Fundamentals of Biomechanics

‫مبادئ الميكانيكا الحيوية‬

Lecture #5
By Dr. Ahmed Darwish
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Bone Growth and Development

The living bone is an extremely dynamic tissue that is continually modeled and
remodeled by the forces acting on it. Bone fulfills two important mechanical functions
for human beings:
(a) it provides a rigid skeletal framework that supports and protects other body tissues
(b) it forms a system of rigid levers that can be moved by forces from the attaching
muscles (
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Bone Growth and Development

 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Bone Growth and Development

• Optional reading (Pages 85-87)
• Bone growth begins early in fetal development, and living bone is
continually changing in composition and structure during the life
span. Many of these changes represent normal growth and
maturation of bone.

periosteum epiphysis
double-layered membrane growth center of a bone that
osteoblasts osteoclasts
covering bone; muscle tendons produces new bone tissue as specialized
specialized
bone cells that attach to the outside layer, and part of the normal growth bone cells that
build new bone the internal layer is a site of process until it closes during resorb bone
tissue osteoblast activity adolescence or early adulthood. tissue
Circumferential Growth Longitudinal Growth
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Bone response to stress

• Bone Modeling and Remodeling
• According to Wolff’s law, the densities and, to a much
lesser extent, the shapes and sizes of the bones of a given
human being are a function of the magnitude and
direction of the mechanical stresses that act on the
bones.
• bone hypertrophy: increase in bone mass resulting from
a predominance of osteoblast activity
• The bones of physically active individuals tend to be denser and, therefore, more mineralized and stronger than those
of sedentary individuals of the same age and gender

• bone atrophy: decrease in bone mass resulting from a

predominance of osteoclast activity
• When the normal stresses exerted on bone by muscle contractions, weight-bearing, or impact forces are reduced,
bone tissue atrophies through remodeling.
• Bone atrophy is present in astronauts and bedridden patients.
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Osteoporosis
• Osteoporosis: disorder involving decreased bone mass and strength
with one or more resulting fractures
• Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization as a 50%
decrease in bone mass accompanied by a 50% decrease in the quality
of bone microarchitecture.
• It is found in most elderly individuals, with earlier onset in women, and is becoming increasingly prevalent
with the increasing mean age of the population.
• It begins as osteopenia: a condition in which activity of the
osteoclasts predominates over that of the osteoblasts, resulting in
reduced bone mass without the presence of a fracture.
• If not checked, the condition often progresses to osteoporosis, a
condition in which bone mineral mass and strength are so severely
compromised that daily activities can cause bone pain and fracturing.
Chapter 4 – Susan Hall
Chapter 4 – Susan Hall
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Common Bone Injuries

• The Biomechanics of Bone Fractures
• A fracture is a disruption in the continuity of a bone.
• Fractures occur when a load on a bone exceeds its strength, with strength being dependent
on bone size, shape, and density.
• The nature of a fracture depends on the direction, magnitude, loading rate, and duration of
the mechanical load sustained, as well as the health and maturity of the bone at the time
of injury.
• Fractures are classified as simple when the bone ends remain within the surrounding soft
tissues and compound when one or both bone ends protrude from the skin.
• Avulsions : fractures caused by tensile loading in which a tendon or ligament pulls a small
chip of bone away from the rest of the bone
• Spiral fractures: excessive bending and torsional loads of long bones. Under excessive
bending loads, bone
tends to fracture on
the side loaded in
tension.
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Common Bone Injuries

Greenstick fractures, or
incomplete fractures,
Assignment
are more common in
Survey the common bone children
injuries and list them. Give
an example for each with
illustrative aids.
Deadline 31 March 2025.

Assignment #2
Solve additional problems 8-10 ( Pages 97)
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Common Bone Injuries

Greenstick fractures, or
incomplete fractures,
are more common in
children
 Chapter 4 – Susan Hall

Common Bone Injuries

Greenstick fractures, or
incomplete fractures,
Assignment
are more common in
Survey the common bone children
injuries and list them. Give
an example for each with
illustrative aids.
Deadline 31 March 2025.

Assignment #2
Solve additional problems 8-10 ( Pages 97)
 Chapter 5
The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal
Articulations
 Chapter 5 – Susan Hall

JOINT ARCHITECTURE
• Immovable Joints
• Synarthroses (immovable): These fibrous joints
can attenuate force (absorb shock) but permit
little or no movement of the articulating bones.
• Slightly Movable Joints
• Amphiarthroses: These cartilaginous joints
attenuate applied forces and permit more motion
of the adjacent bones than synarthrodial joints.
• Freely Movable Joints
 Chapter 5 – Susan Hall

JOINT ARCHITECTURE
• Immovable Joints
• Synarthroses (immovable): These fibrous joints
can attenuate force (absorb shock) but permit
little or no movement of the articulating bones.
• Slightly Movable Joints
• Amphiarthroses: These cartilaginous joints
attenuate applied forces and permit more motion
of the adjacent bones than synarthrodial joints.
• Freely Movable Joints
Chapter 5 – Susan Hall
 Chapter 5 – Susan Hall

JOINT ARCHITECTURE
• Immovable Joints
• Synarthroses (immovable): These fibrous joints
can attenuate force (absorb shock) but permit
little or no movement of the articulating bones.
• Slightly Movable Joints
• Amphiarthroses: These cartilaginous joints
attenuate applied forces and permit more motion
of the adjacent bones than synarthrodial joints.
• Freely Movable Joints
 Chapter 5 – Susan Hall
JOINT ARCHITECTURE
• Freely Movable Joints
At these joints, the articulating bone surfaces are • Pivot: In these joints, rotation is permitted
covered with articular cartilage, an articular around one axis. (proximal and distal radioulnar
capsule surrounds the joint, and a synovial joint)
membrane lining the interior of the joint capsule • Condyloid: One articulating bone surface is an
ovular convex shape, and the other is a
secretes a lubricant known as synovial fluid. reciprocally shaped concave surface in these
• Gliding: In these joints, the articulating bone joints. (metacarpophalangeal joints).
surfaces are nearly flat, and the only • Saddle: The articulating bone surfaces are both
movement permitted is nonaxial gliding. shaped like the seat of a riding saddle in these
joints. Movement capability is the same as that
(Intercarpal joints, Intertarsal joint)
of the condyloid joint, but greater range of
• Hinge: One articulating bone surface is convex movement is allowed (carpometacarpal joint)
and the other is concave in these joints. Strong • Ball and socket: In these joints, the surfaces of
collateral ligaments restrict movement to a the articulating bones are reciprocally convex
planar, hinge-like motion. (ulnohumeral and and concave. Rotation in all three planes of
movement is permitted. (hip joint)
interphalangeal joints)
JOINT ARCHITECTURE
JOINT ARCHITECTURE
JOINT ARCHITECTURE
Articular Cartilage
• Articular cartilage is a soft, porous, and permeable tissue that is
hydrated. It consists of specialized cells called chondrocytes
embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers, proteoglycans, and
noncollagenous proteins.
• Articular cartilage serves two important purposes:
• (a) it resists compression and spreads loads at the joint over a wide area
so that the amount of stress at any contact point between the bones is
reduced
• (b) it allows movement of the articulating bones at the joint with minimal
friction and wear.
• Unfortunately, once damaged, articular cartilage has little to no
ability to heal or regenerate on its own.
 Articular Fibrocartilage
• At some joints, articular fibrocartilage, in the form of either a
fibrocartilaginous disc or partial discs known as menisci, is
also present between the articulating bones.
• The intervertebral discs and the menisci of the knee are
examples.
• The roles of articular fibrocartilage may include the
following:
1. Distribution of loads over the joint surfaces
2. Improvement of the fit of the articulating surfaces
3. Limitation of translation or slip of one bone with
respect to another
4. Protection of the periphery of the articulation
5. Retention of joint lubrication
6. Shock absorption
Articular Connective Tissue
Articular Connective Tissue

• Tendons, which connect muscles to bones, and ligaments, which

connect bones to other bones, are passive tissues composed
primarily of collagen and elastic fibers.
• Tendons and ligaments do not have the ability to contract like
muscle tissue, but they are slightly extensible.
• A tendon or ligament stretched beyond its elastic limit during an
injury remains stretched and can be restored to its original length
only through surgery.
Joint Flexibility
• Joint flexibility is a term used to describe the range of motion (ROM)
allowed in each of the planes of motion at a joint.
• Static flexibility refers to the ROM present when a body segment is
passively moved and held at the end point of joint ROM (by an exercise
partner or clinician).
• Static flexibility is considered to be the better indicator of the relative tightness
or laxity of a joint in terms of implications for injury potential.
• Dynamic flexibility refers to the ROM that can be achieved by actively
moving a body segment by virtue of contraction of the opposing
(antagonist) muscle group.
• Dynamic flexibility, however, must be sufficient not to restrict the ROM needed
for daily living, work, or sport activities.
 Joint Flexibility
Measuring Joint Range of Motion:
Joint ROM is measured directionally in units of degrees. In anatomical position, all
joints are considered to be at zero degrees. A Goniometer used for measuring joint
ROM is shown in Figure 5-9.
 Joint Flexibility
Factors Influencing Joint Flexibility:
Different factors influence joint flexibility. The shapes of the articulating bone surfaces and intervening muscle
or fatty tissue may terminate movement at the extreme of a ROM. For most individuals, joint flexibility is
primarily a function of the relative laxity and/or extensibility of the collagenous tissues and muscles crossing
the joint However, tight ligaments, tendons, and muscles with limited extensibility are the most common
inhibitors of a joint’s ROM.
Joint Flexibility
TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASING JOINT FLEXIBILITY:

Active and Passive Stretching:

active stretching: stretching of muscles, tendons, and ligaments produced by active development of tension in
the antagonist muscles.
Passive stretching: stretching of muscles, tendons, and ligaments produced by a stretching force other than tension
in the antagonist muscles. This involves the use of gravitational force, force applied by another body segment, or
force applied by another person to move a body segment to the end of the ROM.

Ballistic, Static, and Dynamic Stretching:

ballistic stretching: a series of quick, bouncing-type stretches.
static stretching: maintaining a slow, controlled, sustained stretch over time, usually about 30 seconds
dynamic stretching: a stretch involving controlled, rather than bouncing motion.
Joint Flexibility
TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASING JOINT FLEXIBILITY:
COMMON JOINT INJURIES AND PATHOLOGIES

Suggested reading
Susan Hall, pages (123-124)

Solve Additional Problems

Page 126