CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

7.1 The characteristic properties of

acids and bases

Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions
with: (a) metals (b) bases (c) carbonates

● An acid is a chemical that has a pH value less than 7

● A salt is a compound formed when the metals ions replace the hydrogen ions
,H+ ,in an acid, e.g. sodium chloride (NaCl)
● Examples of dilute acids: hydrochloric acid HCl (aq), sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)
and nitric acid HNO3 (aq)

Acids and metals

● Only metals that are above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with
dilute acids
● When a dilute acid reacts with a metal, a salt and hydrogen are formed:
E.g. Sodium + Hydrochloric acid -> Sodium chloride + hydrogen
2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
Acids and bases
● Metal oxides and metal hydroxides act as bases
● When an acid and base react, a neutralisation reaction occurs, forming water
● When an acid reacts with a metal oxide, a salt and water is formed
E.g. Magnesium oxide + Sulfuric acid -> Magnesium sulfate + Water
MgO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

● When an acid reacts with a metal hydroxide, a salt and water is also formed
E.g. Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid -> Sodium chloride + Water
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Acids and carbonates
● When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate, a salt, water and carbon dioxide
are formed
E.g. Magnesium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid -> Magnesium chloride +
Water + Carbon dioxide
MgCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Describe acids in terms of their effect on: (a) litmus (b) thymolphthalein (c)
methyl orange

To test for acids, an indicator can be used. These change colour in different solutions
according to their acidity/alkalinity. Litmus, thymolphthalein and methyl orange are all
examples of indicators.

Litmus
● Litmus is available in aqueous solution form or more commonly as paper
strips, in blue and red litmus paper
● When an acid is added, the blue litmus paper -> red
● When an acid is added, the red litmus paper stays red
Thymolphthalein
● When an acid is added, thymolphthalein will stay colourless

Methyl orange
● When an acid is added, methyl orange turns red

State that …

● Bases are oxides and hydroxides of metals

● Alkalis are bases that are soluble (dissolve in aqueous solution)
● Examples of alkalis: Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq), Potassium hydroxide KOH
(aq) and Ammonia NH3 (aq)

Describe the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions

with: (a) acids (b) ammonium salts

Acids and bases

● See above

Ammonium salts
● When an ammonium salt is warmed with a base, it undergoes thermal
decomposition forming a salt, water and ammonia gas
E.g. Ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide -> sodium chloride + water +
ammonia gas
NH4Cl (s) + NaOH (aq) ->NaCl (aq)+ H2O (l) + NH3 (g)

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Describe alkalis in terms of their effect on: (a) litmus (b) thymolphthalein
(c) methyl orange

Litmus
● When an alkali is added, the blue litmus paper stays blue
● When an alkali is added, the red litmus paper -> blue
Thymolphthalein
● When an alkali is added, thymolphthalein will change from colourless to blue

Methyl orange
● When an alkali is added, methyl orange turns yellow

State that …

● Aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions

● Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain OH– ions

Describe how to compare hydrogen ion concentration, neutrality, relative

acidity and relative alkalinity in terms of colour and pH using universal
indicator paper

● A pH scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a solution is, with values
between 0 - 14. 0 being the most acidic and 14 being the most alkaline.
● An acid has a pH value less than 7 and a high concentration of hydrogen ions
(H+ ions)
● An alkali has a pH value above 7 and a low concentration of hydrogen ions (H+
ions) but high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH– ions)
● Neutral solutions, such as pure water, has a pH value of 7
● The higher the pH value, the more alkaline a solution is
● The lower the pH value, the more acidic a solution is

● Universal indicator paper can be used to test the relative acidity/alkalinity of a

solution by adding a spot of the unknown solution to the paper and waiting for
a colour change
● Universal indicator paper will show colour changes according to the pH scale
○ Colours like yellow, orange and red indicate acidity
○ Colours like blue and violet indicate alkalinity
○ Neutral solutions will show as green

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Describe the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali to
produce water

● When an acid and base react, a neutralisation reaction occurs, forming water
● The symbol equation for this can be shown:
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O(l)

(Extended only) Define acids and bases as …

● Acids are known as proton donors (releases hydrogen ions)

● Bases are known as proton acceptors (accepts hydrogen ions)
● A proton is the same as a hydrogen ion (H+)

(Extended only) Define a strong acid and a weak acid …

● A strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates in aqueous solution

● A weak acid is an acid that only partially dissociates in aqueous solution
○ A weak acids will usually be indicated in a symbol equation of its
dissociation by the reversible sign ⇌

(Extended only) State that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, as shown by

the symbol equation, HCl(aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl – (aq)

● An example of a strong acid is hydrochloric acid

● This is shown in the symbol equation for its dissociation:
HCl (aq) -> H+ (aq) + Cl – (aq)

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
(Extended only) State that ethanoic acid is a weak acid, as shown by the
symbol equation, CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)

