 4.4 Renewable sources of energy
* 90% of the world’s oil reserves already (i) Solar energy
discovered, people need to find new ways to 1. Photovoltaic Solar cell
make energy. 2. Solar heating
* Renewable energy has huge potential solution (i) Flat plate collectors
for energy crisis. (ii) concentrated solar power (CSP) system
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) * Solar constant (1350 Wm-2) (429 Btu h-1ft-2)
Examples - 3.1 * Power conversion efficiency of the solar panel
is the ratio of the electrical power delivered by
4.2 Sources of energy
the panel to the solar power received by it.
(i) Non-renewable sources * Four types of CSP technologies
(1) Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) (a) Parabolic trough system
(2) Nuclear energy (b) Linear Fresnel system
(ii) Renewable sources (c) Power tower system
(1) Solar (2) Wind (d) Parabolic dish system
(3) Hydro (4) Ocean (Tidal, Wave, 1. Thermal energy per day
Ocean thermal energy)
Thermal energy per day = solar radiation per
(5) Geo (6) Bio day × efficiency of the system
4.3 Non-renewable sources of energy * TE per day = SR per day × eff.
(i) Fossil fuels * % ကိိ ဂဏန််ပြ ြင််တွက် ဒဿ နထ ဲ ွက်
* A large amount of chemical energy is stored in * % ကိိ ဂဏန််ပြ ြင််ရင် 100 နဲ စြ်ဖိိဲ ြ င်
the fossil fuels.

4
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

2. Collector surface area 6. Wind power incident on area A

1
heat required P = 2 ρ A v3 where,
Collector surface area =
heat produced per unit area
P = Wind power incident on area A (W)
* HR 𝜌 = density of air (kg m-3)
collector surface area = HP per unit area
A = the rotor area of the wind turbine (m2)
3. △ Q = m c △T where, v = the wind speed (m s-1)
△ Q = amount of heat (J , kWh) ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
m = mass (kg) Example - 4.3 Exercise - 12
c = specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1) (iii) Hydroelectric energy
△T = temperature difference (K)
source of power in hydroelectric plant is the
6 *
* 1kWh = 3.6 × 10 J motion of the water
4. hc * 1. impoundment 2. diversion
E = hf = where,
λ 3. pump storage
E = energy of a photon (eV , J)
h = Plank constant (6.626 ×10-34 Js) 7. Power output of a hydro turbine
f = frequency (Hz) P = η ρ V̇ g h where,
c = speed of light (3×108 ms-1) P = useful power output (W)
𝜆 = wavelength (m) 𝜂 = efficiency of the turbine (%)
* 1 eV = 1.6×10-19 C 𝜌 = density of water (kg m-3)
V
5. Solar energy received by collector V̇ = t = volumetric flow rate (m3 s-1)
Solar energy received irradiance × g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s-2)
by collector (Btu / J) = area (m2) × time (s) h = difference in height between the outlet and
* Btu ft-2 (or) W m-2 ဆိိရင် irradiance ကိိ ပ ် inlet (m)
* SER by collector = I A t ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) Examples 4.4
Examples 4.2 Review exercises 1 (page - 53)
Review exercises 1, 2 (page-49), 3 (page-50) Exercises 10, 11
T.1 A solar storage power station is a new type of solar (iv) Energy from the ocean
power station. It is able to store energy from the sun 1. Tidal energy 2. Wave energy
to generate electricity at night. The solar storage
power station can supply a town with a maximum 3. Ocean thermal energy
electrical power of 140 MW for 15 hours. Calculate * It is quite large, but efficient commercial
the maximum energy in Joules? exploitation is difficult.
(ii) Wind energy (v) Geothermal energy
* energy produced by harnessing power of wind taken from the Earth’s core, the internal heat
*
* It is highly dependent on weather and location. of the earth
1. Windmills * Thermal energy from magma can be used to
* convert wind energy directly into generate electricity
mechanical energy (vi) Biomass
* use for milling grain and pumping water * renewable organic material that comes from
2. Wind turbines plants and animals
* convert wind energy into electricity * It contains stored chemical energy .
* used to power electrical equipment, stored in batteries or transmitted over power lines.

5
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

* Biomass is converted to energy through (4)

processes. 3. Dangers posed by leaded fuels
(i) Directed combustion (to produce heat) 4. Oil spills
(ii) Thermochemical conversion (to produce 5. gas leaks and explosions
solid, gaseous and liquid fuels) 6. air pollution and water pollution
(iii) Chemical conversion (to produce liquid
fuels) * Impacts of solar power (no noise and no
(iv) Biological conversion (to produce liquid and pollution while in operation)
gaseous fuels) * Impacts of wind power (can reduce noise, can
3.5 Environmental impact and consequences avoid unacceptable shadow flicker)
Impacts of fossil fuels * Impacts of hydroelectric power (less harmful
source of energy)
1. Global warming (by greenhouse gases) which
are (CO2) (CH4) (water vapour) (NOx) (CFs) * Impacts of Biomass (it has global warming
2. Acid rains (by release of SO2 and NOx when emission by burning or gasifying the
fossil fuels burn) feedstock)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 5
HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMODYNAMICS
5.1 Heat transfer
➢ Basic requirement is the presence of temperature T2 −T1
difference ➢ 𝑙
is called temperature gradient.
Three types of heat transfer
heat flux density (or) heat flow per unit area,
(i) Heat conduction ➢ H
⇒ SI unit , watt per meter squared (W m-2)
(ii) Heat convection A

(iii) Heat radiation ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

1. Heat conduction Example - 5.1 Exercise - 9, 10

T2 −T1 3. Heat convection

Hcond = κ A where, Hconv = q A (T2 − T1) where,
𝑙

Hcond = heat transfer (or) rate of heat conduction Hconv = rate of heat convection (W)
heat per second (or) heat current (W) q = heat convection constant (or) the rate of
𝜅 = thermal conductivity (W m-1 K-1) heat transfer coefficient (W m-2 K-1)
A = cross sectional area of the material (m2) A = surface area of the object (m2)
T2 − T1 = temperature difference (K) T2 = temperature of the surrounding fluid (K)
l = thickness of the material (m) T1 = the surface temperature of the object (K)
➢ occurs in solid ➢ occurs only in a liquid or a gas, never in a
solid
➢ medium does not move as a whole create weather condition by movement of the
➢
2. Amount of heat fluid itself
△Q ❖
H= t
(or) △ 𝑄 = H t where, Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
△ 𝑄 = amount of heat (J) Example - 5.2
t = time taken (s) ➢ when T2 > T1 , heat is gained by object,
➢ the major heat transfer in human beings is due to Hconv = + (positive)
the flow of warm blood ➢ when T2 < T1 , heat is lost by object,
Hconv = − (negative)

6
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

4. Heat radiation ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

Hrad = e σ A T 4 where, Exercises - 18,19
Hrad = rate of heat radiation (W) ➢ A law which applies the conservation of
e = emissivity energy in the thermodynamics process.
𝜎 = Stefan’s constant (5.685×10-8 W m-2 K-4) Note :
A = surface area (m) ❖ If heat is added, Q = +
T = absolute temperature (K) ❖ If heat is removed, Q = −
➢ area of the filament, A = 𝜋 d l ❖ Work is done by the system, W = +
➢ not require a material medium ❖ Work is done on the system, W = −
➢ fastest heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation 7. Change in internal energy of an ideal
monoatomic gas
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
Example 5.3 3
△ U = 2𝑛 𝑅 △ 𝑇 where,
Exercises 11, 12, 14, 15 △ U = Change in internal energy of an ideal
5. Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law monoatomic gas (J)
n = number of moles (mol)
𝜀0 = 𝜎 T 4 where, R = universal ideal gas constant
(8.3143 J mol-1K-1)
𝜀0 = total emissive power of black body (W m-2)
△ 𝑇 = temperature difference (K)
𝜎 = Stefan’s constant (5.685×10-8 W m-2 K-4) ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
T = absolute temperature (K) Example – 5.4
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) Thermodynamics processes
Exercise - 13 ➢ a change from one equilibrium state of a
system to another
➢ e = 1 (black body) , e < 1 (other object)
There are four thermodynamics processes.
➢ total emissive power of other object, 𝜀 = 𝑒 𝜀0 1. Isobaric process (p constant)
➢ black body (a perfect absorber and a best emitter 2. Isochoric process (V constant)
of radiation) 3. Isothermal process (T constant)
➢ emissivity of an object depends on the 4. Adiabatic process (no heat transfer, Q = 0)
wavelength of radiation 8. Isobaric process (p constant)
5.2 Thermodynamics W = p (Vf − Vi) where,
➢ The study of the systems involving energy in the W = work done (J)
form of heat and work. p = pressure (Pa)
➢ Thermodynamics system (eg. Heat engines, Gas Vf = final volume (m3)
confined by a piston in cylinder) Vi = initial volume (m3)
➢ Thermodynamics coordinates (Pressure p, 9. Latent heat of vaporization
Volume V, Temperature T)
Q = m Lv where,
➢ Zeroth law of thermodynamics (A law related Q = amount of heat (J)
with thermodynamics equilibrium) m = mass (kg)
6. First law of thermodynamics Lv = latent heat of vaporization (J kg-1)
△U= Q−W where, ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
△ U = the change in internal energy (J) Examples – 5.5 , 5.6
Q = the net heat flow into the system (J) * eg. A gas being slowly heated or cooled,
W = the total work done by the system (J) confined by a piston in a cylinder

7
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

Isochoric process (V constant) o For two stroke diesel engine, (Power

stroke) (Compression stroke) (air is
➢ △V=0,W=p△V=0
compressed first) (the fuel is injected)
According first law, △ U = Q (because air is heats up by compressing the
eg. A pressure cooker fuel ignites)
10. Isothermal process (T constant) 3. Carnot engine (hypothetical engine)
V o operate on an ideal reversible cycle called
W = n R T ln(Vf ) where, Carnot cycle
i

W = work done (J) o There are four reversible processes in the

n = number of moles (mol) Carnot cycle.
R = universal ideal gas constant (i) Isothermal Expansion (A to B)
(8.3143 J mol-1K-1) (ii) Adiabatic Expansion (B to C)
T = temperature (K) (iii) Isothermal Compression (C to D)
Vf = final volume (m3) (iv) Adiabatic Compression (D to A)
Vi = initial volume (m3) pressure A
B
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
Exercise - 21
➢ △T=0,△U = 0 D C
According first law, W = Q volume
eg. Heat pump used in refrigerator and air 11. Efficiency of a heat engine (actual)
conditioner
W Q
η = Q = 1 − Q C (W = QH – QC) where,
Adiabatic process (no heat transfer, Q = 0) H H

➢ Q = 0, According first law, △ U = -W 𝜂 = thermal efficiency of heat engine (%)

eg. Quickly pumping air inside the tire of bicycle W = work output (J)
5.3 Heat engines QH = heat input (J)
➢ A system that converts heat to mechanical QC = rejecting heat (J)
energy (or) work 12. Efficiency of Carnot engine (maximum
Heat engines efficiency possible)
o The steam engine T
ηC = 1 − T L where,
(operate between 373 K ⟷ 300 K) H

o The internal combustion engine 𝜂𝐶 = thermal efficiency of Carnot engine

(i) Gasoline engine TL = lower temperature (K)
(operate between 680 K ⟷ 300 K) TH = higher temperature (K)
(ii) Diesel engine
(operate between 873 K ⟷ 300 K) ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
1. Gasoline engine (four stroke engine) Example 5.7
o (Intake stroke) (Compression stroke) (Power Exercise 22
stroke) (Exhaust stroke) အအိ ် ယ်၊ စြ် ယ် ၊ ကစြ် ယ် ၊
TV ကကညေ် ယ်
o (fuel is mixed with air) (compressed by
pistons) (ignited by sparks from spark plugs)
2. Diesel engine
o (either two stroke or four stroke)
စြလိ ်ပတြေ ယ်

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

CHAPTER 6
EFFECTS AND CHACTERISTICS OF SOUND
6.1 Propagation of sound in a medium
o Propagation of sound depend on ⟹ density, T.1 A plane takes off when the temperature is 16℃
pressure, temperature and viscosity of medium and the speed of sound 340 m s-1. What will be
o Speed of sound can be affected by ⟹ density, the speed of sound when it reaches a height
temperature and elasticity of the medium which where the temperature is −17℃ .
the sound travels
6.2 Echo
Speed of sound o An echo is the repetition of sound due to the
reflection of sound.
o vsolid > vliquid > vgas
1. In solid medium o Reflection of sound obeys the laws of
reflection.
𝑌
𝑣 = √𝜌 where,
o Echolocation is the special ability of emitting
v = speed of sound in solid medium (m s-1) sounds and interpreting the echoes.
Y = Young’s modulus (N m-2) 5. Echo
𝜌 = density of the solid material (kg m-3) 2𝑑
𝑣= where,
2. In liquids 𝑡

𝐵 v = speed of sound (m s-1)

𝑣 = √𝜌 where,
d = the distance between a source of sound and
v = speed of sound in liquid (m s-1) the reflecting surface (m)
B = bulk modulus (N m-2) t = the echo time (s)
𝜌 = density of the liquid (kg m-3) ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
3. In gases Example – 6.5 Exercise - 11
𝛾𝑝 Review Exercise – 1 (page – 89)
𝑣=√𝜌 where,
T.1 A student standing at a distance in front of a
v = speed of sound in gas (m s-1) cliff claps her hands and hears an echo 1.5 s
later. If the speed of sound in air is 340 m s-1,
𝛾 = adiabatic constant of gas
calculate the distance between the student and
p = pressure (Pa) the cliff.
𝜌 = density of gas (kg m-3) T.2 A girl stands 50 m in front of a tall wall and
claps. She continues to clap every time an
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
echo is heard. A second girl finds that the time
Example – 6.1, 6.2 Exercise - 3 taken between the first and the fifty-first clap
4. Intensity level of sound is 15 s. Calculate the speed of sound.

𝐼 T.3 A ship is 220 m from a large cliff when it

𝛽(dB) = 10 log10 𝐼 where, sounds its foghorn.
0
(i) When the echo is heard on the ship, how far
𝛽 = intensity level of sound (dB)
has the sound travelled?
I = intensity of sound (W m-2) (ii) What time delay is there before the echo is
I0 = the reference intensity (10-12 W m-2) heard?
(threshold of hearing) (iii) The ship changes its distance from the
cliff. When the echo time is 0.5 s, how far is
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
the ship from the cliff?
Example – 6.3, 6.4 Review - 2 (page-88) (Assume that the speed of sound in air is 330
m s-1)

9
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

6.3 Audibility
o Range (or) limit of audibility ⟹ T.2 Two trains A and B are moving towards each
(20 Hz to 20 kHz) other with a speed of 432 km h-1. If the
o frequency of the whistle emitted by A is 800
Infrasound ⟹ low frequency sound of frequency
Hz, then what is the apparent frequency of the
less than 20 Hz whistle heard by the passenger sitting in train
o Ultrasound⇒ high frequency sound of frequency B? (velocity of sound in air is 360 m s-1)
greater than 20 kHz 6.5 Properties of sound waves
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) (i) Pitch
Example – 6.6 Exercise – 5, 6, 7 ➢ depends on frequency of the wave
Review Exercise – 2 (page – 92) ➢ The greater the frequency, the higher is the
6.4 The Doppler effect pitch
o When the source and observer are approaching (ii) Loudness
each other, f0 > fs
➢ depends on amplitude (A) and intensity
o When the source and observer are receding each (I) of the wave, I ∝ A2
other, f0 < fs
➢ The greater the amplitude, the louder is the
6. Doppler equation note
𝑣±𝑣 ➢ If A2 = 2 A1 then, I2 = 4 I1 , four times
𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑠 ( 𝑣∓𝑣0) where,
𝑠 louder
f0 = frequency heard by the observer (Hz) (iii) Quality or timber
fs = frequency produced by the source (Hz) ➢ depends on the waveform (overtones or
v = speed of sound in the medium (m s-1) harmonics) or instruments
v0 = speed of the observer (m s-1) 7. Intensity of sound
vs = speed of the source (m s-1) 1
I = 2 𝜌 𝑣 𝜔2 𝐴2 where,
o Observer moves ⟹ I = intensity of sound (W m-2)
towards the source (+ v0) 𝜌 = density of medium (kg m-3)
away from the source (− v0) v = velocity of sound wave (m s-1)
o Source moves ⟹ 𝜔 = angular frequency of sound wave (rad s-1)
towards the observer (− vs) A = amplitude of sound wave (m)
away from the observer (+ vs) 8. Angular frequency
o When observer and source are stationary, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 where,
v0 = vs = 0 f = frequency (Hz)
✓ လူ က ် ပ ေင်် ( + v0) ၊ source က ် နိတ် (− vs) 9. Wave equation
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) v=f𝜆 where,
Example – 6.7 Exercises – 12, 13 v = velocity (m s-1) , f = frequency (Hz)
Review Exercises – 1, 2 (page – 95) 𝜆 = wavelength (m)
T.1 A boy emitting sound of frequency 350 Hz is 10. Dependence of speed of sound on
dropped from a balloon rising vertically upwards temperature
with constant velocity 5 m s-1. What frequency of
sound as felt by the observer in the balloon 2 s v2 T
= √T2 where,
v1
after the release is? (velocity of sound in air is 1

330 m s-1, acceleration due to gravity is 10 m s-2) v1, v2 = speed of sound (m s-1)
T1, T2 = temperature (K)

10
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

Example – 6.8
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 7
APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
7.1 The camera
Essential parts of a camera (7 parts) ✓ u , OO′ ⟹ always (+)
1. Lens cover 2. Convex lens ✓ f, P ⟹ convex (+) concave (−)
3. Diaphragm 4. Aperture ✓ v ⟹ real (+) virtual (−)
✓ ′
5. Focusing ring 6. Shutter m, II ⟹ erect (+) inverted (−)
7. Film (object နဲ နိှင််)
✓ Larger f-number (narrow aperture) ⟶ to use in ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
bright light Example – 7.1
✓ Smaller f-number (wide aperture) ⟶ to use in T.1 A simple camera with a converging lens of
dim light focal length of 60 mm is focused on distant
✓ objects. Now, to focus the camera on a nearby
Slow (or) long shutter speed ⟶ to use dim
object placed at a distance of 1.5 m, find the
light (for night photography)
change in the distance between the film and
✓ Fast shutter speed ⟶ to take photography of fast the lens.
moving objects
7.2 Human eye
1. Magnification Essential parts of human eye (10 parts)

II′ v 1. Eyelid 2. Cornea

m = OO′ = − u where,
3. Aqueous humour 4. Iris
m = magnification 5. Pupil 6. Eye-lens
II′ = height of the image (cm) 7. Ciliary muscles 8. Vitreous humour
OO′ = height of the object (cm) 9. Retina 10. Optic nerve
v = image distance (cm) ✓ The image formed on the retina is real,
u = object distance (cm) inverted and smaller than the size of the
object.
2. Lens formula Four refracting substances in the eye
1 1 1 1. Cornea 2. Aqueous humour
+v= where,
u f 3. Eye-lens 4. Vitreous humour
u = object distance (cm) Two common defects of vision
v = image distance (cm) 1. Farsightedness 2. Nearsightedness
f = focal length (cm) ✓ Least distance of distinct vision ⇒ 25 cm
3. Power of a lens ✓ Maximum distance of distinct of vision ⇒
infinity (u ≈ ∞)
1 100 1 1
P = f(m) = f(cm) (or) P = u(m) + v(m)
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
P = power of a lens (D) Example – 7.2
u = object distance (m) 7.3 Compound microscope (f0 < fe)
v = image distance (m) ✓ It has at least two convex lens : Objective lens
f = focal length (m) and Eyepiece lens.
✓ size , height , tall ဆိိ II' , OO' ပ ် ✓ The final image is virtual and on the same side
* န် ှန် ခိ် ၊ ပ ် ှန် ခွက် as the object.

11
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

✓ Two main types of electron microscope 6. Magnifying power

1. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) In general,
2. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) v
MP = u0
4. Magnifying power e

In general, MP = magnifying power

v 25 v0 = image distance from the object (mm, cm)
MP = u0 × u
0 e ue = object distance from the eyepiece (mm,
MP = magnifying power cm)
v0 = image distance from the object (mm, cm) Final image is at infinity (for normal setting)
u0 = object distance from the object (mm, cm) f
MP = f0
ue = object distance from the eyepiece (mm, cm) e

Final image is at infinity (for normal setting) f0 = focal length of the objective (mm, cm)
v 25 v 250 fe = focal length of the eyepiece (mm, cm)
MP = u0 × ⇒ cm (or) MP = u0 × ⇒ mm
0 fe 0 fe Separation of the lens
fe = focal length of the eyepiece (mm, cm) L = f0 + fe
5. Separation of the lens L = separation of the lens (mm, cm)
L = v0 + ue ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
L = separation of the lens (mm, cm) Example – 7.4 Exercises – 12,13
v0 = image distance from the object (mm, cm) Review Exercise – 1 (page – 110)
ue = object distance from the eyepiece (mm, cm) 7.5 Laser
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) ✓ Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
Example – 7.3 Exercise – 11 of Radiation
Review Exercise – 2 (page – 107) Five main types of lasers:
T.1 The separation L between the objective (f0 = 0.5 1. gas lasers 2. solid-state lasers
cm) and the eyepiece (fe = 5 cm) of a compound 3. Fiber lasers
microscope is 7 cm. Where should a small object
4. liquid lasers (dye lasers)
be placed so that the eye is least strained to see
the image. 5. semiconductor lasers (laser diodes)
7.4 Telescope Three essential elements of a laser system
1. Astronomical telescope 1. Laser medium (gas, liquid crystalline solid
✓ final image is inverted or semiconductor crystal)
(i) Refracting astronomical telescope (f0 > fe) 2. Power supply (for pumping process)
(convex lens is used as the objective) 3. Optical cavity
(ii) Reflecting astronomical telescope Two essential processes for laser action
(concave mirror is used as the objective) 1. Stimulated emission
2. Terrestrial telescope 2. Population inversion
✓ A concave lens is used as an eyepiece. Characteristics of laser light
✓ final image needs to be erect. 1.small angle of divergence
Binocular 2. coherent 3. monochromatic
✓ It consists of a pair of telescopes which 7. Energy of a photon
employ the total reflecting prisms.
ℎ𝑐
E = ℎ𝜈 =
✓ The length of telescope is greatly reduced. 𝜆

E = energy of photon (J, eV)

12
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J T.1 An optical fiber is made up of core of

h = Plank’s constant (6.625 × 10-34 Js) refractive index 1.6 and a cladding of
f = frequency (Hz) refractive index 1.5 . What is the maximum
angle that the light rays can make with the axis
c = velocity of light (3 × 108 m s-1) of the optical fiber so that light is totally
𝜆 = wavelength (m) reflected inside the optical fiber?
8. Intensity of laser beam 7.7 Spectrometer
P Main parts of spectrometer:
I=A
1. light source 2. collimator
I = intensity of laser beam (W m-2) 3. dispersion elements 4. telescope
P = output power of the laser (W) Three of the most common optical
A = area of laser beam (m2) spectrometers
9. Number of photons per second 1. Spectrophotometers

number of photons output energy per second 2. Spectrofluorometers

= Energy of a photon 3. Raman Spectrometers
per second

✓ no. of photons s-1 ကိိ လိိချင်ရင် OE s-1 ကိိ EP နစ

ဲ ြ် Optical quantities which can measure by a
spectrometer
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
Example – 7.5 Exercise – 14 1. Absorbance 2. Transmittance
Review Exercise – 1 (page – 113) 3. Reflectance
T.1 The output power of a given laser is 1 m W and ✓ Dispersion elements used in the optical
the emitted wavelength is 630 nm. Calculate the spectrometer are prism and grating.
number of photons emitted per second. If the
7.8 Photometry
area of laser beam is 10-6 m2, then find intensity
of laser beam. Four main photometric quantities
7.6 Fiber optics 1. Luminous flux 2. Luminous intensity
✓ based on the principle of total internal reflection 3. Luminance 4. Illuminance
✓ It composed by two concentric layers: Core and 1. Luminous flux (luminous power) Φ
Cladding (refractive index of core will be ✓ unit ⟶ lumen (lm)
slightly greater than that of cladding.) 1
✓ one lumen (1 lm) = 683 watt of light with a
10. Snell’s Law wavelength of 555 nm
sin i 2. Luminous intensity (Iv)
n = sin r
✓ SI unit ⟶ candela (cd) or lumen per
n = refractive index steradian
i = angle of incidence (°) ✓ SI unit of solid angle (Ω) → steradian (sr)
r = angle of refraction (°) ✓ Solid angel subtended at the center by the
whole surface area of the sphere = 4 𝜋 sr
11. Critical angle
n 3. Luminance (Lv)
sin ic = n2
1 ✓ Si unit → candela per meter squared
ic = critical angle (°) (cd m-2)
n1, n2 = refractive index (n1 > n2) 4. Illuminance
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) ✓ SI unit → lux (lx)
Example – 7.6 ✓ 1 lx = 1 lm m-2
Exercise - 15

13
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

12. Luminous intensity Inverse square law of illuminance

Φ
Iv = Iv cos θ
Ω Ev = (or) Ev r2 = constant
r2
Iv = luminous intensity (cd)
Φ = luminous flux (lm) Ev = illuminance (lx)
Ω = solid angle (sr) Iv = luminance intensity (cd)
13. Solid angle r = radius of the sphere (m)

A
Ω = r2
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
Ω = solid angle (sr) Example 7.7, 7.8
A = surface area of the spherical cap (m2) (4 𝜋r2) Review Exercise 1 (page – 120)
r = radius of the sphere (m) Exercise 16, 17
14. Illuminance T.1 A lamp emitting 450 cd in all directions is
suspended 3 m above the floor. Find the
Φ I illuminance on the floor immediately below
Ev = = rv2 the lamp.
A

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 8
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
8.1 Huygens’ principle
▪ every point on a wavefront → a source of ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
secondary wavelets Example - 8.1
Wavefront T.1 If path difference between two waves
1. Plane wavefront 2. Spherical wavefront travelling in a medium is 6 m and their
▪ All points on a wavefront have same phase. wavelength is 0.6 m, calculate the phase
difference.
▪ Wavefronts are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (or) rays. 8.2 Interference of light
Phase difference (∆𝜙) ▪ must use (monochromatic light, only one
▪ 0, 2𝜋, 4 𝜋, 6 𝜋,… are in phase. colour or one wavelength) and (chorent
sources, have the same frequency and constant
▪ 𝜋, 3 𝜋, 5 𝜋, …are completely out of phase.
phase difference.
Path difference (∆x) ▪ Constructive interference results in bright
▪ 0, 𝜆, 2 𝜆, 3 𝜆,… are in phase. fringes
▪ ▪ Destructive interference results in dark fringes
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
, 3 , 5 , …are completely out of phase.
2 2 2 2. For bright fringe (maximum)
1. The relation between phase difference and path d sin 𝜃 = m 𝜆 (m = 0,1,2,3,…)
difference
d = distance between two slits (m)
2π 𝜃 = angle from original direction of light wave
∆ϕ = Δx
λ m = order of bright fringe
∆ϕ = phases difference 𝜆 = wavelength of light source (m)
𝜆 = wavelength ▪ bright fringe has maximum intensity
Δx = path difference ▪ intensity of dark fringe is zero

14
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

3. Position of bright fringe from the central bright ▪ The width of the central maximum depends on
line width of the slit.

λD ▪ The narrower slit causes the wider central

y=m (m = 0,1,2,3,…) maximum.
d

y = distance of the mth bright fringe from central 6. Position of mth minimum from the central
bright line (m) maximum
m = order of bright fringe λD
y=m (m = 1,2,3,…)
𝜆 = wavelength of light source (m) a

D = the distance between the slits and the screen (m) y = position of mth minimum from the central
d = distance between two slits (m) maximum (m)
For dark fringe (minimum) m = order of the fringe
1 𝜆 = wavelength of light source (m)
d sin 𝜃 = (m+ 2) 𝜆 (m = 0,1,2,3,…)
D = the distance between the slits and the
4. Position of bright fringe from the central bright screen (m)
line a = width of the slit (m)

1 λD
7. Width of the central maximum
y = (m+ ) (m = 0,1,2,3,…)
2 d The width of the central maximum
y = distance of the mth dark fringe from central = 2 × position of the first minimum
λD
bright line (m) =2 a
m = order of dark fringe ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
5. Fringe width Example – 8.3 Exercise - 8

λD
8.4 Diffraction grating
Δy =
d Two types of grating
Δy = fringe width (m) (i) Transmission grating
𝜆 = wavelength of light source (m) (ii) Reflection grating (CD)
D = the distance between the slits and the screen (m) ▪ It is used as dispersive elements to resolve
d = distance between two slits (m) light into spectra.
▪ m တန်ဖိ် ယူရင် Grating constant (N)
Bright ဆိိ သူူအတိိင်် ယူ (eg. 1st order maximum → m=1) ▪ The number of lines or slits per unit length .
Dark ဆိိ တစ်ခိပလျြေ ယူ (eg. 3rd order minimum → m=2) 8. Distance between the adjacent slits

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) d=N

1

Example – 8.2 Exercises – 5, 6, 7, 9 d = distance between the adjacent slits (m)

8.3 Diffraction of light N = number of lines per unit length (lines per
cm)
▪ It cannot be occurred if the aperture is much
larger than the wavelength of light 9. Condition for maximum intensity, for mth
Two main types fringe
(i) Fresnel diffraction d sin 𝜃 = m 𝜆
(source of light and screen are at finite distance) d = distance between adjacent slits (m)
(ii) Fraunhofer diffraction 𝜃 = the angle of diffraction (°)
(source of light and screen are at infinite distance) 𝜆 = wavelength of the light (m)
m = order of the maxima

15
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) T.1 A mercury of light source, which emits the
wavelength of 436 nm, 577 nm, 623 nm,
Example – 8.4 strikes a grating (5,000 lines cm-1). Determine
Exercise – 10, 11, 12 the angular position of each wavelength in the
first-order.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 9
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE
9.1 Capacitors 9.3 Parallel-plate capacitor
1. Fixed capacitors ✓ the simplest capacitor
(i) Polarized capacitors ✓ Dielectric constant, k = 1 (for vacuum)
➢ Electrolytic capacitor Other insulating material, k > 1
➢ Supercapacitor 2. Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
* They have polarities (positive and negative ε0 κ A
terminal) C= d

(ii) Non-polarized capacitors C = capacitance of a capacitor (F)

➢ Film capacitor 𝜅 = dielectric constant
➢ Ceramic capacitor ε0 = permittivity of vacuum (8.85×10-12 F m-1)
➢ Mica capacitor
A = surface area (m2)
* They can connect either way. d = distance between the two plates (m)
2. Variable capacitors 3. Potential difference between two parallel
➢ Tuning (used in a radio and charge plates
telecommunication) V=Ed
➢ Trimming (used in electronic circuit) V = electrical potential difference between the
✓ DC current can be blocked after getting fully two plates (V)
charged, but allow the AC current to pass the E = electric field intensity (N C-1, V m-1)
capacitor.
d = distance between the two plates (m)
9.2 Capacitance of a capacitor 4. Dielectric constant
✓ C does not depend on Q and V , it depends on C
size and shape of capacitor, and on the nature of 𝜅=C
0
insulator
𝜅 = dielectric constant
✓ SI unit → farad (F) , 1F = 1CV -1
C = capacitance of a capacitor with an
insulating material(F)
1. Capacitance of a capacitor
C0 = capacitance of capacitor with vacuum (F)
Q ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
C=V
Example – 9.2 Exercise - 7
C = capacitance of the capacitor (F) T.1 A parallel plate capacitor has a square plates of
Q = charge of the capacitor (C) side 5 cm and separated by a distance of 1
V = potential difference (V) mm. (i) Calculate the capacitance of this
capacitor. (ii) If a 10 V battery is connected to
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) the capacitor, what is the charge stored in any
Example – 9.1 Exercises - 2 one of the plates?
T.1 What is the value of capacitance of a capacitor if (𝜅 = 1, ε0 = 8.85 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
it has a charge of 9 𝜇 C and voltage of 5 V?

16
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

9.4 Energy stored in a capacitor ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

5. The energy of the capacitor Example – 9.4 Exercise - 8

1 9.5 Combination of capacitor

W=2VQ
1 (i) parallel (ii) series
W = 2 C V2
1 Q2
9. Capacitors in parallel
W=2 C
Cp = C1+ C2 + C3 + ⋯ + Cn
W = energy of the capacitor (J) Cp = n C (for ‘n’ identical capacitors)
V = potential difference of the capacitor (V) Cp = equivalent capacitance (F)
Q = the charge (C) C1, C2, C3,…, Cn = capacitance of each
C = capacitance (F) capacitors (F)
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) ✓ All capacitors have the same potential
Example – 9.3 Exercise - 6 difference
6. Charing equation of a capacitor 10. Capacitors in series
t 1 1 1 1 1
Vc = V0 (1 − e−RC ) Cs
= C + C + C + ⋯+ C
1 2 3 n
C
Vc = capacitor voltage at time t (V) Cs = n (for ‘n’ identical capacitors)
V0 = voltage provided by the power supply (V) Cs = equivalent capacitance (F)
t = time taken of charging (s) C1, C2, C3,…, Cn = capacitance of each
R = resistance of the resistor (Ω) capacitors (F)
C = capacitance of the capacitor (F) ✓ Each capacitor has the same charge.
7. Discharging equation of a capacitor ✓ (Cp ဆိိ ရင်) parallel ဆက်ရင် သည်တငိ ််ပ ေင််
t ✓ (Cs ဆိိ ရင်) series ဆက်ရင် 1 / ခ ပ ေင််
−
Vc = V0 (e RL C
) ✓ paralle ဆက်ရင် V တူ၊ Q တူ
Vc = capacitor voltage at time t (V) ✓ series ဆက်ရင် Q တူ၊ V တူ

V0 = voltage provided by the power supply (V) ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

t = time taken of discharging (s) Example – 9.5
RL = resistance of the load resistor (Ω) Exercises – 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
C = capacitance of the capacitor (F) T.1 When is the maximum capacitance you can get
8. Time constant by connecting three 1 𝜇 F capacitors? What is
the minimum capacitance.
𝜏=RC
𝜏 = time constant (s) ✓ 𝜏 → control the rate of charging and
R = resistance of the resistor (Ω) discharging of a capacitor.
C = capacitance of the capacitor (F) ✓ (small 𝜏 , faster rate) (larger 𝜏 , slower rate)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 10
ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER AND
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT
10.1 Electromotive force and electric currents
Sources of electromotive force ➢ Electric generator → converts mechanical
➢ Battery → converts chemical energy to energy to electrical energy
electrical energy ✓ emf , E → SI unit (volt, V), 1V = 1 J C-1

17
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

Terminal votage 10.2 Batteries in series and in parallel

➢ V = E (open circuit, not in use the battery) 1. Series
➢ V = E – Ir (discharging, in use the battery) (i) series aiding (+ −, + −) ဆက်
(V < E) (ii) series opposing (+ −, − +) ဆက်
➢ V = E + Ir (charging the battery) 2. Parallel
(V > E) 5. Batteries in series aiding
1. Ohm’s Law E + E2
I = R +1r
V=IR 1 + r2

V = potential difference (V) 7. Batteries in series opposing

I = current (A) E − E2
I = R +1r (if E1 > E2)
R = resistance (Ω) 1 + r2

2. Resistors in series 8. Batteries in parallel

Rs = R1+ R2 + R3 + ⋯ + Rn E
I= r
R+
Rs = equivalent resistance (Ω) 2

R1, R2, R3,…, Rn = resistance of each E = electromotive force of battery (V)

resistors (Ω) I = current (A)
✓ series ဆက်ရင် I တူ၊ V တူ R = resistance (Ω)
✓ Rs ဆိိ ရင် သည်တိင််ပ ေင်် r = internal resistance (Ω)
3. Resistors in parallel ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
1 1 1 1 1 Example – 10.4 Exercises – 4, 5, 6
= R +R +R +⋯+R
Rp 1 2 3 n Review Exercise – 2 (page – 160)
Rp = equivalent resistance (Ω) T.1 Two cells of emf 2 V are connected in parallel
R1, R2, R3,…, Rn = resistance of each to a resistor of resistance 10 Ω. The cells may
resistors (Ω) be assumed to have negligible internal
resistances. (i) What are the total emf of the
✓ paralle ဆက်ရင် V တူ၊ I တူ cells and the current in the resistor? (ii) When
✓ Rp ဆိိ ရင် 1 / ခ ပ ေင်် one of the cell is connected in series aiding
with a rechargeable cell of emf 1.2 V and
4. Circuit equation connected to the same external resistance 10Ω,
E
what will be the current in the resistor?
I = R+r 10.3 Electrical energy and electrical power
I = current (A) ✓ SI unit ⟶ joule (J)
E = electromotive force (V) ✓ practical unit (or) unit of electricity ⟶
R = equivalent resistance (Ω) kilowatt hour (k Wh)
r = internal resistance of battery (Ω) ✓ 1 unit of electricity = 1 k Wh
= 1000 W × 3600 s
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
= 3.6 × 106 J
Example – 10.1, 10.2 ✓ Electrical energy (or) cost တွက်ခိင််ရင် time taken,
T.1 Figure shows a circuit which consists of a battery t ကိိ hour ပြ ြင်် တွက် (1 h = 3600 s)
connected in series with a 10 Ω resistor. The --------------------------------------------------------
potential difference across the resistor is
measured as 2.5 V. if the internal resistance of
R
the battery is given as 2 Ω , find emf of battery?
I
( ိစဆြအတွက် ိ သည် ညြဘက်ြခ ််တွင် ရိသည်။ )
E, r

18
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

9. Electrical energy T.1

Calculate the heat energy produced in
V2 t resistance of 5 Ω resistor when 3 A current
W = V I t = I2 R t = ,W=Pt=JH flows through it for 2 min.
R

W = electrical energy (J) T.2 A heater of resistance 30 Ω is connected to the

V = potential difference (V) main supply for 30 min. If 1 A current flows
I = current (A) through the filament of the heater then what is
the heat produced in the heater?
R = resistance (Ω)
t = time taken (h) 10.5 Some applications of the heating effect of
current
10. Electrical power

V2 W Light bulb
P = V I = I2 R = , P=
R t ❖ consisting a tungsten filament
P = electrical power (W) (1 W = 1 Js-1) ❖ argon, an inert gas, is added
t = time taken (s) ❖ converts electrical energy to heat and light
energy (a few watt to 5000 W)
11. Cost of electricity (or) Payment
Cost = number of units × kyats per unit Electric iron
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) ➢ nichrome wire, mica sheet
Examples – 10.5, 10.6, 10.7 ➢ (700 W – 1000W)
Review Exercise – 2 (page – 163) Electric stove
T.1 The element of an electric kettle that takes a ✓ a coil of nichrome wire in groove of the
current of 12.5 A produces 540 kJ of thermal heat-resistance material
energy in 3 min. (i) How much energy charge
✓ 600 W to 2000 W
passes through the element in these 3 min? (ii)
What is the potential difference across the ends Fuse
of the element? (iii) Find the cost of using if ▪ thin short wire of tin-lead alloy in glass
electricity costs 35 kyats per unit. tube (or) on a porcelain block
▪ a safety device to protect against overflow
T.2 A power station generates electrical energy at a of current
potential difference of 25 kV and an average rate ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
of 500 MW. (i) What is the current in the cables
Example – 10.10
leaving the power station? (ii) How much energy
is generated in one day? Review Exercises – 1, 2 (page – 168)
10.4 Joule’s law of electricity and heat Exercises – 22, 23
12. Amount of heat (or) Amount of calories T.1 An electric kettle is rated at 240 V, 3 kW can it
operate safely with a 13 A fuse.
W VIt I2 R t V2 t
H= = = =
J J J RJ T.2 10 A fuse is installed in an electric circuit of
H = amount of heat (cal) 220 V mains line. Can three 1000 W electric
stoves be used at the same time in this circuit?
t = time taken (s)
J = Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat
(J = 4.2 J cal-1) Be willing to walk alone.
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
Many who started with you
Examples – 10.8, 10.9
Review Exercises – 2 (page 165) won’t finish with you.
Exercises – 15, 16, 17, 18, 19
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

19
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

CHAPTER 11
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, GENERATION AND
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY
11.1 Alternating current
𝜋
✓ Changing magnetic field could produce a current ✓ ဂဏန််ကိိ 𝜋 ပြ ြင််ရင် နဲ ပြ ြက်
3.142
𝜋
Electric current (Eg. 377 × 3.142 = 120 𝜋)
1. Direct current (DC) 4. Maximum current
➢ a steady unidirectional current Em
Im = (V = I R)
➢ electrons flow steadily in the same direction R
all the time Im = maximum current (A)
➢ produced by a battery, dry cell, solar cell, etc. Em = maximum value of emf (V)
2. Alternating current (AC) R = resistance (Ω)
❖ a current that reverses its direction at regular 5. Period
time intervals
1 2𝜋
T= f= (𝜔 = 2 𝜋 f)
❖ flow of electrons changes periodically 𝜔

❖ produce by AC generator or alternators T = period (s)

Voltage f = frequency of emf (Hz)
✓ In Japan and most of America → between ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
100 V and 120V
Examples – 11.1, 11.2
✓ Europe and most other countries (including T.1 Given a current I(t) = 100 sin 377 t ,
Myanmar) → between 220 V and 240 V 1
determine the value of I(t) at (i) t = 480 s , (ii)
Frequency of AC current 1 1 1
t= s , (iii) t = s and (iv) t = s.
240 120 80
✓ In Japan → 50 Hz / 60 Hz
✓ In US → 60 Hz 11.2 Electromagnetic induction
✓ In Europe and other parts → 50 Hz ✓ Induced current and induced emf can be
✓ The wave form of emf is called sine wave. produced by changing in the magnetic lines of
force (or) magnetic fields.
1. Induced emf ✓ Magnetic field strength and magnetic flux
E = Em sin 𝜔t density ⟹ vector quantities
E = induced emf (V) ✓ Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
Em = maximum value of emf (V) ✓ d𝐴 သည် surface (or) plane နငေ် ပထြငေ် န်ကျ direction
𝜔 = angular velocity (rad s-1) အတိိင်် ရိသည်။
t = time taken (s) ✓ magnetic field perpendicular to surface area =
2. Induced current ⃗ ⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ ∥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜃 = 0° (𝜙𝐵 maximum)
I = Im sin 𝜔t ✓ magnetic field parallel to surface area =
I = induced current (A) 𝐵⃗ ∥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 ⃗ ⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜃 = 90° (𝜙𝐵 minimum)
Im = maximum current (A) SI unit of B, H, 𝝓
3. Angular velocity ✓ Magnetic flux density B → tesla (T)
𝜔=2𝜋f ✓ Magnetic field strength H → ampere per meter
𝜔 = angular velocity (rad s-1) (A m-1)
f = frequency of emf (Hz) ✓ Magnetic flux 𝜙 → weber (Wb)

20
Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

6. Magnetic flux ✓ 3. Transformer (used to change the voltage of

an alternating current (AC))
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 (or) ∆𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 ∆(cos 𝜃)
(Transformers work on AC, but not on DC)
𝜙𝐵 = magnetic flux (Wb) ✓ Primary (input) coil (P) ⇒ connected to AC
B = Magnetic flux density (T) source
A = area (m2) Secondary (output) coil (S) ⇒ connected to
⃗
𝜃 = the angle between the magnetic field 𝐵 electrical device
and d𝐴 ✓ ideal transformer = no power loss = 100%
efficiency
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
✓ Two types of transformers
Examples – 11.3 Exercises – 9 (i) Step-up transformer (Vs > Vp , Ns > Np)
11.3 Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law (ii) Step-down transformer (Vs < Vp , Ns < Np)

✓ Faraday’s Law 9. No power loss

The magnitude of induced emf in a wire loop output power (Pout) = input power (Pin)
is directly proportional to the rate of change of Vs Is = Vp Ip
magnetic flux through that loop. Pout = Vs Is Pin = Vp Ip
✓ gives magnitude of induced emf Vs = voltage obtained from secondary (V)
✓ Lenz’s Law Is = current flowing in the secondary (A)
Vp = voltage applied to the primary (V)
An induced emf is always in a direction that Ip = current flowing in the primary (A)
opposes the change in the original magnetic
flux that causes it. 10. 𝐸𝑠 𝑉 𝑁 𝐼𝑝
= 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 =
✓ gives direction of induced emf 𝐸𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 𝐼𝑠

7. Induced emf
𝐸𝑠 = induced emf in the secondary (V)
∆𝜙𝐵 𝐸𝑝 = induced emf in the primary (V)
𝐸 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
𝑁𝑠 = number of turns in the secondary
E = induced emf (V) 𝑁𝑝 = number of turns in the primary
N = number of turns * I ေရင် ဆနဲ်ကျင်ဘက်
∆𝜙𝐵 = change in magnetic flux (Wb)
t = time taken (s) 11. 𝑁
turns ratio = 𝑁𝑠
𝑝
11.4 Applications of electromagnetic induction
12. 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
✓ 1. Induction coil (used in the ignition system Efficiency = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
× 100%
of motor cars)
2. AC generator (convert mechanical energy ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
into electrical energy)
Examples – 11.5, 11.6
✓ E can be increased by
Exercises – 12, 13, 14, 15
(i) increasing the speed of rotating coil (𝜔)
(ii) increasing the area (A) 11.5 Power transmission
(iii) the number of turns in the coil (N) ✓ Power loss is one of the main problems in the
(iv) using stronger magnets (B) long distance transmission of electricity.
8. E = N B A 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ✓ The national grid system used to distribute
electricity around the country.
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 ✓ Practical way to reduce power loss (The
magnitude of the transmission current must
Em = maximum value of emf (V)
be reduced by stepping up the voltage with
𝜔 = angular velocity (rad s-1) the help of transformers).
B = Magnetic flux density (T)
E = induced emf (V) ✓ Power loss ိစဆြ ျြ် တွက်ရြတွင်
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) 1. P I ရြ ⟹ 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑉
2. I P ြ န်ရြ ⟹ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
Examples – 11.4 Exercises – 10,11
21
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

13. Transmission current * There are only two wires, live and neutral.
𝑃 2. Power circuit (Ring main circuit)
I=𝑉
* for the use of radios, computers, televisions,
I = transmission current (A) table lamps and other appliances that consume
P = power (W) less power.
V = transmission voltage (V) 3. Heating circuit
14. Power loss * for the use of electric cookers, ovens hot
plates, dryers and washing machines and so on.
Ploss = 𝐼 2 𝑅
4. Circuit breaker
Ploss = power loss (W) * an automatic switch which turns OFF when the
R = resistance of transmission line (Ω) current rise above the specified value.

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) 5. Earthing

* most important safety precaution.
Exercises – 16 * Earth wire is always connected to the metal
case of electrical appliances.
11.6 Principle of house wiring
✓ The fuse must be connected in the live (L)
✓ Three cables used in wiring system
lead, never in the neutral (N) lead.
(1) live (L) (brown or red)
(2) neutral (N) (blue or black) 11.7 Dangers of electricity
(3) earth (E) (striped green-yellow or green) ✓ fires, electric shocks as well as electrocution to
✓ Live wire is a dangerous wire as it carries a users
high voltage. ✓ Three possible causes for dangers of electricity
✓ Neutral wire is usually at zero volt. 1. damaged insulation
2. overheating of cables (due to extremely
✓ Electricity distribution in a house
large current)
Supply cable ⟹ Main fuse ⟹ meter ⟹ main
3. damp conditions
switch ⟹ distribution box
1. Lighting circuit (5 A fuse) ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
2. Power circuit (30 A fuse)
Examples – 11.7
3. Heating circuit (30 A fuse)
T.1 What should be the suitable fuse for electric
1. Lighting circuit
kettle (1500 W, 220 V) and television (150
* Light bulbs are connected in parallel across the
W, 220 V)? Give your comment.
main line
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 12
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
12.1 Electronic system ✓ 1. Zener Diode
2. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
✓ Electronics
3. Photo Diode
Design of circuit + Study of the behavior
4. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
and movement of electrons
5. Thermistor
✓ Electrical components 6. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
(i) Passive components 1. Zener Diode
* operate without an external power source * Zener diode is a heavily doped
* resistors, capacitors, inductors, semiconductor (silicon or germanium) pn
transformers, LDR, tranducers junction diode.
(ii) Active components * use in reverse-bias mode
* require a power source to operate * used as voltage regulator, surge suppressors,
* Vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, ICs, in clipper circuits and switching circuits
TRIACs, SCRs, LEDs * Draw circuit symbol and characteristics
curve of Zener diode.

22
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

* Draw circuit symbol for LDR.

❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
Examples – 12.1
Examples – 12.3 Exercises – 2
2. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Review Exercises – 2 (page – 203)
➢ A LED is a semiconductor light source that
5. Thermistor
emits light when current flows through it.
* emit light in forward-bias ➢ A thermistor is a temperature sensor that
* can emit orange, red, yellow, green, infrared exhibits a large change in resistance
* do not directly produce white light proportional to a change in temperature.
* Draw circuit symbol and characteristics * Two types of thermistor
curve for LED. (i) Negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
(ii) Positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
1. Current limiting resistance
* In NTC, resistance decreases as the
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝐹 temperature increases.
𝑅= =
𝐼 𝐼 * In PTC, resistance increases as the
temperature increases.
R = current limiting resistance (Ω) * Draw circuit symbol and characteristics
VR = voltage of current limiting resistor (V) curve for Thermistor.
VS = supply voltage (V)
VF = Forward bias voltage (V) 6. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
I = current flowing through LED (A) ➢ A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat-
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) plate display or other electronically
modulated optical device that uses the light-
Examples – 12.2 modulating properties of liquid crystals
Review Exercises – 3 (page – 201) combined with polarizers.
* LCD consume much less power than LEDs
T.1 The voltage drop across a lit LED is 2 V and
and gas-plasma displays.
the current through it should be limited to 20
mA. Calculate the value of the limiting 12.2 Digital electronics
resistor R placed in series with the LED. * Digital signals can be transmitted without
Assume that the supply voltage is 5 V. degradation caused by noise.
3. Photodiode * Integrated circuit (ICs) ⇒ linear, digital,
➢ A photodiode is a semiconductor device that mixed types
converts light into electrical current. * Digital ICs ⟹ TTL (Transistor-Transistor
* works in revers-biased mode Logic) and CMOS (Complementary Metal
* converts light into electrical current Oxide Semiconductor)
* Draw circuit symbol, simple circuit diagram ➢ In Grade 11, there are five common logic
and characteristics curve for Photodiode. gates
4. Light dependent Resistor (LDR) 1. AND gate
2. NAND gate
➢ A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a light 3. OR gate
controlled variable resistor. 4. NOR gate
* As light level increases, the LDR resistance 5. NOT gate
decreases.
* Universal gates ⟹ NAND and NOR gates
2. 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅 * inverter gate ⟹NOT gate
* ိဆွလျင် NOT ေရင် အလိ် ေ (bubble)
𝑉𝑅
𝐼= * AND gate ⇒ inverted output ⇒ NAND gate
𝑅
* OR gate ⇒ inverted output ⇒ NOR gate
𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 = ➢ In Grade 12, there are two remaining gates
𝐼
6. XOR gate ( တူရင် 1)
VLDR = voltage of LDR (V) 7. XNOR gate (တူရင် 1)
RLDR = resistance of LDR (Ω) * XOR gate ⇒ inverted output ⇒ XNOR gate
VS = supply voltage (V)

23
Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

✓ 1. AND gate ➢ De Morgan’s Theorem

* AND ဆိိရင် ပြ ြက်ြခင်် (AB)
1. 1st theorem
* 0 ေရင် 0 ၊ ကျန်တြ 1
̅̅̅̅ ̅+𝑩
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅
✓ 2. NAND gate
* ပြ ြက်ြခင််၏ ဆနဲ်ကျင်ဘက်သည် တစ်ခိြခင်် ဆနဲ်ကျင်
* NOT + AND = NAND
* NAND ဆိိရင် ပြ ြက်ြခင််၏ ဆနဲ်ကျင်ဘက် (𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ) ဘက် ျြ် ပ ေင််ြခင််နငေ် ည ျသည်။

* 0 ေရင် 1 ၊ ကျန်တြ 0 2. 2nd theorem

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩=𝑨 ̅𝑩
̅
✓ 3. OR gate
* OR ဆိိရင် ပ ေင််ြခင်် (A + B) * ပ ေင််ြခင််၏ ဆနဲ်ကျင်ဘက်သည် တစ်ခိြခင်် ဆနဲ်ကျင်
* 1 ေရင် 1 ၊ ကျန်တြ 0 ဘက် ျြ် ပြ ြက်ြခင််နငေ် ည ျသည်။

✓ 4. NOR gate ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)

* NOT + OR = NOR
* NOR ဆိိရင် ပ ေင််ြခင််၏ ဆနဲ်ကျင်ဘက် (𝐴 + 𝐵)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ Examples – 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
Review Exercises – 1,2,3 (page – 211/212)
* 1 ေရင် 0 ၊ ကျန်တြ 1 Exercises – 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
✓ 5. NOT gate T.1 Simplify the following expression by using
* NOT ဆိိရင် အ င်၏ ဆနဲ်ကျင်ဘက် (A င်ရင် 𝐴̅) Boolean algebra.
* Only one input (i) A𝐶̅ + AB𝐶̅ (ii) A𝐵̅D + A𝐵̅ 𝐷
̅
(iii) (𝐴̅ + B)(A + B)
✓ 6. XOR gate (Exclusive OR gate)
*A⨁B T.2 Apply De Morgan’s theorem to deduce the
* တူရင် 1 ၊ တူရင် 0 following expressions.
(i) X = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶̅ + 𝐷 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(ii) X = C (𝐴 + 𝐵 )+D
✓ 7. XNOR gate (Exclusive NOR gate)
* ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A⨁B 12.3 Basic electronic communication
* တူရင် 1 ၊ တူရင် 0 ➢ It has two different categories
(i) The analog communication system
✓ အ င်နစ်စ (0011 , 0101)
(ii) The digital communication system
အ င်သိ်စ ( ထ တိိင် 0 ပလ်လိ်၊ 1 ပလ်လိ် )
➢ Basic components are
(ဒိတိယတိိင် 0 နစ်လိ် ၊ 1 နစ်လိ် နစ်ခေ)
(i) the transmitter
(တတိယတိိင် 0 တစ်လိ်၊ 1 တစ်လိ် ပလ်ခေ) (ii) communication channel or medium
(iii) receiver
➢ Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
(vi) noise
1. Commutative law of addition
➢ Two basic modes of communication
A+B=B+A
(i) point-to-point (eg. telephony)
2. Commutative law of multiplication
(ii) broadcast (eg. radio and television)
AB=BA
3. Associative law of addition ✓ Communication channel may be copper
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C wires, coaxial cable or optical fiber for wired
4. Associative law of multiplication (line) communication and electromagnetic
A (B C) = (A B) C waves for wireless (space) communication.
5. Distributive law ✓ Digital signals are more immune to noise
A (B + C) = AB + AC than analog signals.
✓ The measure of noise is expressed by SNR
➢ Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra
(signal to noise ratio).
1. A + 0 = A 5. A + A = A ✓ Noise cannot be prevented but can be
2. A + 1 = 1 6. A + 𝐴̅ = 1 minimized.
3. A . 0 = 0 7. A . A = A
4. A . 1 = A 8. A . 𝐴̅ = 0
9. 𝐴̅ = A 10. A +AB = A
11. A + 𝐴̅ B = A + B
12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

24
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

CHAPTER 13
MODERN PHYSICS
13.1 Radioactivity and uses of radioactivity
* Unit larger than Bq are MBq (106 Bq) and
✓ Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity.
GBq (109 Bq)
✓ Radioactivity = radioactive (or) nuclear
* 1 Bq = 1 event s-1, 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 event s-1
decay = radioactive (or) nuclear
disintegration = 37 GBq
✓ The emission of some or all of alpha, beta, ✓ Half-life (T1/2)
gamma rays from the nucleus of an unstable
The time for half the atoms in a radioactive
atom.
sample to decay.
✓ Radioactive elements or substances are
uranium, thorium, radium, polonium and 1. Amount left
radon. 1 𝑛
✓ Not all elements in nature are radioactive. Amount left after n half-life = (2) × initial
✓ Radioactive elements can also be artificially amount
produced using nuclear reactors and particle
2. Radioactive decay law
accelerators.
0.693
(− 𝑡)
(i) Alpha decay 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 𝑒 (−𝜆𝑡)
= 𝑁0 𝑒
𝑇1
⁄2

4
* An alpha particle is a helium nucleus 23𝐻𝑒
which has positive charge. Nt = number of radioactive atoms at time t
𝐴 𝐴−4
N0 = initial number of radioactive atoms
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒 0.693
𝜆=𝑇 = decay constant
1⁄
eg. 238
92𝑈 →
234
90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒 2
T1/2 = half-life
(ii) Beta decay
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
1. 𝜷− decay (electron, −10𝑒) (a neutron
changes to a proton) Examples – 13.1, 13.2,13.3, 13.4
Review Exercises – 2 (page – 228)
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴
𝑍+1𝑌 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒 Exercises – 7, 8
eg. 146𝐶 → 14
7𝑁 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒 T.1 Pd-100 has a half-life of 3.6 days. If one had
+
2. 𝜷 decay (positron, 0
+1𝑒) (a proton 6.02 × 1023 atoms at the start, how many
changes to a neutron) atoms would be present after 20.0 days?
𝐴 𝐴
+ +10𝑒 + 𝜈𝑒 ✓ Uses of radioactivity (or) uses of
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−1𝑌
radioisotopes
11
eg. 116𝐶 → 5𝐵 + +10𝑒 + 𝜈𝑒
(i) Tracer
(iii) Gamma decay (ii) Radiotherapy
* Electromagnetic radiation (gamma photon, (iii) Industrial gamma radiography
0 (iv) Thickness monitor
0𝛾 )
(v) Radioactive dating (Carbon dating ,
𝐴 ∗
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 00𝛾 Dating of rocks)
eg. 60 60
+ −10𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒 , (vi) Gamma irradiation of seeds and foods
27𝐶𝑜 → 28𝑁𝑖
60 60
28𝑁𝑖
∗
→ 28𝑁𝑖 + 00𝛾 13.2 Nuclear energy and its environmental
* The ray which is the most ionizing and the impact
least penetrating ⟹ Alpha ray 1. Nuclear reaction
* The ray which is the least ionizing and the
(i) exothermic reaction
most penetrating ⟹ Gamma ray
(total mass, before reaction > after reaction)
✓ The rate of decay of a radioactive sample is (eg. Nuclear fission reaction)
called activity.
(ii) endothermic reaction
SI unit ⇒ becquerel (Bq)
(total mass, before reaction < after reaction)
Other unit ⇒ curie (Ci)

25
 Grade 12 Physics Notes (2nd Edition) SOE NAING Win

* An example of nuclear fission reaction is

235 1 92 141 1 13.4 Principle of special theory of relatively
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 ⟶ 36𝐾𝑟 + 56𝐵𝑎 + 3 0𝑛
✓ An inertial frame is a frame of reference
* Atomic mass unit, 1 u = 931.5 MeV that has no acceleration.
2. Nuclear reactor
✓ Nuclear reactor is a device in which a 5. Relative factor (𝜸)
fission chain reaction can be initiated, 1
maintained and controlled. 𝛾= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
✓ There are six essential components
(i) fissionable nuclear fuel 6. Time dilation
(ii) moderator (iii) coolant ∆𝑡 = 𝛾∆𝑡0
(iv) control rods (v) reactor vessel
(vi) shielding 7. Length contraction
𝐿0
* Nuclear reactors use the controlled fission 𝐿= 𝛾
chain reaction.
8. Rest energy
* Atomic bomb uses an uncontrolled fission
chain reaction. 𝐸0 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2
13.3 Wave-particle dualism v = velocity or speed of the particle (m s-1)
Δ𝑡 = relativistic time (s)
✓ de Broglie wavelength
∆𝑡0 = proper time (s)
The wavelength associated with a moving
L = relativistic length (m)
particle (matter wave).
L0 = proper length (m)
✓ de Broglie hypothesis proves Bhor’s second E0 = rest energy (J, eV)
postulate, which states that the angular m0 = proper or rest mass (kg)
momentum of the orbiting electron is c = speed of light (3 × 108 ms-1)
quantized.
* proper = အလင််အလျင်န် ေ်နငေ် သွြ်စဉ် -------
3. de Broglie wavelength * relativistic = က ဘြ တိိင််တြ ရရိပသြ -------
ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = ❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား)
√2𝑚𝐾𝐸

𝜆 = de Broglie wavelength (m) Examples – 13.6, 13.7, 13.8

h = Plank’s constant (6.63 × 10-34 Js) Review Exercises – 1,2 (page – 246)
p = momentum (kg ms-1) Exercises – 16
m = mass (kg) T.1 A car is travelling east at a speed of 5 ms-1. A
v = velocity (ms-1) girl in the car throws a ball in the direction of
KE = kinetic energy (J) the moving car. She observes the ball travel
4. Interpretation of Bhor’s Second Postulate with a speed of 7 m s-1 to the east. A boy is
Using de Broglie Hypothesis standing stationary on the side of the road
with both the car and the ball travelling
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … toward him. How fast does the ball appear to
r = radius of the electron orbit (m) be moving in the boy’s frame of reference?
* For ground state, n = 1 T.2 A spaceship moving away from earth at a
➢ 1 speed of 0.6c has a relativistic mass of
𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 , W = Vq
250,000 kg. What is the mass of the
❖ Calculations (တွက်စာမ ာျား) spaceship in its rest frame?

Examples – 13.5 ✓ Special Relativity ⇒ theory of space-time

Exercises – 13, 14, 15 * S⟶S
✓ General Relativity ⇒ theory of gravity
T.1 If de Broglie wavelength of an electron is * G⟶G
0.5467 𝐴̇, find the kinetic energy of electron
in eV.
Thank You …….!

26