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STRUCTURAL DESIGN

𝐸 = Combined effect of horizontal and vertical

SECTION 1601 GENERAL. earthquake induced forces as defined in Section
1601.1 Scope. The provisions of this chapter shall 12.4.2 of SBC 301.
govern the structural design of buildings, structures
𝐹 = Load due to fluids with well-defined pressures
and portions thereof regulated by this code.
and maximum heights.
SECTION 1602 DEFINITIONS AND 𝐹𝑎 = Flood load in accordance with Chapter 5 of
NOTATIONS SBC 301.
The following terms are defined in Chapter 2: 𝐻 = Load due to lateral earth pressures, ground
• ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN. water pressure or pressure of bulk materials.
• DEAD LOADS. 𝐿 = Roof live load greater than 1 kN/m2 and floor
• DESIGN STRENGTH. live load.
• DIAPHRAGM. 𝐿𝑟 = Roof live load of 1 kN/m2 or less.
• DIAPHRAGM, BLOCKED. 𝑅 = Rain load.
• DIAPHRAGM BOUNDARY.
𝑇 = Self-straining load.
• DIAPHRAGM CHORD.
• ESSENTIAL FACILITIES. 𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑑 = Nominal design wind speed (3-second gust),
𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟, where applicable.
• FABRIC PARTITION.
• FACTORED LOAD. 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 = Ultimate design wind speeds (3-second gust),
• HELIPAD. 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟, determined from Figure 1609.3(1),
1609.3(2), 1609.3(3) or SBC 301.
• IMPACT LOAD.
• LIMIT STATE. 𝑊 = Load due to wind pressure.
• LIVE LOAD.
• LIVE LOAD (ROOF). SECTION 1603 CONSTRUCTION
• LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DOCUMENTS
DESIGN (LRFD). 1603.1 General. Construction documents shall
• LOAD EFFECTS. show the size, section and relative locations of
• LOAD FACTOR. structural members with floor levels, column
• LOADS. centers and offsets fully dimensioned. The design
loads and other information pertinent to the
• NOMINAL LOADS.
structural design required by Sections 1603.1.1
• OTHER STRUCTURES. through 1603.1.8 shall be clearly indicated on the
• PANEL (PART OF A STRUCTURE). construction documents.
• RESISTANCE FACTOR. 1603.1.1 Floor live load. The uniformly
• RISK CATEGORY. distributed, concentrated and impact floor live load
• STRENGTH, NOMINAL. used in the design shall be indicated for floor areas.
• STRENGTH, REQUIRED. Use of live load reduction in accordance with
Section 1607.10 shall be indicated for each type of
• STRENGTH DESIGN.
live load used in the design.
• SUSCEPTIBLE BAY.
1603.1.2 Roof live load. The roof live load
• VEHICLE BARRIER.
used in the design shall be indicated for roof areas
• Notations. (Section 1607.12). Roof live load reduction in
𝐷 = Dead load. accordance with Section 16.7.12.2, if used in the
design, shall be indicated.

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1603.1.3 Roof snow load data. Inapplicable whether flood loads govern the design of the
to KSA. building:
1603.1.4 Wind design data. The following 1. In flood hazard areas not subject to high-
information related to wind loads shall be shown, velocity wave action, the elevation of the
regardless of whether wind loads govern the design proposed lowest floor, including the
of the lateral force-resisting system of the structure: basement.
1. Ultimate wind speed, 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 (3-second gust), 2. In flood hazard areas not subject to high-
m/s and nominal design wind speed, 𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑑 , as velocity wave action, the elevation to which
determined in accordance with Section any nonresidential building will be dry
1609.3.1. floodproofed.
2. Risk category. 3. In flood hazard areas subject to high-velocity
wave action, the proposed elevation of the
3. Wind exposure. Applicable wind direction if
bottom of the lowest horizontal structural
more than one wind exposure is utilized.
member of the lowest floor, including the
4. Applicable internal pressure coefficient. basement.
5. Design wind pressures to be used for exterior 1603.1.8 Special loads. Special loads that
component and cladding materials not are applicable to the design of the building,
specifically designed by the registered design structure or portions thereof shall be indicated along
professional responsible for the design of the with the specified section of this code that addresses
structure, kN/m2. the special loading condition.
1603.1.5 Ear thquake design data. The 1603.1.8.1 Photovoltaic panel systems. The
following information related to seismic loads shall dead load of rooftop-mounted photovoltaic panel
be shown, regardless of whether seismic loads systems, including rack support systems, shall be
govern the design of the lateral force-resisting indicated on the construction documents.
system of the structure:
SECTION 1604 GENERAL DESIGN
1. Risk category. REQUIREMENTS
2. Seismic importance factor, 𝐼𝑒 . 1604.1 General. Building, structures and parts
3. Mapped spectral response acceleration thereof shall be designed and constructed in
parameters, 𝑆𝑆 and 𝑆1 . accordance with strength design, load and
resistance factor design, allowable stress design,
4. Site class. empirical design or conventional construction
5. Design spectral response acceleration methods, as permitted by the applicable material
parameters, 𝑆𝐷𝑆 and 𝑆𝐷1 . chapters.

6. Seismic design category. 1604.2 Strength. Buildings and other structures,

and parts thereof, shall be designed and constructed
7. Basic seismic force-resisting system(s). to support safely the factored loads in load
8. Design base shear(s). combinations defined in this code without
exceeding the appropriate strength limit states for
9. Seismic response coefficient(s), 𝐶𝑆 . the materials of construction. Alternatively,
10. Response modification coefficient(s), 𝑅. buildings and other structures, and parts thereof,
shall be designed and constructed to support safely
11. Analysis procedure used. the nominal loads in load combinations defined in
1603.1.6 Geotechnical information. The this code without exceeding the appropriate
design load-bearing values of soils shall be shown specified allowable stresses for the materials of
on the construction documents. construction.
1603.1.7 Flood design data. For buildings Loads and forces for occupancies or uses not
located in whole or in part in flood hazard areas as covered in this chapter shall be subject to the
established in Section 5.1 of SBC 301, the approval of the building official.
following information shall be shown, regardless of 1604.3 Serviceability. Structural systems and
members thereof shall be designed to have adequate

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stiffness to limit deflections, lateral drift, vibration, system or diaphragm. Rigid elements assumed not
or any other deformations that adversely affect the to be a part of the lateral force-resisting system are
intended use and performance of buildings and permitted to be incorporated into buildings
other structures. See Section 12.12.1 of SBC 301 provided their effect on the action of the system is
for drift limits applicable to earthquake loading. considered and provided for in the design. A
diaphragm is rigid for the purpose of distribution of
1604.3.1 Deflections. The deflections of
story shear and torsional moment when the lateral
structural members shall not exceed the more
deformation of the diaphragm is less than or equal
restrictive of the limitations of Sections 1604.3.2
to two times the average story drift. Where required
through 1604.3.5 or that permitted by Table 1604.3.
by SBC 301, provisions shall be made for the
1604.3.2 Reinforced concrete. The increased forces induced on resisting elements of
deflection of reinforced concrete structural the structural system resulting from torsion due to
members shall not exceed that permitted by SBC eccentricity between the center of application of the
304. lateral forces and the center of rigidity of the lateral
1604.3.3 Steel. The deflection of steel force-resisting system.
structural members shall not exceed that permitted Every structure shall be designed to resist the
by AISC 360, AISI S100, ASCE 8, SJI CJ, SJI JG, overturning effects caused by the lateral forces
SJI K or SJI LH/DLH, as applicable. specified in this chapter. See Section 1609 for wind
1604.3.4 Masonr y. The deflection of loads, Section 1610 for lateral soil loads and
masonry structural members shall not exceed that Section 1613 for earthquake loads.
permitted by SBC 305. 1604.5 Risk category. Each building and structure
1604.3.5 Aluminum. The deflection of shall be assigned a risk category in accordance with
aluminum structural members shall not exceed that Table 1604.5. Where a referenced standard
permitted by AA ADM1. specifies an occupancy category, the risk category
shall not be taken as lower than the occupancy
1604.3.6 Limits. The deflection limits of category specified therein.
Section 1604.3.1 shall be used unless more
restrictive deflection limits are required by a 1604.5.1 Multiple occupancies. Where a
referenced standard for the element or finish building or structure is occupied by two or more
material. occupancies not included in the same risk category,
it shall be assigned the classification of the highest
1604.4 Analysis. Load effects on structural risk category corresponding to the various
members and their connections shall be determined occupancies. Where buildings or structures have
by methods of structural analysis that take into two or more portions that are structurally separated,
account equilibrium, general stability, geometric each portion shall be separately classified. Where a
compatibility and both short- and long-term separated portion of a building or structure provides
material properties. required access to, required egress from or shares
Members that tend to accumulate residual life safety components with another portion having
deformations under repeated service loads shall a higher risk category, both portions shall be
have included in their analysis the added assigned to the higher risk category.
eccentricities expected to occur during their service 1604.6 In-situ load tests. The building official is
life. authorized to require an engineering analysis or a
Any system or method of construction to be used load test, or both, of any construction whenever
shall be based on a rational analysis in accordance there is reason to question the safety of the
with well-established principles of mechanics. Such construction for the intended occupancy.
analysis shall result in a system that provides a Engineering analysis and load tests shall be
complete load path capable of transferring loads conducted in accordance with Section 1708.
from their point of origin to the load-resisting 1604.7 Preconstruction load tests. Materials and
elements. methods of construction that are not capable of
The total lateral force shall be distributed to the being designed by approved engineering analysis or
various vertical elements of the lateral force- that do not comply with the applicable referenced
resisting system in proportion to their rigidities, standards, or alternative test procedures in
considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing

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accordance with Section 1707, shall be load tested cladding in a building or other structure, shall be
in accordance with Section 1709. designed to resist forces due to earthquakes, wind,
soil and hydrostatic pressure and flood loads with
1604.8 Anchorage. Buildings and other structures,
consideration of overturning, sliding and uplift.
and portions thereof, shall be provided with
Continuous load paths shall be provided for
anchorage in accordance with Sections 1604.8.1
transmitting these forces to the foundation. Where
through 1604.8.3, as applicable.
sliding is used to isolate the elements, the effects of
1604.8.1 Gener al. Anchorage of the roof to friction between sliding elements shall be included
walls and columns, and of walls and columns to as a force. Where all or a portion of the resistance
foundations, shall be provided to resist the uplift to these forces is provided by dead load, the dead
and sliding forces that result from the application of load shall be taken as the minimum dead load likely
the prescribed loads. to be in place during the event causing the
1604.8.2 Str uctur al walls. Walls that considered forces. Consideration shall be given to
provide vertical load-bearing resistance or lateral the effects of vertical and horizontal deflections
shear resistance for a portion of the structure shall resulting from such forces.
be anchored to the roof and to all floors and 1604.10 Wind and seismic detailing.
members that provide lateral support for the wall or Lateral force-resisting systems shall meet seismic
that are supported by the wall. The connections detailing requirements and limitations prescribed in
shall be capable of resisting the horizontal forces this code and SBC 301, excluding Chapter 14 and
specified in Section 1.5.11 of SBC 301 for walls of Appendix A, even when wind load effects are
structures assigned to Seismic Design Category A greater than seismic load effects.
and to Section 12.11 of SBC 301 for walls of
structures assigned to all other seismic design SECTION 1605 LOAD COMBINATIONS
categories. Required anchors in masonry walls of 1605.1 General. Buildings and other structures
hollow units or cavity walls shall be embedded in a and portions thereof shall be designed to resist:
reinforced grouted structural element of the wall.
See Sections 1609 for wind design requirements 1. The load combinations specified in Section
and 1613 for earthquake design requirements. 1605.2, 1605.3.1 or 1605.3.2;
2. The load combinations specified in Chapters
1604.8.3 Decks. Where supported by
attachment to an exterior wall, decks shall be 18 through 23; and
positively anchored to the primary structure and 3. The seismic load effects including
designed for both vertical and lateral loads as overstrength factor in accordance with
applicable. Such attachment shall not be Section 12.4.3 of SBC 301 where required by
accomplished by the use of toenails or nails subject Section 12.2.5.2, 12.3.3.3 or 12.10.2.1 of
to withdrawal. Where positive connection to the SBC 301. With the simplified procedure of
primary building structure cannot be verified SBC 301 Section 12.14, the seismic load
during inspection, decks shall be self-supporting. effects including overstrength factor in
Connections of decks with cantilevered framing accordance with Section 12.14.3.5 of SBC
members to exterior walls or other framing 301 shall be used.
members shall be designed for both of the
Applicable loads shall be considered, including
following:
both earthquake and wind, in accordance with the
1. The reactions resulting from the dead load and specified load combinations. Each load
live load specified in Table 1607.1, in combination shall also be investigated with one or
accordance with Section 1605, acting on all more of the variable loads set to zero.
portions of the deck.
Where the load combinations with overstrength
2. The reactions resulting from the dead load and factor in Section 12.4.3.2 of SBC 301 apply, they
live load specified in Table 1607.1, in shall be used as follows:
accordance with Section 1605, acting on the
1. The basic combinations for strength design
cantilevered portion of the deck, and no live
with over-strength factor in lieu of Equations
load on the remaining portion of the deck.
16-11 and 16-13 in Section 1605.2.
1604.9 Counteracting structural actions. All
2. The basic combinations for allowable stress
structural members, systems, components and
design with overstrength factor in lieu of

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Equations 16-12, 16-14 and 16-16 in Section and approved by the authority having
1605.3.1. jurisdiction.
3. The basic combinations for allowable stress 3. Where the effect of 𝐻 resists the primary
design with overstrength factor in lieu of variable load effect, a load factor of 0.9 shall
Equations 16-20 and 16-21 in Section be included with 𝐻 where 𝐻 is permanent
1605.3.2. and 𝐻 shall be set to zero for all other
1605.1.1 Stability. Regardless of which conditions.
load combinations are used to design for strength, 1605.2.1 Other loads. Where flood
where overall structure stability (such as stability loads, 𝐹𝑎 , are to be considered in the design, the
against overturning, sliding, or buoyancy) is being load combinations of Section 2.3.3 of SBC 301
verified, use of the load combinations specified in shall be used. Where self-straining loads, 𝑇 , are
Section 1605.2 or 1605.3 shall be permitted. Where considered in design, their structural effects in
the load combinations specified in Section 1605.2 combination with other loads shall be determined in
are used, strength reduction factors applicable to accordance with Section 2.3.5 of SBC 301.
soil resistance shall be provided by a registered
design professional. The stability of retaining walls 1605.3 Load combinations using allowable
shall be verified in accordance with Section 7.4 of stress design.
SBC 303. 1605.3.1 Basic load combinations. Where
1605.2 Load combinations using strength allowable stress design (working stress design), as
design or load and resistance factor design. permitted by this code, is used, structures and
Where strength design or load and resistance factor portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects
design is used, buildings and other structures, and resulting from the following combinations of loads:
portions thereof, shall be designed to resist the most 𝐷+𝐹 (16-8)
critical effects resulting from the following 𝐷+𝐻+𝐹+𝐿 (16-9)
combinations of factored loads:
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (16-10)
1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹)
(16-1) 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75(𝐿) (16-11)
1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹) + 1.7𝐿 + 1.6𝐻 + 0.75(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
(16-2)
+ 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝐸) (16-12)
1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹) + 1.6(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + 1.6𝐻
(16-3)
+ (𝑓1 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑊) 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75(0.6𝑊) + 0.75𝐿 (16-13)
1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹) + 1.0𝑊 + 𝑓1 𝐿 + 1.6𝐻 + 0.75(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
(16-4)
+ 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75 (0.7 𝐸) + 0.75 𝐿 (16-14)
1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹) + 1.0𝐸 + 𝑓1 𝐿 + 1.6𝐻
(16-5)
0.6𝐷 + 0.6𝑊 + 𝐻 (16-15)
0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 1.6𝐻
(16-6) 0.6(𝐷 + 𝐹) + 0.7𝐸 + 𝐻 (16-16)
0.9(𝐷 + 𝐹) + 1.0𝐸 + 1.6𝐻
(16-7) Exceptions:
Where: 1. Crane hook loads need not be combined with
𝑓1 = 1 for places of public assembly, live loads in roof live load or one-half of the wind load.
excess of 5𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 , and parking garages; and 0.5 for 2. Where the effect of 𝐻 resists the primary
other live loads. variable load effect, a load factor of 0.6 shall
Exceptions: be included with 𝐻 where 𝐻 is permanent
and 𝐻 shall be set to zero for all other
1. Where other factored load combinations are conditions.
specifically required by other provisions of
this code, such combinations shall take 3. In Equation 16-15, the wind load, 𝑊 , is
precedence. permitted to be reduced in accordance with
Exception 1 of Section 2.4.1 of SBC 301.
2. In loads combination of Equation (16-2), the
load factor on D+F and L may be reduced to 4. In Equation 16-16, 0.6𝐷 is permitted to be
1.2 (D+F) and 1.6L respectively, when increased to 0.9 𝐷 for the design of special
special inspection professional is employed

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rein- forced masonry shear walls complying 𝐷 + 𝐿 + 0.6 𝜔𝑊 (16-18)

with Chapter 21.
𝐷 + 𝐿 + 0.6 𝜔𝑊/2 (16-19)
1605.3.1.1 Stress increases. Increases in
𝐷 + 𝐿 + 𝐸/1.4 (16-20)
allowable stresses specified in the appropriate
material chapter or the referenced standards shall 0.9𝐷 + 𝐸/1.4 (16-21)
not be used with the load combinations of Section
1605.3.1, except that increases shall be permitted in
accordance with Chapter 23. Exception: Crane hook loads need not be combined
with roof live loads or one-half of the wind load.
1605.3.1.2 Other loads. Where flood loads,
𝐹𝑎 , are to be considered in design, the load 1605.3.2.1 Other loads. Where 𝐹, 𝐻 or 𝑇 are
combinations of Section 2.4.2 of SBC 301 shall be to be considered in the design, each applicable load
used. Where self-straining loads, 𝑇, are considered shall be added to the combinations specified in
in design, their structural effects in combination Section 1605.3.2. Where self- straining loads, 𝑇, are
with other loads shall be determined in accordance considered in design, their structural effects in
with Section 2.4.4 of SBC 301. combination with other loads shall be determined in
accordance with Section 2.4.4 of SBC 301.
1605.3.2 Alter native basic load
combinations. In lieu of the basic load SECTION 1606 DEAD LOADS
combinations specified in Section 1605.3.1,
1606.1 General. Dead loads are those loads
structures and portions thereof shall be permitted to
defined in Chapter 2 of this code. Dead loads shall
be designed for the most critical effects resulting
be considered permanent loads.
from the following combinations. When using these
alternative basic load combinations that include 1606.2 Design dead load. For purposes of design,
wind or seismic loads, allowable stresses are the actual weights of materials of construction and
permitted to be increased or load combinations fixed service equipment shall be used in accordance
reduced where permitted by the material chapter of with Section 3.1 of SBC 301. In the absence of
this code or the referenced standards. For load definite information, values used shall be subject to
combinations that include the counteracting effects the approval of the building official.
of dead and wind loads, only two-thirds of the
minimum dead load likely to be in place during a SECTION 1607 LIVE LOADS
design wind event shall be used. When using 1607.1 General. Live loads are those loads defined
allowable stresses that have been increased or load in Chapter 2 of this code.
combinations that have been reduced as permitted
1607.2 Loads not specified. For occupancies or
by the material chapter of this code or the
uses not designated in this Chapter nor in Chapter 4
referenced standards, where wind loads are
of SBC 301, the live load shall be determined in
calculated in accordance with Chapters 26 through
accordance with a method approved by the building
31 of SBC 301, the coefficient (𝜔) in the following
official.
equations shall be taken as 1.3. For other wind
loads, ( 𝜔 ) shall be taken as 1. When allowable 1607.3 Uniform live loads. The live loads used in
stresses have not been increased or load the design of buildings and other structures shall be
combinations have not been reduced as permitted the maximum loads expected by the intended use or
by the material chapter of this code or the occupancy but shall in no case be less than the
referenced standards, (𝜔) shall be taken as 1. When minimum uniformly distributed live loads given in
using these alternative load combinations to Table 1607.1 or Section 4.3.1 of SBC 301.
evaluate sliding, overturning and soil bearing at the 1607.4 Concentrated live loads. Floors and other
soil- structure interface, the reduction of foundation similar surfaces shall be designed to support the
overturning from Section 12.13.4 in SBC 301 shall uniformly distributed live loads prescribed in
not be used. When using these alternative basic load Section 1607.3 or the concentrated live loads, given
combinations for proportioning foundations for in Table 1607.1, whichever produces the greater
loadings, which include seismic loads, the vertical load effects. Unless otherwise specified, the
seismic load effect, 𝐸𝑣 , in Equation 12-4 of SBC indicated concentration shall be assumed to be
301 is permitted to be taken equal to zero. uniformly distributed over an area of 750 mm by
𝐷 + 𝐿 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (16-17) 750 mm and shall be located so as to produce the
maximum load effects in the structural members.

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1607.5 Partition loads. In office buildings and in shall comply with Sections 1607.7.1 through
other buildings where partition locations are subject 1607.7.5.
to change, provisions for partition weight shall be
1607.7.1 Loads. Where any structure does
made, whether or not partitions are shown on the
not restrict access for vehicles that exceed a 4500
construction documents, unless the specified live
kg gross vehicle weight rating, those portions of the
load is 4 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 or greater. The partition load shall structure subject to such loads shall be designed
be not less than a uniformly distributed live load of using the vehicular live loads, including
0.75 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . consideration of impact and fatigue, in accordance
1607.6 Helipads. Helipads shall be designed for with the codes and specifications required by the
the following live loads: jurisdiction having authority for the design and
construction of the road- ways and bridges in the
1. A uniform live load, 𝐿, as specified below. same location of the structure.
This load shall not be reduced.
1607.7.2 Fire tr uck and emer gency
1.1. 2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 where the design basis vehicles. Where a structure or portions of a
helicopter has a maximum take-off structure are accessed and loaded by fire
weight of 13.5 𝑘𝑁 or less. department access vehicles and other similar
1.2. 3 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 where the design basis emergency vehicles, the structure shall be designed
helicopter has a maximum take-off for the greater of the following loads:
weight greater than 13.5 𝑘𝑁. 1. The actual operational loads, including
2. A single concentrated live load, 𝐿, of 13.5 𝑘𝑁 outrigger reactions and contact areas of the
applied over an area of 100 mm by 100 mm vehicles as stipulated and approved by the
and located so as to produce the maximum building official; or
load effects on the structural elements under 2. The live loading specified in Section
consideration. The concentrated load is not 1607.7.1.
required to act concurrently with other
uniform or concentrated live loads. 1607.7.3 Heavy vehicle gar ages. Garages
designed to accommodate vehicles that exceed a
3. Two single concentrated live loads, 𝐿, 2.45 m 4500 kg gross vehicle weight rating, shall be
apart applied on the landing pad designed using the live loading specified by Section
(representing the helicopter’s two main 1607.7.1. For garages, the design for impact and
landing gear, whether skid type or wheeled fatigue is not required.
type), each having a magnitude of 0.75 times
the maximum take-off weight of the Exception: The vehicular live loads and load
helicopter, and located so as to produce the placement are allowed to be determined using the
maximum load effects on the structural actual vehicle weights for the vehicles allowed onto
elements under consideration. The the garage floors, provided such loads and
concentrated loads shall be applied over an placement are based on rational engineering
area of 200 mm by 200 mm and are not principles and are approved by the building official,
required to act concurrently with other but shall not be less than 3 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . This live load
uniform or concentrated live loads. shall not be reduced.
Landing areas designed for a design basis helicopter 1607.7.4 For klifts and movable
with maximum take-off weight of 13.5 𝑘𝑁 shall be equipment. Where a structure is intended to have
identified with a 13.5 𝑘𝑁 weight limitation. The forklifts or other movable equipment present, the
landing area weight limitation shall be indicated by structure shall be designed for the total vehicle or
the numeral “13.5” (𝑘𝑁) located in the bottom right equipment load and the individual wheel loads for
corner of the landing area as viewed from the the anticipated vehicles as specified by the owner of
primary approach path. The indication for the the facility. These loads shall be posted in
landing area weight limitation shall be a minimum accordance with Section 1607.7.5
1.5 m in height. 1607.7.4.1 Impact and fatigue. Impact loads
1607.7 Heavy vehicle loads. Floors and other and fatigue loading shall be considered in the design
surfaces that are intended to support vehicle loads of the supporting structure. For the purposes of
greater than a 4500 kg gross vehicle weight rating design, the vehicle and wheel loads shall be
increased by 30 percent to account for impact.

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1607.7.5 Posting. The maximum weight of include adequate allowance for ordinary impact
vehicles allowed into or on a garage or other conditions. Provisions shall be made in the
structure shall be posted by the owner or the structural design for uses and loads that involve
owner’s authorized agent in accordance with unusual vibration and impact forces.
Section 106.1.
1607.9.1 Elevators. Members, elements and
1607.8 Loads on handrails, guards, grab bars, components subject to dynamic loads from
seats and vehicle barriers. Handrails, guards, grab elevators shall be designed for impact loads and
bars, accessible seats, accessible benches and deflection limits prescribed by ASME A17.1.
vehicle barriers shall be designed and constructed
1607.9.2 Machiner y. For the purpose of
for the structural loading conditions set forth in this
design, the weight of machinery and moving loads
section.
shall be increased as follows to allow for impact:
1607.8.1 Handr ails and guar ds. Handrails
1. light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven, 20
and guards shall be designed to resist a linear load
percent; and
of 0.75 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 in accordance with Section 4.5.1 of
SBC 301. Glass handrail assemblies and guards 2. reciprocating machinery or power- driven
shall also comply with Section 2407. units, 50 percent. Percentages shall be
increased where specified by the
Exceptions:
manufacturer.
1. For one- and two-family dwellings, only the
1607.9.3 Elements suppor ting hoists for
single concentrated load required by Section
façade access equipment. In addition to any other
1607.8.1.1 shall be applied.
applicable live loads, structural elements that
2. In Group I-3, F, H and S occupancies, for support hoists for façade access equipment shall be
areas that are not accessible to the general designed for a live load consisting of the larger of
public and that have an occupant load less the rated load of the hoist times 2.5 and the stall load
than 50, the minimum load shall be 0.3 of the hoist.
𝑘𝑁/𝑚.
1607.9.4 Lifeline anchor ages for façade
1607.8.1.1 Concentrated load. Handrails and access equipment. In addition to any other
guards shall be designed to resist a concentrated applicable live loads, lifeline anchorages and
load of 0.9 𝑘𝑁 in accordance with Section 4.5.1 of structural elements that support lifeline anchorages
SBC 301. shall be designed for a live load of at least 13.8 𝑘𝑁
for each attached lifeline, in every direction that a
1607.8.1.2 Intermediate rails. Intermediate
fall arrest load may be applied.
rails (all those except the handrail), balusters and
panel fillers shall be designed to resist a 1607.10 Reduction in uniform live loads.
concentrated load of 0.2 𝑘𝑁 in accordance with Except for uniform live loads at roofs, all other
Section 4.5.1 of SBC 301. minimum uniformly distributed live loads, 𝐿0 , in
Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced in
1607.8.2 Gr ab bar s, shower seats and
accordance with Section 1607.10.1 or 1607.10.2.
dr essing room bench seats. Grab bars, shower
Uniform live loads at roofs are permitted to be
seats and dressing room bench seats shall be
reduced in accordance with Section 1607.12.2.
designed to resist a single concentrated load of 1.1
𝑘𝑁 applied in any direction at any point on the grab 1607.10.1 Basic unifor m live load
bar or seat so as to produce the maximum load reduction. Subject to the limitations of Sections
effects. 1607.10.1.1 through 1607.10.1.3 and Table 1607.1,
members for which a value of 𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐴 𝑇 is 37 𝑚2 or
1607.8.3 Vehicle bar r iers. Vehicle barriers
more are permitted to be designed for a reduced
for passenger vehicles shall be designed to resist a
uniformly distributed live load, 𝐿 , in accordance
concentrated load of 27 𝑘𝑁 in accordance with
with the following equation:
Section 4.5.3 of SBC 301. Garages accommodating
trucks and buses shall be designed in accordance 4.57
with an approved method that contains provisions 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 (0.25 + ) (16-22)
√𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐴 𝑇
for traffic railings.
where:
1607.9 Impact loads. The live loads specified in
Sections 1607.3 through 1607.8 shall be assumed to 𝐿= Reduced design live load per 𝑚2 of area

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CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

supported by the member. supporting 14 𝑚2 or more is permitted to be

reduced in accordance with Equation 16-23.
𝐿𝑜 = Unreduced design live load per 𝑚2 of area
supported by the member (see Table 1607.1). 4. For one-way slabs, the area, 𝐴 , for use in
Equation 16-23 shall not exceed the product
𝐾𝐿𝐿 = Live load element factor (see Table
of the slab span and a width normal to the
1607.10.1).
span of 0.5 times the slab span.
𝐴 𝑇 = Tributary area, in 𝑚2 .
𝑅 = 0.861(𝐴 – 14) (16-23)
𝐿 shall be not less than 0.50 𝐿𝑜 for members
supporting one floor and 𝐿 shall be not less than 5. Such reduction shall not exceed the smallest
0.40 𝐿𝑜 for members supporting two or more floors. of:
1607.10.1.1 One-way slabs. The tributary area, 1) 40 percent for members supporting one floor.
𝐴 𝑇 , for use in Equation 16-22 for one-way slabs 2) 60 percent for members supporting two or more
shall not exceed an area defined by the slab span floors.
times a width normal to the span of 1.5 times the 3) 𝑅 as determined by the following equation:
slab span. 𝑅 = 23.1(1 + 𝐷/𝐿𝑜 ) ( 16-24)
1607.10.1.2 Heavy live loads. Live loads that
where:
exceed 5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 shall not be reduced.
𝐴 = Area of floor supported by the member, 𝑚2 .
Exception: The live loads for members supporting
two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by a 𝐷 = Dead load per 𝑚2 of area supported.
maximum of 20 percent, but the live load shall be
not less than 𝐿 as calculated in Section 1607.10.1. 𝐿𝑜 = Unreduced live load per 𝑚2 of area supported.

1607.10.1.3 Passenger vehicle garages. The 𝑅 = Reduction in percent.

live loads shall not be reduced in passenger vehicle 1607.11 Distribution of floor loads.
garages. Where uniform floor live loads are involved in the
Exception: The live loads for members supporting design of structural members arranged so as to
two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by a create continuity, the minimum applied loads shall
maximum of 20 percent, but the live load shall not be the full dead loads on all spans in combination
be less than 𝐿 as calculated in Section 1607.10.1. with the floor live loads on spans selected to
produce the greatest load effect at each location
1607.10.2 Alter native unifor m live load under consideration. Floor live loads are permitted
reduction. As an alternative to Section 1607.10.1 to be reduced in accordance with Section 1607.10.
and subject to the limitations of Table 1607.1,
uniformly distributed live loads are permitted to be 1607.12 Roof loads. The structural
reduced in accordance with the following supports of roofs and marquees shall be designed to
provisions. Such reductions shall apply to slab resist wind and earthquake loads, in addition to the
systems, beams, girders, columns, piers, walls and dead load of construction and the appropriate live
loads as prescribed in this section, or as set forth in
foundations.
Table 1607.1. The live loads acting on a sloping
1. A reduction shall not be permitted where the surface shall be assumed to act vertically on the
live load exceeds 5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 except that the horizontal projection of that surface.
design live load for members supporting two
1607.12.1 Distribution of roof loads. Where
or more floors is permitted to be reduced by
uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than
a maximum of 20 percent.
1𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 in accordance with Section 1607.12.2.1
2. A reduction shall not be permitted in and are applied to the design of structural members
passenger vehicle parking garages except arranged so as to create continuity, the reduced roof
that the live loads for members supporting live load shall be applied to adjacent spans or to
two or more floors are permitted to be alternate spans, whichever produces the most
reduced by a maximum of 20 percent. unfavorable load effect. See Section 1607.12.2 for
3. For live loads not exceeding 5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 , the reductions in minimum roof live loads.
design live load for any structural member 1607.12.2 Gener al. The minimum uniformly
distributed live loads of roofs and marquees, 𝐿𝑜 , in

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Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced in 𝐹 = For a sloped roof, 0.12 × slope, with slope
accordance with Section 1607.12.2.1. expressed as a percentage, or for an arch or dome,
the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32.
1607.12.2.1 Flat, pitched and curved roofs.
Ordinary flat, pitched and curved roofs, and 1607.12.3 Occupiable roofs. Areas of roofs
awnings and canopies other than of fabric that are occupiable, such as vegetative roofs, roof
construction supported by a skeleton structure, are gardens or for assembly or other similar purposes,
permitted to be designed for a reduced uniformly and marquees are permitted to have their uniformly
distributed roof live load, 𝐿𝑟 , as specified in the distributed live loads reduced in accordance with
following equations or other controlling Section 1607.10.
combinations of loads as specified in Section 1605,
1607.12.3.1 Vegetative and landscaped roofs.
whichever produces the greater load effect.
The weight of all landscaping materials shall be
In structures such as greenhouses, where special considered as dead load and shall be computed on
scaffolding is used as a work surface for workers the basis of saturation of the soil as determined in
and materials during maintenance and repair accordance with ASTM E2397. The uniform design
operations, a lower roof load than specified in the live load in unoccupied landscaped areas on roofs
following equations shall not be used unless shall be 1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . The uniform design live load for
approved by the building official. Such structures occupied landscaped areas on roofs shall be
shall be designed for a minimum roof live load of determined in accordance with Table 1607.1.
0.6𝑘𝑁/ 𝑚2 .
1607.12.4 Awnings and canopies. Awnings
𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿𝑜 𝑅1 𝑅2 (16-25) and canopies shall be designed for uniform live
loads as required in Table 1607.1 as well as for wind
where: 0.6 ≤ Lr ≤ 1 loads as specified in Section 1609.
𝐿𝑜 = Unreduced roof live load per 𝑚2 of horizontal 1607.12.5 Photovoltaic panel systems. Roof
projection supported by the member (see Table structures that provide support for photovoltaic
1607.1). panel systems shall be designed in accordance
𝐿𝑟 = Reduced roof live load per 𝑚2 of horizontal with Sections 1607.12.5.1 through 1607.12.5.4, as
projection supported by the member. applicable.

The reduction factors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 shall be 1607.12.5.1 Roof live load. Roof surfaces to be
determined as follows: covered by solar photovoltaic panels or modules
shall be designed for the roof live load, 𝐿𝑟 ,
𝑅1 = 1 for 𝐴𝑇 ≤ 18 𝑚2 (16-26) assuming that the photovoltaic panels or modules
are not present. The roof photovoltaic live load in
areas covered by solar photovoltaic panels or
𝑅1 = 1.2 − 0.011𝐴𝑇 modules shall be in addition to the panel loading
for 18 𝑚2 < 𝐴𝑇 < 54 𝑚2 (16-27)
unless the area covered by each solar photovoltaic
panel or module is inaccessible. Areas where the
𝑅1 = 0.6 for 𝐴𝑇 ≥ 54 𝑚2 (16-28) clear space between the panels and the roof-top is
not more than 600 mm shall be considered
where: inaccessible. Roof surfaces not covered by
photovoltaic panels shall be designed for the roof
𝐴 𝑇 = Tributary area (span length multiplied by
live load.
effective width) in 𝑚2 supported by the member,
and 1607.12.5.2 Photovoltaic panels or modules.
The structure of a roof that supports solar
𝑅2 = 1 for 𝐹 ≤ 4 (16-29)
photovoltaic panels or modules shall be designed to
accommodate the full solar photovoltaic panels or
𝑅2 = 1.2 − 0.05 𝐹 modules and ballast dead load, including
concentrated loads from support frames in
for 4 < 𝐹 < 12 (16-30)
combination with the loads from Section
1607.12.5.1 and other applicable loads.
𝑅2 = 0.6 for 𝐹 ≥ 12 (16-31)
1607.12.5.3 Photovoltaic panels or modules
where: installed as an independent structure. Solar

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CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

photovoltaic panels or modules that are independent (powered)

structures and do not have accessible/occupied
Bridge cranes or monorail cranes
space underneath are not required to accommodate
with hand-geared bridge, trolley 0 percent
a roof photovoltaic live load, provided the area
under the structure is restricted to keep the public and hoist
away. All other loads and combinations in
1607.13.3 Later al force. The lateral force on
accordance with Section 1605 shall be
crane runway beams with electrically powered
accommodated.
trolleys shall be calculated as 20 percent of the sum
Solar photovoltaic panels or modules that are of the rated capacity of the crane and the weight of
designed to be the roof, span to structural supports the hoist and trolley. The lateral force shall be
and have accessible/occupied space underneath assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface
shall have the panels or modules and all supporting of a runway beam, in either direction perpendicular
structures designed to support a roof photovoltaic to the beam, and shall be distributed with due regard
live load, as defined in Section 1607.12.5.1 in to the lateral stiffness of the runway beam and
combination with other applicable loads. Solar supporting structure.
photovoltaic panels or modules in this application
1607.13.4 Longitudinal force. The
are not permitted to be classified as “not accessible”
longitudinal force on crane runway beams, except
in accordance with Section 1607.12.5.1.
for bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges, shall be
1607.12.5.4 Ballasted photovoltaic panel calculated as 10 percent of the maximum wheel
systems. Roof structures that provide support for loads of the crane. The longitudinal force shall be
ballasted photovoltaic panel systems shall be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface
designed, or analyzed, in accordance with Section of a run-way beam, in either direction parallel to the
1604.4; checked in accordance with Section beam.
1604.3.6 for deflections; and checked in accordance
1607.14 Interior walls and partitions.
with Section 1611 for ponding.
Interior walls and partitions that exceed 1.8 m in
1607.13 Crane loads. The crane live load height, including their finish materials, shall have
shall be the rated capacity of the crane. Design loads adequate strength and stiffness to resist the loads to
for the runway beams, including connections and which they are subjected but not less than a
support brackets, of moving bridge cranes and horizontal load of 0.25 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 .
monorail cranes shall include the maximum wheel
loads of the crane and the vertical impact, lateral 1607.14.1 Fabr ic par titions. Fabric
and longitudinal forces induced by the moving partitions that exceed 1.8 m in height, including
crane. their finish materials, shall have adequate strength
and stiffness to resist the following load conditions:
1607.13.1 Maximum wheel load. The
maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads 1. The horizontal distributed load need only be
produced by the weight of the bridge, as applicable, applied to the partition framing. The total
plus the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of area used to determine the distributed load
the trolley with the trolley positioned on its run-way shall be the area of the fabric face between
at the location where the resulting load effect is the framing members to which the fabric is
maximum. attached. The total distributed load shall be
uniformly applied to such framing members
1607.13.2 Vertical impact force. The in proportion to the length of each member.
maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be
increased by the percentages shown below to 2. A concentrated load of 0.2 𝑘𝑁 applied to an
determine the induced vertical impact or vibration 200 mm-diameter area [31415 𝑚𝑚2 ] of the
force: fabric face at a height of 1.4 m above the
floor.
SECTION 1608 SNOW LOADS
Monorail cranes (powered) 25 percent
1608.1 General. Snow load is inapplicable to
Cab-operated or remotely KSA.
25 percent
operated bridge cranes (powered)
Pendant-operated bridge cranes 10 percent

SBC 201-CR-18 519

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

SECTION 1609 WIND LOADS the upper half of an isolated hill, ridge or
escarpment meeting the following conditions:
1609.1 Applications. Buildings, structures and
parts thereof shall be designed to withstand the 1. The hill, ridge or escarpment is 18 m or higher
minimum wind loads prescribed herein. Decreases if located in Exposure B or 9 m or higher if
in wind loads shall not be made for the effect of located in Exposure C;
shielding by other structures. 2. The maximum average slope of the hill
1609.1.1 Deter mination of wind loads. exceeds 10 percent; and
Wind loads on every building or structure shall be 3. The hill, ridge or escarpment is unobstructed
determined in accordance with Chapters 26 to 30 of upwind by other such topographic features
SBC 301 or provisions of the alternate all-heights for a distance from the high point of 50 times
method in Section 1609.6. The type of opening the height of the hill or 1.6 km, whichever is
protection required, the ultimate design wind speed, greater.
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 , and the exposure category for a site is
permitted to be determined in accordance with 1609.1.2 Pr otection of openings. In wind-
Section 1609 or SBC 301. Wind shall be assumed borne debris regions, glazing in buildings shall be
to come from any horizontal direction and wind impact resistant or protected with an impact-
pressures shall be assumed to act normal to the resistant covering meeting the requirements of an
surface considered. approved impact-resistant standard or ASTM
E1996 and ASTM E1886 referenced herein as
Exceptions: follows:
1. Subject to the limitations of Section 1. Glazed openings located within 9 m of grade
1609.1.1.1, the provisions of ICC 600 shall shall meet the requirements of the large
be permitted for applicable Group R-2 and R- missile test of ASTM E1996.
3 buildings.
2. Glazed openings located more than 9 m above
2. Subject to the limitations of Section grade shall meet the provisions of the small
1609.1.1.1, residential structures using the missile test of ASTM E1996.
provisions of AWC WFCM.
Exceptions:
3. Subject to the limitations of Section
1609.1.1.1, residential structures using the 1. Glazing in Risk Category I buildings,
provisions of AISI S230. including greenhouses that are occupied for
growing plants on a production or research
4. Designs using NAAMM FP 1001. basis, without public access shall be
5. Designs using TIA-222 for antenna- permitted to be unprotected.
supporting structures and antennas, provided 2. Glazing in Risk Category II, III or IV
the horizontal extent of Topographic buildings located over 18 m above the ground
Category 2 escarpments in Section 2.6.6.2 of and over 9 m above aggregate surface roofs
TIA-222 shall be 16 times the height of the located within 450 m of the building shall be
escarpment. permitted to be unprotected.
6. Wind tunnel tests in accordance with ASCE 1609.1.2.1 Louvers. Louvers protecting
49 and Sections 31.4 and 31.5 of SBC 301. intake and exhaust ventilation ducts not assumed to
The wind speeds in Figures 1609.3(1), 1609.3(2) be open that are located within 9 m of grade shall
and 1609.3(3) are ultimate design wind speeds, meet the requirements of AMCA 540.
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 , and shall be converted in accordance with 1609.1.2.2 Application of ASTM E1996. The
Section 1609.3.1 to nominal design wind speeds, text of Section 6.2.2 of ASTM E1996 shall be
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑑 , when the provisions of the standards substituted as per C26.10 of SBC 301.
referenced in Exceptions 4 and 5 are used.
1609.1.2.3 Garage doors. Garage door glazed
1609.1.1.1 Applicability. The provisions of opening protection for wind-borne debris shall meet
ICC 600 are applicable only to buildings located the requirements of an approved impact-resisting
within Exposure B or C as defined in Section standard or ANSI/DASMA 115.
1609.4. The provisions of ICC 600, AWC WFCM
and AISI S230 shall not apply to buildings sited on

SBC 201-CR-18 520

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1609.2 Definitions. For the purposes of Section topography and vegetation as well as from
1609 and as used elsewhere in this code, the constructed features.
following terms are defined in Chapter 2.
1609.4.1 Wind directions and sectors. For
1. WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGION. each selected wind direction at which the wind
loads are to be evaluated, the exposure of the
2. WIND SPEED, Vult.
building or structure shall be determined for the two
3. WIND SPEED, 𝑉asd. upwind sectors extending 45 degrees either side of
1609.3 Ultimate design wind speed. The ultimate the selected wind direction. The exposures in these
design wind speed, 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 , in m/s, for the two sectors shall be determined in accordance with
determination of the wind loads shall be determined Sections 1609.4.2 and 1609.4.3 and the exposure
by Figures 1609.3(1), 1609.3(2) and 1609.3(3). The resulting in the highest wind loads shall be used to
ultimate design wind speed, Vult , for use in the represent winds from that direction.
design of Risk Category II buildings and structures 1609.4.2 Sur face roughness categor ies. A
shall be obtained from Figure 1609.3(1). The ground surface roughness within each 45-degree
ultimate design wind speed, 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 , for use in the sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of
design of Risk Category III and IV buildings and the site as defined in Section 1609.4.3 from the
structures shall be obtained from Figure 1609.3(2). categories defined below, for the purpose of
The ultimate design wind speed, 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 , for use in the assigning an exposure category as defined in
design of Risk Category I buildings and structures Section 1609.4.3.
shall be obtained from Figure 1609.3(3).
Surface Roughness B. Urban and suburban areas,
Mountainous terrain, gorges, and special wind
wooded areas or other terrain with numerous
regions shown in Figure 1609.3 shall be examined
closely spaced obstructions having the size of
for unusual wind conditions. The authority having
single-family dwellings or larger.
jurisdiction shall, if necessary, adjust the values
given in Figure 1609.3 to account for higher local Surface Roughness C. Open terrain with scattered
wind speeds. Such adjustment shall be based on obstructions having heights generally less than 10
meteorological information and an estimate of the m. This category includes flat open country, and
ultimate design wind speed obtained in accordance grasslands.
with the provisions of Section 26.5.3 of SBC 301.
Surface Roughness D. Flat, unobstructed areas and
1609.3.1 Wind speed conversion. When water surfaces. This category includes smooth mud
required, the ultimate design wind speeds of Figures flats and salt flats.
1609.3(1), 1609.3(2) and 1609.3(3) shall be
1609.4.3 Exposur e categor ies. An
converted to nominal design wind speeds, 𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑑 ,
exposure category shall be determined in
using Table 1609.3.1 or Equation 16-32.
accordance with the following:
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑑 = 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 √0.6 (16-32)
Exposure B. For buildings with a mean roof height
of less than or equal to 9 m, Exposure B shall apply
where the ground surface roughness, as defined by
Where: Surface Roughness B, prevails in the upwind
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑑 = Nominal design wind speed applicable to direction for a distance of at least 450 m. For
methods specified in Exceptions 4 and 5 of Section buildings with a mean roof height greater than 9 m,
1609.1.1. Exposure B shall apply where Surface Roughness
B prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 = Ultimate design wind speeds determined at least 780 m or 20 times the height of the building,
from Figures 1609.3(1), 1609.3(2) or 1609.3(3). whichever is greater.
1609.4 Exposure category. For each wind Exposure C. Exposure C shall apply for all cases
direction considered, an exposure category that where Exposure B or D does not apply.
adequately reflects the characteristics of ground
surface irregularities shall be determined for the site Exposure D. Exposure D shall apply where the
at which the building or structure is to be ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface
constructed. Account shall be taken of variations in Roughness D, prevails in the upwind direction for
ground surface roughness that arise from natural a distance of at least 1500 m or 20 times the height
of the building, whichever is greater. Exposure D

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CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

shall also apply where the ground surface roughness side of the tile, the axis of rotation shall be
immediately upwind of the site is B or C, and the determined by testing. For roof tiles installed with
site is within a distance of 180 m or 20 times the battens and fastened only by a clip near the tail of
building height, whichever is greater, from an the tile, the moment arm shall be determined about
Exposure D condition as defined in the previous the top edge of the batten with consideration given
sentence. for the point of rotation of the tiles based on straight
bond or broken bond and the tile profile.
1609.5 Roof systems. Roof systems shall be
designed and constructed in accordance with 𝑀𝑎 = Aerodynamic uplift moment, in N-mm acting
Sections 1609.5.1 through 1609.5.3, as applicable. to raise the tail of the tile.
1609.5.1 Roof deck. The roof deck shall be 𝑞ℎ = Wind velocity pressure in 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 determined
designed to withstand the wind pressures from Section 27.3.2 of SBC 301.
determined in accordance with SBC 301.
Concrete and clay roof tiles complying with the
1609.5.2 Roof coverings. Roof coverings following limitations shall be designed to withstand
shall comply with Section 1609.5.1. the aerodynamic uplift moment as determined by
Exception: Rigid tile roof coverings that are air this section.
permeable and installed over a roof deck complying 1. The roof tiles shall be either loose laid on
with Section 1609.5.1 are permitted to be designed battens, mechanically fastened, mortar set or
in accordance with Section 1609.5.3. adhesive set.
Asphalt shingles installed over a roof deck 2. The roof tiles shall be installed on solid
complying with Section 1609.5.1 shall comply with sheathing that has been designed as
the wind-resistance requirements of Section components and cladding.
1504.1.1
3. An underlayment shall be installed in
1609.5.3 Rigid tile. Wind loads on rigid tile accordance with Chapter 15.
roof coverings shall be determined in accordance
4. The tile shall be single lapped interlocking
with the following equation:
with a minimum head lap of not less than 50
mm.
𝑞ℎ 𝐶𝐿 𝑏𝐿𝐿𝑎 [1.0 − 𝐺𝐶𝑝 ] (16-33)
𝑀𝑎 = 5. The length of the tile shall be between 300 and
1000 525 mm.
where: 6. The exposed width of the tile shall be between
200 and 375 mm.
𝑏 = Exposed width, in mm of the roof tile.
7. The maximum thickness of the tail of the tile
𝐶𝐿 = Lift coefficient. The lift coefficient for shall not exceed 30 mm.
concrete and clay tile shall be 0.2 or shall be
determined by test in accordance with Section 8. Roof tiles using mortar set or adhesive set
1504.2.1. systems shall have at least two-thirds of the
tile’s area free of mortar or adhesive contact.
𝐺𝐶𝑝 = Roof pressure coefficient for each applicable
roof zone determined from Chapter 30 of SBC 301. 1609.6 Alternate all-heights method. The
Roof coefficients shall not be adjusted for internal alternate wind design provisions in this section are
pressure. simplifications of SBC 301 Directional Procedure.

𝐿 = Length, in mm of the roof tile. 1609.6.1 Scope. As an alternative to SBC

301 Chapters 27 and 30, the following provisions
𝐿𝑎 = Moment arm, in mm from the axis of rotation are permitted to be used to determine the wind
to the point of uplift on the roof tile. The point of effects on regularly shaped buildings, or other
uplift shall be taken at 0.76𝐿 from the head of the structures that are regularly shaped, that meet all of
tile and the middle of the exposed width. For roof the following conditions:
tiles with nails or screws (with or without a tail
1. The building or other structure is less than or
clip), the axis of rotation shall be taken as the head
equal to 23 m in height with a height-to-least-
of the tile for direct deck application or as the top
width ratio of 4 or less, or the building or
edge of the batten for battened applications. For
roof tiles fastened only by a nail or screw along the

SBC 201-CR-18 522

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

other structure has a fundamental frequency less than 0.80 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 multiplied by the area of the
greater than or equal to 1 hertz. structure projected on a plane normal to the
2. The building or other structure is not sensitive assumed wind direction (see SBC 301 Section
27.4.9 for criteria). Design net wind pressure for
to dynamic effects.
components and cladding shall be not less than 0.8
3. The building or other structure is not located 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 acting in either direction normal to the
on a site for which channeling effects or surface.
buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions
warrant special consideration. 1609.6.4 Design procedure. The MWFRS
and the components and cladding of every building
4. The building shall meet the requirements of a or other structure shall be designed for the pressures
simple diaphragm building as defined in SBC calculated using Equation 16-34.
301 Section 26.2, where wind loads are only
transmitted to the main wind-force-resisting 1609.6.4.1 Main wind force-resisting
system (MWFRS) at the diaphragms. systems. The MWFRS shall be investigated for the
torsional effects identified in SBC 301 Figure 27-9.
5. For open buildings, multi-span gable roofs,
stepped roofs, saw-tooth roofs, domed roofs, 1609.6.4.2 Determination of 𝑲𝒛 and 𝑲𝒛𝒕 .
roofs with slopes greater than 45 degrees, Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, 𝐾𝑧 , shall be
solid free-standing walls and solid signs, and determined in accordance with SBC 301 Section
rooftop equipment, apply SBC 301 27.3.1 and the topographic factor, 𝐾𝑧𝑡 , shall be
provisions. determined in accordance with SBC 301 Section
26.8.
1. For the windward side of a structure, 𝐾𝑧𝑡 and
1609.6.1.1 Modifications. The following 𝐾𝑧 shall be based on height 𝑧.
modifications shall be made to certain subsections
in SBC 301: in Section 1609.6.2, symbols and 2. For leeward and sidewalls, and for windward
notations that are specific to this section are used and leeward roofs, 𝐾𝑧𝑡 and 𝐾𝑧 shall be based
in conjunction with the symbols and notations in on mean roof height ℎ.
SBC 301 Section 26.3. 1609.6.4.3 Determination of net pressure
1609.6.2 Symbols and notations. coefficients, 𝑪𝒏𝒆𝒕 . For the design of the MWFRS
Coefficients and variables used in the alternative and for components and cladding, the sum of the
all-heights method equations are as follows: internal and external net pressure shall be based on
the net pressure coefficient, 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 .
𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Net-pressure coefficient based on 𝐾𝑑
[(𝐺) (𝐶𝑝 ) − (𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 )], in accordance with Table 1. The pressure coefficient, 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 , for walls and
roofs shall be determined from Table
1609.6.2.
1609.6.2.
𝐺 = Gust effect factor for rigid structures in
2. Where 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 has more than one value, the more
accordance with SBC 301 Section 26.9.1.
severe wind load condition shall be used for
𝐾𝑑 = Wind directionality factor in accordance with design.
SBC 301 Table 26-1.
1609.6.4.4 Application of wind pressures.
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Design wind pressure to be used in When using the alternative all-heights method,
determination of wind loads on buildings or other wind pressures shall be applied simultaneously on,
structures or their components and cladding, in and in a direction normal to, all building envelope
𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . wall and roof surfaces.
1609.6.3 Design equations. When using the 1609.6.4.4.1 Components and cladding. Wind
alternative all-heights method, the MWFRS, and pressure for each component or cladding element is
components and cladding of every structure shall be applied as follows using 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 values based on the
designed to resist the effects of wind pressures on effective wind area, 𝐴, contained within the zones
the building envelope in accordance with Equation in areas of discontinuity of width and/or length “a,”
16-34. “2a” or “4a” at: corners of roofs and walls; edge
strips for ridges, rakes and eaves; or field areas on
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.613𝑉 2 𝐾𝑧 𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐾𝑧𝑡 (16-34)
walls or roofs as indicated in figures in tables in
Design wind forces for the MWFRS shall be not

SBC 201-CR-18 523

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

SBC 301 as referenced in Table 1609.6.2 in roof above the inlet of secondary drainage system
accordance with the following: at its design flow (i.e., the hydraulic head),in mm.
1. Calculated pressures at local discontinuities 𝑑𝑠 = Depth of water on the undeflected roof up to
acting over specific edge strips or corner the inlet of secondary drainage system when the
boundary areas. primary drainage system is blocked (i.e., the static
head), in mm.
2. Include “field” (Zone 1, 2 or 4, as applicable)
pressures applied to areas beyond the R = Rain load on the undeflected roof, in 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 .
boundaries of the areas of discontinuity. When the phrase “undeflected roof” is used,
3. Where applicable, the calculated pressures at deflections from loads (including dead loads) shall
discontinuities (Zone 2 or 3) shall be not be considered when determining the amount of
combined with design pressures that apply rain on the roof.
specifically on rakes or eave overhangs. 1611.2 Ponding instability. Susceptible bays of
roofs shall be evaluated for ponding instability in
SECTION 1610 SOIL LATERAL LOADS
accordance with Section 8.4 of SBC 301.
1610.1 General. Foundation walls and retaining
1611.3 Controlled drainage. Roofs equipped with
walls shall be designed to resist lateral soil loads.
hardware to control the rate of drainage shall be
Soil loads specified in Table 1610.1 shall be used as
equipped with a secondary drainage system at a
the minimum design lateral soil loads unless
higher elevation that limits accumulation of water
determined otherwise by a geotechnical
on the roof above that elevation. Such roofs shall be
investigation in accordance with Chapter 2 of SBC
designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will
303. Foundation walls and other walls in which
accumulate on them to the elevation of the
horizontal movement is restricted at the top shall be
secondary drainage system plus the uniform load
designed for at-rest pressure. Retaining walls free to
caused by water that rises above the inlet of the
move and rotate at the top shall be permitted to be
secondary drainage system at its design flow
designed for active pressure. Design lateral pressure
determined from Section 1611.1. Such roofs shall
from surcharge loads shall be added to the lateral
also be checked for ponding instability in
earth pressure load. Design lateral pressure shall be
accordance with Section 1611.2.
increased if soils at the site are expansive.
Foundation walls shall be designed to support the SECTION 1612 FLOOD LOADS
weight of the full hydrostatic pressure of undrained
1612.1 General. The design and construction of
backfill unless a drainage system is installed in
buildings and structures located in flood hazard
accordance with Sections 13.4.3 and 13.4.4 of SBC
areas, including coastal high hazard areas and
303.
coastal A zones, shall be in accordance with
Exception: Foundation walls extending not more Chapter 5 of SBC 301.
than 2.4 m below grade and laterally supported at
the top by flexible diaphragms shall be permitted to SECTION 1613 EARTHQUAKE LOADS
be designed for active pressure. 1613.1 Scope. Every structure, and portion thereof,
including nonstructural components that are
SECTION 1611 RAIN LOADS
permanently attached to structures and their
1611.1 Design rain loads. Each portion of a roof supports and attachments, shall be designed and
shall be designed to sustain the load of all rainwater constructed to resist the effects of earthquake
that will accumulate on it if the primary drainage motions in accordance with SBC 301, excluding
system for that portion is blocked plus the uniform Chapter 14 and Appendix A. The seismic design
load caused by water that rises above the inlet of the category for a structure is permitted to be
secondary drainage system at its design flow. The determined in accordance with Section 1613 or
design rainfall shall be based on the 100-year hourly SBC 301.
rainfall rate indicated in Figure 1611.1 or on other
Exceptions:
rainfall rates determined from approved local
weather data. 1. Detached one- and two-family dwellings,
𝑅 = 0.0098(𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑ℎ ) (16-35) assigned to Seismic Design Category A, B or
C, or located where the mapped short-period
Where:
spectral response acceleration, 𝑆𝑠 , is less than
𝑑ℎ = Additional depth of water on the undeflected 0.4 𝑔.

SBC 201-CR-18 524

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

2. Agricultural storage structures intended only response acceleration par ameters. The maximum
for incidental human occupancy. considered earthquake spectral response
acceleration for short periods, 𝑆𝑀𝑆 , and at 1-second
3. Structures that require special consideration
of their response characteristics and period, 𝑆𝑀1 , adjusted for site class effects shall be
environment that are not addressed by this determined by Equations 16-36 and 16-37,
code or SBC 301 and for which other respectively:
regulations provide seismic criteria, such as 𝑆𝑀𝑆 = 𝐹𝑎 𝑆𝑠 (16-36)
vehicular bridges, electrical transmission
𝑆𝑀1 = 𝐹𝑣 𝑆1 (16-37)
towers, hydraulic structures, buried utility
lines and their appurtenances and nuclear where:
reactors.
𝐹𝑎 = Site coefficient defined in Table 1613.3.3(1).
4. Piers and wharves that are not accessible to
𝐹𝑣 = Site coefficient defined in Table 1613.3.3(2).
the general public.
1613.2 Definitions. The following terms are 𝑆𝑠 = The mapped spectral accelerations for short
periods as determined in Section 1613.3.1.
defined in Chapter 2:
𝑆1 = The mapped spectral accelerations for a 1-
• DESIGN EARTHQUAKE GROUND
second period as determined in Section 1613.3.1.
MOTION.
• ORTHOGONAL. 1613.3.4 Design spectr al response
acceleration par ameter s. Five-percent damped
• RISK-TARGETED MAXIMUM
design spectral response acceleration at short
CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE
(MCER) GROUND MOTION periods, 𝑆𝐷𝑆 , and at 1-second period, 𝑆𝐷1 , shall be
determined from Equations 16-38 and 16-39,
RESPONSE ACCELERATION.
respectively:
• SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY.
2 (16-38)
• SEISMIC FORCE-RESISTING 𝑆𝐷𝑆 = 𝑆
3 𝑀𝑆
SYSTEM.
2 (16-39)
• SITE CLASS. 𝑆𝐷1 = 𝑆𝑀1
3
• SITE COEFFICIENTS.
Where
1613.3 Seismic ground motion values. Seismic
ground motion values shall be determined in 𝑆𝑀𝑆 = The maximum considered earthquake
accordance with this section. spectral response accelerations for short period as
determined in Section 1613.3.3.
1613.3.1 Mapped acceleration
par ameters. The parameters 𝑆𝑠 and 𝑆1 shall be 𝑆𝑀1 = The maximum considered earthquake
determined from the 0.2 and 1-second spectral spectral response accelerations for 1-second period
response accelerations shown on Figures as determined in Section 1613.3.3.
1613.3.1(1) and 1613.3.1(2). Where 𝑆1 is less than 1613.3.5 Deter mination of seismic design
or equal to 0.04𝑔 and 𝑆𝑠 is less than or equal to categor y. Structures classified as Risk Category I,
. 15𝑔 , the structure is permitted to be assigned II or III that are located where the mapped spectral
Seismic Design Category A. response acceleration parameter at 1-second period,
1613.3.2 Site class definitions. Based on the 𝑆1 , is greater than or equal to 0.75𝑔 shall be
site soil properties, the site shall be classified as Site assigned to Seismic Design Category E. Structures
Class A, B, C, D, E or F in accordance with Chapter classified as Risk Category IV that are located
20 of SBC 301. where the mapped spectral response acceleration
parameter at 1-second period, 𝑆1 , is greater than or
Where the soil properties are not known in equal to 0.75𝑔 shall be assigned to Seismic Design
sufficient detail to determine the site class, Site Category F. All other structures shall be assigned to
Class D shall be used unless the building official or a seismic design category based on their risk
geotechnical data determines Site Class E or F soils category and the design spectral response
are present at the site. acceleration parameters, 𝑆𝐷𝑆 and 𝑆𝐷1 , determined
1613.3.3 Site coefficients and adjusted in accordance with Section 1613.3.4 or the site-
maximum consider ed ear thquake spectr al specific procedures of SBC 301. Each building and

SBC 201-CR-18 525

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

structure shall be assigned to the more severe E or F, provided that the following conditions are
seismic design category in accordance with Table satisfied:
1613.3.5(1) or 1613.3.5(2), irrespective of the
1. The value of 𝑅1 as defined in Chapter 17 is
fundamental period of vibration of the structure, 𝑇.
taken as 1.
1613.3.5.1 Alternative seismic design
2. For OMFs and OCBFs, design is in
category determination. Where 𝑆1 is less than
accordance with AISC 341.
0.75𝑔, the seismic design category is permitted to
be determined from Table 1613.3.5(1) alone when 1613.5 Amendments to SBC 301. The provisions
all of the following apply: of Section 1613.5 shall be permitted as an
amendment to the relevant provisions of SBC 301.
1. In each of the two orthogonal directions, the
approximate fundamental period of the 1613.5.1 Tr ansfer of anchor age forces
structure, 𝑇𝑎 , in each of the two orthogonal into diaphr agm. Modify SBC 301 Section
directions determined in accordance with 12.11.2.2.1 as follows:
Section 12.8.2.4 of SBC 301, is less than 0.8 12.11.2.2.1 Transfer of anchorage forces into
𝑇𝑠 determined in accordance with Section diaphragm. Diaphragms shall be provided with
11.4.5 of SBC 301. continuous ties or struts between diaphragm chords
2. In each of the two orthogonal directions, the to distribute these anchorage forces into the
fundamental period of the structure used to diaphragms. Diaphragm connections shall be
calculate the story drift is less than 𝑇𝑠 . positive, mechanical or welded. Added chords are
permitted to be used to form subdiaphragms to
3. Equation 12-13 of SBC 301 is used to transmit the anchorage forces to the main
determine the seismic response coefficient, continuous cross-ties. The maximum length-to-
𝐶𝑠 . width ratio of a wood, wood structural panel or
4. The diaphragms are rigid or are permitted to untopped steel deck sheathed structural
be idealized as rigid in accordance with subdiaphragm that serves as part of the continuous
Section 12.3.1 of SBC 301 or, for tie system shall be 2.5 to 1. Connections and
diaphragms permitted to be idealized as anchorages capable of resisting the prescribed
flexible in accordance with Section 12.3.1 of forces shall be provided between the diaphragm and
SBC 301, the distances between vertical the attached components. Connections shall extend
elements of the seismic force-resisting into the diaphragm a sufficient distance to develop
system do not exceed 12 m. the force transferred into the diaphragm.
1613.3.5.2 Simplified design procedure. 1613.6 Ballasted photovoltaic panel systems.
Where the alternate simplified design procedure of Ballasted, roof-mounted photovoltaic panel
SBC 301 is used, the seismic design category shall systems need not be rigidly attached to the roof or
be determined in accordance with SBC 301. supporting structure. Ballasted non- penetrating
systems shall be designed and installed only on
1613.4 Alternatives to SBC 301. The provisions roofs with slopes not more than one unit vertical in
of Section 1613.4 shall be permitted as alternatives 12 units horizontal. Ballasted nonpenetrating
to the relevant provisions of SBC 301. systems shall be designed to resist sliding and uplift
1613.4.1 Additional seismic force- resulting from lateral and vertical forces as required
resisting systems for seismically isolated by Section 1605, using a coefficient of friction
str uctur es. Add the following exception to the end determined by acceptable engineering principles. In
of Section 17.5.4.2 of SBC 301: structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C,
D, E or F, ballasted nonpenetrating systems shall be
Exception: For isolated structures designed in
designed to accommodate seismic displacement
accordance with this standard, the structural system
determined by nonlinear response-history analysis
limitations including structural height limits, in
or shake-table testing, using input motions
Table 12.2-1 for ordinary steel concentrically
consistent with SBC 301 lateral and vertical seismic
braced frames (OCBFs) as defined in Chapter 11
forces for nonstructural components on roofs.
and ordinary moment frames (OMFs) as defined in
Chapter 11 are permitted to be taken as 48 m for
structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D,

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CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

SECTION 1614 ATMOSPHERIC ICE composed of composite steel or composite steel

LOADS joists and reinforced concrete elements shall
conform to the requirements of this section.
1614.1 General. Atmospheric Ice load is
inapplicable to KSA. 1615.3.2.1 Columns. Each column splice
shall have the minimum design strength in tension
SECTION 1615 STRUCTURAL to transfer the design dead and live load tributary to
INTEGRITY the column between the splice and the splice or base
1615.1 General. High-rise buildings that are immediately below.
assigned to Risk Category III or IV shall comply 1615.3.2.2 Beams. End connections of all
with the requirements of this section. Frame beams and girders shall have a minimum nominal
structures shall comply with the requirements of axial tensile strength equal to the required vertical
Section 1615.3. Bearing wall structures shall shear strength for allowable stress design (ASD) or
comply with the requirements of Section 1615.4 two-thirds of the required shear strength for load
1615.2 Definitions. The following words and and resistance factor design (LRFD) but not less
terms are defined in Chapter 2: than 45 kN. For the purpose of this section, the
shear force and the axial tensile force need not be
• BEARING WALL STRUCTURE. considered to act simultaneously.
• FRAME STRUCTURE. Exception: Where beams, girders, open web joist
1615.3 Frame structures. Frame structures shall and joist girders support a concrete slab or concrete
comply with the requirements of this section. slab on metal deck that is attached to the beam or
girder with not less than 10 mm-diameter headed
1615.3.1 Concrete frame str uctur es.
shear studs, at a spacing of not more than 300 mm
Frame structures constructed primarily of
on center, averaged over the length of the member,
reinforced or prestressed concrete, either cast-in-
or other attachment having equivalent shear
place or precast, or a combination of these, shall
strength, and the slab contains continuous
conform to the requirements of Section 4.10 of SBC
distributed reinforcement in each of two orthogonal
304. Where SBC 304 requires that nonprestressed
directions with an area not less than 0.0015 times
reinforcing or prestressing steel pass through the
the concrete area, the nominal axial tension strength
region bounded by the longitudinal column
of the end connection shall be permitted to be taken
reinforcement, that reinforcing or prestressing steel
as half the required vertical shear strength for ASD
shall have a minimum nominal tensile strength
or one-third of the required shear strength for
equal to two-thirds of the required one-way vertical
LRFD, but not less than 45 kN.
strength of the connection of the floor or roof
system to the column in each direction of beam or 1615.4 Bearing wall structures. Bearing wall
slab reinforcement passing through the column. structures shall have vertical ties in all load-bearing
walls and longitudinal ties, transverse ties and
Exception: Where concrete slabs with continuous
perimeter ties at each floor level in accordance with
reinforcement having an area not less than 0.0015
this section and as shown in Figure 1615.4.
times the concrete area in each of two orthogonal
directions are present and are either monolithic with 1615.4.1 Concrete wall str uctur es. Precast
or equivalently bonded to beams, girders or bearing wall structures constructed solely of
columns, the longitudinal reinforcing or reinforced or prestressed concrete, or combinations
prestressing steel passing through the column of these shall conform to the requirements of
reinforcement shall have a nominal tensile strength Sections 16.2.4 and 16.2.5 of SBC 304.
of one-third of the required one-way vertical 1615.4.2 Other bear ing wall str uctur es.
strength of the connection of the floor or roof Ties in bearing wall structures other than those
system to the column in each direction of beam or covered in Section 1615.4.1 shall conform to this
slab reinforcement passing through the column. section.
1615.3.2 Str uctur al steel, open web steel 1615.4.2.1 Longitudinal ties. Longitudinal
joist or joist girder , or composite steel and ties shall consist of continuous reinforcement in
concrete frame str uctur es. Frame structures slabs; continuous or spliced decks or sheathing;
constructed with a structural steel frame or a frame continuous or spliced members framing to, within
composed of open web steel joists, joist girders with or across walls; or connections of continuous
or without other structural steel elements or a frame

SBC 201-CR-18 527

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

framing members to walls. Longitudinal ties shall 𝑤 = As defined in Section 1615.4.2.1.

extend across interior load-bearing walls and shall
𝛽𝑇 = A coefficient with a value of 71 kN for
connect to exterior load- bearing walls and shall be
structures with masonry bearing walls and a value
spaced at not greater than 3 m on center. Ties shall
of 17.8 kN for structures with bearing walls of cold-
have a minimum nominal tensile strength, 𝑇𝑇 , given
formed steel light-frame construction.
by Equation 16-40. For ASD the minimum nominal
tensile strength shall be permitted to be taken as 1.5 1615.4.2.4 Vertical ties. Vertical ties shall
times the allowable tensile stress times the area of consist of continuous or spliced reinforcing,
the tie. continuous or spliced members, wall sheathing or
other engineered systems. Vertical tension ties shall
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑤𝐿𝑆 ≤ 𝛼𝑇 𝑆 (16-40)
be provided in bearing walls and shall be
continuous over the height of the building. The
minimum nominal tensile strength for vertical ties
where:
within a bearing wall shall be equal to the weight of
𝐿 = The span of the horizontal element in the the wall within that story plus the weight of the
direction of the tie, between bearing walls, m. diaphragm tributary to the wall in the story below.
No fewer than two ties shall be provided for each
𝑤 = The weight per unit area of the floor or roof in
wall. The strength of each tie need not exceed
the span being tied to or across the wall, 𝑁/𝑚2 .
44 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 of wall tributary to the tie for walls of
𝑆 = The spacing between ties, m. masonry construction or 11 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 of wall tributary
to the tie for walls of cold-formed steel light-frame
𝛼 𝑇 = A coefficient with a value of 22 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 for
construction.
masonry bearing wall structures and a value of 5.5
𝑘𝑁/𝑚 for structures with bearing walls of cold-
formed steel light-frame construction.
1615.4.2.2 Transverse ties. Transverse ties
shall consist of continuous reinforcement in slabs;
continuous or spliced decks or sheathing;
continuous or spliced members framing to, within
or across walls; or connections of continuous
framing members to walls. Transverse ties shall be
placed no farther apart than the spacing of load-
bearing walls. Transverse ties shall have minimum
nominal tensile strength 𝑇𝑇 , given by Equation 16-
40. For ASD the minimum nominal tensile strength
shall be permitted to be taken as 1.5 times the
allowable tensile stress times the area of the tie.
1615.4.2.3 Perimeter ties. Perimeter ties shall
consist of continuous reinforcement in slabs;
continuous or spliced decks or sheathing;
continuous or spliced members framing to, within
or across walls; or connections of continuous
framing members to walls. Ties around the
perimeter of each floor and roof shall be located
within 1.2 m of the edge and shall provide a nominal
strength in tension not less than 𝑇𝑝 , given by
Equation 16-41. For ASD the minimum nominal
tensile strength shall be permitted to be taken as 1.5
times the allowable tensile stress times the area of
the tie.
𝑇𝑝 = 90.7𝑤 ≤ 𝛽𝑇 (16-41)

where:

SBC 201-CR-18 528

CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Tables and Figures

TABLE 1604.3. DEFLECTION LIMITS a, b, c, h, i
CONSTRUCTION L Wf D + Ld, g
Roof members:e
Supporting plaster or stucco ceiling L/360 L/360 L/240
Supporting nonplaster ceiling L/240 L/240 L/180
Not supporting ceiling L/180 L/180 L/120
Floor members L/360 — L/240
Exterior walls:
With plaster or stucco finishes — L/360 —
With other brittle finishes — L/240 —
With flexible finishes — L/120 —
Interior partitions:b
With plaster or stucco finishes L/360 — —
With other brittle finishes L/240 — —
With flexible finishes L/120 — —
Farm buildings — — L/180
Greenhouses — — L/120
a. For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total load deflection shall not exceed L/60.
For secondary roof structural members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection shall not exceed L/150.
For secondary wall members supporting formed metal siding, the design wind load deflection shall not exceed L/90. For
roofs, this exception only applies when the metal sheets have no roof covering.
b. Flexible, folding and portable partitions are not governed by the provisions of this section. The deflection
criterion for interior partitions is based on the horizontal load defined in Section 1607.14.
c. See Section 2403 for glass supports.
d. The deflection limit for the D+L load combination only applies to the deflection due to the creep component of
long-term dead load deflection plus the short- term live load deflection. For wood structural members that are dry at time
of installation and used under dry conditions in accordance with the ANSI/AWC NDS, the creep component of the long-
term deflection shall be permitted to be estimated as the immediate dead load deflection resulting from 0.5D. For wood
structural members at all other moisture conditions, the creep component of the long-term deflection is permitted to be
estimated as the immediate dead load deflection resulting from D. The value of 0.5D shall not be used in combination
with ANSI/AWC NDS provisions for long-term loading.
e. The above deflections do not ensure against ponding. Roofs that do not have sufficient slope or camber to
ensure adequate drainage shall be investigated for ponding. See Section 1611 for rain and ponding requirements and
Section 1503.4 for roof drainage requirements.
f. The wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.42 times the “component and cladding” loads for the purpose of
determining deflection limits herein. Where members support glass in accordance with Section 2403 using the deflection
limit therein, the wind load shall be no less than 0.6 times the “component and cladding” loads for the purpose of
determining deflection.
g. For steel structural members, the dead load shall be taken as zero.
h. For aluminum structural members or aluminum panels used in skylights and sloped glazing framing, roofs or
walls of sunroom additions or patio covers not supporting edge of glass or aluminum sandwich panels, the total load
deflection shall not exceed L/60. For continuous aluminum structural members supporting edge of glass, the total load
deflection shall not exceed L/175 for each glass lite or L/60 for the entire length of the member, whichever is more
stringent. For aluminum sandwich panels used in roofs or walls of sunroom additions or patio covers, the total load
deflection shall not exceed L/120.
i. For cantilever members, L shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever.
CHAPTER 16 -STRUCTURAL DESIGN

TABLE 1604.5. RISK CATEGORY OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES

RISK
NATURE OF OCCUPANCY
CATEGORY
Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure, including
but not limited to:
I • Agricultural facilities.
• Certain temporary facilities.
• Minor storage facilities.
II Buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III and IV.
• Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human
life in the event of failure, including but not limited to:
• Buildings and other structures whose primary occupancy is public
assembly with an occupant load greater than 300.
• Buildings and other structures containing Group E occupancies with an
occupant load greater than 250.
• Buildings and other structures containing educational occupancies for
III
students above the 12𝑡ℎ grade with an occupant load greater than 500.
• Group I-2 occupancies with an occupant load of 50 or more resident care
recipients but not having surgery or emergency treatment facilities.
• Group I-3 occupancies.
• Any other occupancy with an occupant load greater than 5,000.a
• Power-generating stations, water treatment facilities for potable water,
wastewater treatment facilities and other public utility facilities not
included in Risk Category IV.
• Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV containing
quantities of toxic or explosive materials that:
• Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table
307.1(1) or 307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance with SBC
801; and
• Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released.b
Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities, including but not limited to:
• Group I-2 occupancies having surgery or emergency treatment facilities.
• Fire, rescue, ambulance and police stations and emergency vehicle
garages.
• Designated earthquake, hurricane or other emergency shelters.
• Designated emergency preparedness, communications and operations
IV centers and other facilities required for emergency response.
• Power-generating stations and other public utility facilities required as
emergency backup facilities for Risk Category IV structures.
• Buildings and other structures containing quantities of highly toxic
materials that:
• Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table
307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance with SBC 801; and
• Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released.b
• Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers and emergency aircraft
hangars.
• Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions.
• Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water
pressure for fire suppression.
a. For purposes of occupant load calculation, occupancies required by Table 1004.1.2 to use gross floor area
calculations shall be permitted to use net floor areas to determine the total occupant load.
b. Where approved by the building official, the classification of buildings and other structures as Risk Category III
or IV based on their quantities of toxic, highly toxic or explosive materials is permitted to be reduced to Risk Category II,

SBC 201-CR-18 530