● An example of a weak acid is ethanoic acid

● This is shown in the symbol equation for its dissociation:
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

7.2 Oxides

Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Classify oxides as either acidic or basic, related to metallic and
non-metallic character
● Many metals and non-metals react with oxygen in the air when they are
heated to produce metal oxides and non-metal oxides
● The nature of these oxides is either acidic or basic
● Basic oxides:
o Formed when metals react with oxygen
o Examples: CuO and CaO
o When basic oxides react with water, the product will be a base:
o E.g. CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2
● Acidic oxides:
o Formed when non-metals react with oxygen
o Examples: CO2 and SO2
o When acidic oxides react with water, the product will be an acid:
o E.g. SO2 + H2O -> H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)

(Extended only) Describe amphoteric oxides

● Amphoteric oxides are oxides that react with acids and bases to produce a
salt and water
● Amphoteric substances can act as an acid and a base
● Examples: Al2O3 and ZnO

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

7.3 Preparation of salts

Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Describe the preparation, separation and purification of soluble salts by
reaction of an acid with:

● A salt is formed when a metal or ammonium ion replaces the hydrogen ions in
an acid:
○ Hydrochloric acid will form X chloride
○ Sulfuric acid will form X sulfate
○ Nitric acid will form X nitrate
○ X is the metal ion
● A soluble salt is prepared by reacting an acid with an insoluble reactant, such
as metal oxides and metal hydroxides (which are bases)

(a) An alkali by titration

● When an acid and an alkali are reacted together, a soluble salt and water is
formed
● To prepare the soluble salt, known volumes of an acid and alkali are needed,
which are found through a titration (see 12.2 for more detailed notes)
investigating how much of each is required for neutralisation to occur.
● Once these known quantities are found, these volumes are combined to
produce a solution containing the soluble salt and water
● To separate the soluble salt, the water is evaporated away by heating the
solution gently in an evaporating dish
● Remove the evaporating dish from the heat and allow it to cool
● The salt will form crystals which can be filtered, washed and dried

(b) Excess metal (c) Excess insoluble base (d) Excess insoluble carbonate
● A soluble salt can also be prepared by reacting an acid with an insoluble
reactant
● Examples of insoluble reactants:
○ Excess metal
○ Excess insoluble base (metal oxides and metal hydroxides)
○ Excess insoluble carbonate
● Method:
○ Add dilute acid into a beaker and heat over a bunsen burner or in a
water bath
○ Add the insoluble reactant gradually whilst stirring, until the insoluble
metal, base or carbonate is in excess (will not dissolve further)
○ Filter the solution, containing the soluble salt and water, into an
evaporating dish
○ To separate the soluble salt, the water is evaporated away by heating
the solution gently in an evaporating dish
○ Remove the evaporating dish from the heat and allow it to cool
○ The salt will form crystals which can be filtered, washed and dried

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Describe the general solubility rules for salts:

To be able to prepare a soluble salt, you must be able to able to identify whether a
salt is soluble or insoluble

Type of salt Soluble or insoluble

Sodium, potassium and ammonium Soluble

salts

Nitrates Soluble

Chlorides (excluding lead and silver Soluble

chloride)

Sulfates (excluding barium, calcium Soluble

and lead sulfate)

Carbonates (excluding sodium, Insoluble

potassium and ammonium
carbonate)

Hydroxides (excluding sodium, Insoluble

potassium and ammonium
hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide is
partially soluble)

Define a hydrated substance and an anhydrous substance

● A hydrated substance is a substance that is chemically combined with water

E.g. Hydrated copper (II) sulfate
● An anhydrous substance is a substance that does not contain water
E.g. Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
(Extended only) Describe the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation

● To prepare an insoluble salt, a precipitation reaction is used since the

insoluble salt formed is in the form of a precipitate
● Two soluble salts are combined together to form the insoluble salt, to select
these you must be aware of the solubilities of salts using the table above
○ E.g. All nitrates are soluble and all sodium, potassium and ammonium
salts are soluble, so any combination of these will produce a precipitate
○ E.g. To prepare potassium nitrate: sodium nitrate and potassium sulfate
can be combined
● Method:
○ Dissolve the soluble salts in separate test tubes with water to form
aqueous solutions
○ Once fully dissolved, add the two solutions into a beaker and stir, a
precipitate will form
○ Separate the precipitate from the mixture through filtration
○ The precipitate will collect in the filter paper, wash it with water to
remove any excess solution on the surface before placing in the oven
to dry

(Extended only) Define the term water of crystallisation

● Water of crystallisation refers to the water molecules that are present in

hydrated crystals
● They are usually indicated by a black dot in the molecular formula, dividing
the water molecules from the rest of the compound
○ E.g. There are 5 molecules of water of crystallisation in CuSO4•5H2O
○ E.g. There are 6 molecules of water of crystallisation in CoCl2•6H2O

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc