Lesson 7: The Human Person in Society

A. Objectives: at the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

a. recognize how societies form the individuals,
b. understand how individuals are formed in small societies,
c. explain how human relations transformed by other societies,
d. understand how early Philippine society was formed,
e. evaluate how human relationships and social system transform each other’s.

BOOSTING THE INTEREST

B. Philosophical Inquiry:
“Together we stand, divided we fall”
What does this popular saying mean?
It means:
A group of individuals, associations, organizations or even societies of people is
strengthened and with much more power to achieve great accomplishments when they;

 Do their task as a group,

 collaborate with each other,
 emphasize sense of respect and mutuality,
 unite for a common purpose,
 step forward for a common goal.

Ice-Breaker:
Carry Me all Along
Group the students into 4 groups. Let them assign the following: 1 Brgy. Captain, 1
brgy. councillor, 1 treasurer, 1 secretary, others are members.

Draw a starting line where all the participants have to assemble. Then draw a finish line
where all the participants have to reach, turn and return back to the starting line. Note

At a command or instruction of a Teacher, the participants shall perform;

for example, the teacher says to the brgy. Captain: bring me the treasurer. The brgy.
captain would carry the treasurer in his arms to the finish line and back to the starting
line. And so with others. The first to finish will have 1 point. And so on.
REFLECTION:
From the activity, what have you in mind? What do you think is our lesson about?
A society is composed of individuals, each has its own role and task to do. An exemplar
society is led by a leader with good followers. A society, however, cannot survive when
its members does not participate, and when all the roles and tasks is assumed but a
single individual. All must do his own work and all must work together. Together and
united we stand in good relationships and despite diversities to create a society.

Honing the Potential

C. Philosophical Dialogue
Content:
a. The concept of man and Society
b. Society, culture, and Tradition
c. Society and Religion
d. Society and State

A. The Concept of Man and Society

Society is a complex reality that defining it would limit it to just a mere concept
that is definable. Society is a reality of life that is constantly happening in the
everyday life of each human person. Basically, it’s center on the life and action of
person towards each other. There are however different views as to what society
really is.
Aristotle defines man as a social animal. Like animals he has a natural tendency
to live and associate with others. A popular saying goes “no man is an island.” Is a
simple description of how man is not. This is his nature. For his existence to survive
he has to live with others in all aspects. It is his natural instinct. His nature as man
and the nature he lives in fills his inner deep needs to complete himself. In all aspect
he is compelled to live with it; to develop his personality, language, culture , and
mentality. From himself to nature, he also need to interact with his fellowmen. He
develops a great deal of relationships between him and others. Relationship
between him and others is what defines him as a social animal. This is this
relationship of man with others that defines what society is
Society is an abstract concept of the complex components of relationships that
exist among members of the group. Wherever there is the existence of relationships
between human beings or even non human beings, society exist. Because society
refers not just to group of people, it is a state or condition and a relationship. It is an
 organization of relationships. Human societies however refers to the relationships
between humans in the group.
For human being to be social he has to be with a group. Human societies is
group societies, in relationships with each other’s. Human social life is a
combinations of various components such as activities, people and places. It even
involves its thoughts and feelings in day to day interactions. The interactions
between societies of the human beings involve their mental faculties and emotions,
a sign that a society is a living society. Where their attitudes, beliefs, morals, ideals
and personality are developed and molded. They acquire their personality and
identities from these interactions making them members of the society. For them to
survive both society and human being needs each other. There should be an
interaction or relationship between society and the human person.
The relationship between individual and society is important to consider. The
Functionalist (Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and Karl Marx) regard the
individual as formed by society through the influence of institutions as the family,
school, and workplace. They viewed society as existing apart from the individual.
Durheim, viewed society as a reality; it is first in origin and importance to the
individual. Individuals attitudes, ideas, and sentiments is a result of collective
consciousness, social interactions and relationships. Society is a collective
representation. The individual is the recipient of group influence and a social
heritage.
Max Weber, an inter-actionist focus his attention on the individual person, who
create society. It is through interaction of the people that the society is formed. It is
build up through the interpretations of the individuals. In reality, according to the
proponents of culture and personality view, it is not the society or individual but it is
the society and the individual which helps in the understanding of total reality. The
relationship between society and individual is not one-sided. Both are essential for
the comprehension of either. Both are interdependent on each other.
B. Society, Culture and Tradition
Society and culture are interdependent on each other. Society depends on
culture for its development and existence and in turn society provides for the existence
and development of culture. Culture is the accumulation of individual values of human
being ranging from spiritual or non-material to material. Any individual in the society can
contribute something to culture. Culture defines all that the individual does, how he does
it, in the process of self-fulfilment. It is the method of self-realization of the individual and
society. Different societies have different cultures. Culture and society though
interrelated should not be confused. Culture represents beliefs and practices of a group
while society represents the people who share and practice those belief.
Culture encompasses a wide range of meaning, it may refer to the way we
understand ourselves as individuals and as members of society. Culture is material
when it refers to the object or belongings of a group of people like; cars, buildings,
gadgets, and other physical objects. Nonmaterial culture consists of ideas, attitudes and
beliefs of a society. Culture can be classified into three; high culture, popular culture,
and nationalistic. High culture are the practices of the aristocracy or most learned
members, those who have significant education, the highly skilled, and the high class or
the effluents of the society. Popular culture is the values and practices common to
society. Nationalistic when one love’s for country is a priority. There is also aboriginal
culture, this culture is equated with aboriginal people characterize as uncivilized and
uncultured.
The practice of culture is based on how people in the society appreciate it. A
culture is beautiful and true if appreciated by the society. To appreciate it, it is good to
recognize its elements; symbols, language, values, beliefs, and norms. Language, is a
system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another. Values, are
defined standards that serves as a broad guidelines for social living. Beliefs, are
statements and practices that are accepted and hold true. Norms, are rules and
expectations that guides the behavior of the members of the society. A truly cultured
members of the society show all this manifestation of values in his selfhood.
Culture and society sometimes is classified that only on their classes but also of
values. There are those members who are in high culture but cannot necessarily be
called cultured. Values also plays importantly in the culture of the society. Society is
cultured when it values is high. Members of society is the highest existing values, his
sense of dignity, honour, rights, capabilities, and integrity. Values is considered the real
essence of culture. Material culture just serve and are properties to help the society.
Cultural values are measured by the degree of significance. Some culture though well
practiced do not have significance to the society. It is important to evaluate and know
how strong and lasting is the value of certain practice of the society, its usefulness, its’
positive and negative effects. Commonly, what we consider of the highest value among
the values is an act of heroism, which involved self-sacrifice. We value goodness
because we have not appreciated evil. We value beauty against the background of ugly.
We value values because it has meaning for the society, it satisfies the needs,
inclinations and interest of the society.
C. Society and Religion
Since the beginning religion have played a great role in the life of the society.
Being the only rational beings, the society is brought and gathered together by religion
in ways of worship and prayers. The society has develop religion in order to satisfy its
desire to understand its life within and outside. At the same time through religion the
society is developed.
Earliest religion as we know have animistic origins. It arouses from man’s fear of
the unknown and his desire to appease the forces which he perceive beyond his
control, and those that inhabited the inanimate objects. Religious practices of the
society overtime differs from its geographical locations, history and values of the
society. It organized the society and even different societies. Many of these religions
have become organized and institutional as they flourished along with different
societies. To this day many of these flourished, being backed by influential and strong
number of devotees. Many people are also drawn to organize their own religions
because of the wealth, followers and prestige. Some others because of the beautiful
ceremony, others, on the other hand, prefer to practice it in private and for personal
purposes. The importance of practice or approach is crucial to the life of religion and
the society. Others claim that religion is their way of life and others because of faith.
From the different approaches of religion, the society can be divided or be united.
For some who believe in the practice of faith, faith forms a basis to develop and
overcome their fear and meet their needs. A religion of miraculous or mystical powers
may exploit that fear arises from ignorance and material greed, thus one has to submit
his focus to their religion. Some religions who grew as a result of development of
societies’ advance wisdom and knowledge, and experience, rational approach is
adopted, incorporating principles of human value and natural and universal laws. Its’
focus is based on the cultivation of human qualities. A religion of cause and effect is
based in the principle of karma, that the individual alone is responsible for his own
actions and destination. A religion of wisdom is based on the application of reason that
seeks the understanding of life.
Different religions create different societies. A religion of peace, and of goodwill
basically has a peaceful societies as it cause no harm to others, and prefers to live
harmoniously with each other’s. Religious leaders played a great role in the life of their
followers. Codes, doctrines, and practices are based on how leaders inculcate to the
understanding of the followers. Every religions has its own way of, by way of
explanation, answers the problems of this world. Each has its way of direction, a goal of
life, an everlasting happiness. Spiritual life is the ultimate goal an eternal life in heaven
or paradise with the Lord. Other religions aims for universal consciousness, nirvana,
moksha and union with Brahma. To attain this goal methods are offered like;
submission, surrender and be dependent on God alone. For stricter one’s; ascetism,
purging of oneself, mortification, and sacrifices are made for the purification of soul or
spirit. Punishment is also taught, for evil doers punishment is surely be inflected. One
can be doomed forever by God for his transgression. For others, punishment is just but
a consequences of one’s action. For the welfare of the society however, religion is also
practice.
Historically, religion have also brought progress to the society, develop the
welfare of the people, values freedom and have brought hope and happiness to some. It
improve the quality of life. It taught moral ethics of what is good to be followed and what
is bad, and evil that should be avoided. Religious precepts, rituals, and beliefs have
enlightened the society to live in peace and harmony. It uplifts the moral of the society.
Religions faith and morals have set a good example for others to follow. It taught the
society to be responsible toward other living things and themselves, to be balanced in
all aspects; physically, spiritually, socially, and environmentally.
Dr. Shanjendu Nath, an Associate Professor of Department of Philosophy
Rabindrasadan Girls’ College, India, sees that religion particularly religious institutions
have roles in society. History have witnessed that religious institutions have help
developed the society. Religious institutions a forearm of religions have reached
different classes of people belonging to different groups. Religious gatherings; prayers,
celebrations, and rituals have assembled great number of followers. These activities
unite together, for the great interest, they perform humanitarian activities, social works,,
environmental, health, charities, schools, for the homeless, and for peace and harmony
of the place. Religious institutions also run orphanages and support the poor. The
different activities of the people and their different spheres of social life are still
influenced by religious rites and ceremonies. It is undeniably, that in all aspects of
society or even in life of individual, religions have its role. From primitive people lives’ is
almost covered with religious practices, some of them were brutal and rude. In many
aspects of each individual lives, or social occasions like birth, marriage, harvest, death,
and anniversaries, religions plays an important role. From these occasions, primitive or
modern, individual have develop a common feelings and actions of attachment to
religions. Religious occasions and rites are social life. Its practice when a new building
is inaugurated, in the oath taking of new officers, in thanksgiving. It is obvious that
religion is also a developer of society. It helps shape the character of individual life
emerge in social occasions. It moulds social life. It brings a sense of value, a social
vale in the mind of the people; social law, respect for the elders, show of sympathy
toward the feelings of others. It taught service to God and humanity. It developed the
moral consciousness of the people, it acts as inspiring factor. It creates uniformity of
behavior and stabilizing social order. It guarantees meaning to life
D. Society and State
The state is a nation or a territory, is an organized political society under a
government. It is a political association, an association of individuals or civil society for
political purposes. This association includes local, provincial, regional, national, and
international political organizations. Society however can be political or non-political. For
non-political group of society it includes, organizations, institutions, family, private
sphere, business and non-government organizations that promotes the welfare of the
citizens. On the other hand despite being a non-partisan organization, it is inevitable
that civil society have also engage or have relation to the state. Civil society sometimes
have the same function as the state. Civil organizations are social organization group
together to satisfy the basic human needs. John Dewey identifies five basic human
needs which associates with five types of organization: (a) support and sustenance are
fulfilled by industrial groups, (b) protection and security are fulfilled by ecclesial, military,
and political groups, (c) reproduction is granted by family, (d) recreation and leisure is
fulfilled by clubs and other types of voluntary associations, and (e) language and
sociability are related to schools and academies. In spite drawing a clear function and
clear relation between the state and the society, conflicts may arise.
Hegel, believed that a state is not a supreme incarnation of ideas, it not a
collective superman, is not an agency entitled to use power and coercion, not a lone
specialist in public order, welfare of the people, but an instrument for the service of
society, and not a vice versa. Human persons as individuals in the society is for the
service of goodness and this goodness is for the service of human persons as persons.
As man is for the state and the state for man. The state is not superior to the society as
the society is not superior to the state. No one is superior and inferior over one another.
The subordination of one aspect leads to imbalance and conflict in the society. When
one imposes over the other, struggles and conflicts arise. Dewey sees a conflict in
interest against two parties. This conflict refers the principles to organize social life in
incompatible ways. Social groups are formed to satisfy different basic needs. As a
consequence of this conflict one organization including the state will try to dominate,
and monopolize the activity and attention of others, and in the end social suffering may
arise.
Dewey’s social philosophy promotes social development to allow societies to flourish.
We read from history how the struggles between society and government have brought
radical change. In the biblical times, the center of power exercises and enjoys the
prestige of being a leader as his leadership was an anointment from God; like kings and
prophets, in the middle ages authority of the emperor and kings have descended from
above, upon which it was superimposed. Their power is God-given and inalienable. For
centuries political authority was a privilege of a superior social race which had a right
over everyone else. In the modern times and in contemporary, a largely accepted
system of government is democratic, where the will of the majority is collectively
promoting the leadership of a politician. Democracies today develop social justice and
improve world economic management, it defend against totalitarian threats and
imperialism.

Activity 1:
To have a flourishing society there should be an understanding between the state and
the society. Democratic form of government is ideal because it promotes social justice
and the welfare of the people. The Philippines is a democratic state like other flourishing
states in Europe and the U.S.
Why do you think the Philippines remains an underdeveloped state? What are the
reasons for its slow progress and regress? Why? Give at least 3 and discuss
extensively and provide a solution
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Early Filipino Society
Precolonial Filipinos already have their societies in tribes. In Visayas, there had
been the sea dwellers and the hill dwellers who live in different islands in small numbers
or in group families. The hill dwellers wore garments from leaves and bark of trees and
sometimes would built there houses in tress. The seas dwellers build their villages over
the sea, the shore or in their boats. Their society is commonly made of few close
families who is led by the strongest or the eldest of the tribe. These people are often
categorize as uncivilized. They are pagans and animist who worship the spirits and
nature. The Chinese were already in contact with the natives through commerce and
business.
Aside from these dwellers, there had also been Negritos scattered around the
Philippines, these are blacks, round eyes, curly hair, and small. They build their
shelters in tree tops, along the rivers, and in places wherever they find abundant foods.
They have no permanent dwellings. They travel in thick forest and with spears they hunt
for food. They avoid contact with other people.
Social Classes
The early group of natives have their culture of merging together as a family
called barangay. Barangay is composed of few families living together. This is their
social and political organization, lead by a leader; a chieftain or the eldest. The
barangay is composed of few cluster of houses and families. Around the country there
were many of theme and are existing independently having no contact and relationships
with other barangays. Outside their community, others are considered enemies and
were frequently waging war.
With the arrival of a more civilize race from the south. The natives have
transferred their dwellings upland, and the lowland were subdued by new race. Filipinos
in this period were rules by the Datu. The Classes were classified into three: the
Maharlika, Timauas, and the siguiguiliris. The maharlika are the companions of the
datu when they go to war, direct the boat when in journey. The Timauas, are freedmen
or liberated slaves. They have their own homes and live with their own families. They
owed heavy debts of service to the maharlika and datu. They sow harvest in their rice
fields, build houses, perform any duties that the chief might commend. The saguiguiliris,
are slaves. They are people forced to slavery, either because they were war prisoners,
sold their freedom, and inherited debts from their ancestors. The slaves are the
property of their lords. They can be sold like animals.
Nowadays, classes and castes among Filipinos had been defined differently. It is
social acceptance and sometimes education the draws the line. Color of skin, beauty,
money are the determiners of person’s social position. Light colors, light skinned are
correlated with riches, intelligence, and advancement, they become attractive over their
colleagues who have the opposite. Connections and positions like in the government
are associated with achieving success. These connections like with the politicians,
sponsors and leaders are valued. Money is the indicator of power. Affluent people have
lead a western lifestyle showcasing their travels abroad, their branded clothes and
jewelleries. The aligned themselves with the westerners. They owned cars, houses,
and high social positions. They have extensive wardrobes, they send their children in
expensive schools.
Government
Their society called barangay has some cultures and traditions. One who
belonged to a particular barangay cannot leave his own barangay for another without
the consent of the community or payment of money. When marriage between people of
different barangays their children were divided between two barangays. The barangay
was responsible for the conduct of their members. The whole barangay had to appease
other barangay when one of its members had created injury or misconduct toward the
other. Disputes and grievances were settled by the elders-the old men of the barangay
who decided the matter in accordance with the customs handed down by their
ancestors as tradition.
Nowadays, the country has a democratic form of government. It has three
branches; executive, legislative, and judicial. Local leaders are lead local officials. It has
retained the barangay as the smallest unit of the government.
Filipinos and Religion
Catholicism is a dominant religion in the Philippines, with 82 % of the population.
It was introduced by the Spaniards who for more than three hundred years have
colonized the country. Catholicism has embedded the culture of the Filipinos even in the
society. The practice of faith; like fiestas is an important event in the community. They
celebrate the feast of their patron saint in barangay or town. It is a time for feasting,
bonding, and paying homage where the community gathers with the guests, families,
and relatives. Islam in the Philippines was introduced in the southern part long before
the arrival of the Spaniards. Their religious celebration like Ramadan is also a huge
gatherer of muslim society. On societal issues, religion have also played a great role.
For instance the controversial reproductive health bill passed by the Aquino
administration, which aimed to help and save women from the dangers of health and
reproductive related problems. The bill gives access to contraceptions, to help contain
the looming population was vehemently countered by catholic church conservatives
hierarchy. Some women society however proved to be in favour of the bill, thinking that
the state is just doing their job for the safety of women. Politics and religion often
clashed in many issues, despite the separation of church and state.
Filipino Women
Women in the early were leaders in the society. The Philippines at that time is
matriarchal society. Women occupy a high place in the society, politics and the
profession, they enjoy equal if not high status with men. Among many ethnic groups,
custom law gave women equal right with men. They could own and inherit property,
engage in trade and industry, and succeed to chieftainship in the absence of the male
heir. They have right to educate their children. They were keepers of money.

Sometime, in the colonial period they were responsible for household chores.
Their role were defined by Catholicism. The colonizers like the Spaniards have
established a tradition of subordinating women, which manifested in women’s
submissive attitudes. Today there is a growing movement that promote gender equality
especially for women. Filipina enjoys in many areas; professional, and career areas.
This mentality has greatly been influenced by western cultures. Gradually, the Philippine
society is slowly becoming an egalitarian. Especially in urban areas.
Social Values
The majority of the population is bound by common values through the same
religion. Positive and negative trait exist. Religion has also played a great part in the
value formation of the society. Strong religiosity, faith, respect for authority, high self
esteem, and smooth interpersonal relationships. Respect is based on authority and
blood relations. Respect is paid for the elders of the family and relatives. Respect for
authority is also important especially outside the family circle; to the politicians,
teachers, doctors, and to any one in power and position. Smooth relationship is
observed in society especially with friends and in authorities. Self-esteem held a high
regard. Filipinos are sensitive. The value of emotions is preserved. Attacking one’s self-
esteem mean allowing trouble to come in. Filipinos avoid embarrassment and shaming
other people. Harmony in society is preferred rather than being frank in words.
Social organization follows a pattern from tradition. Relationships is society is
marked by social alliance system; groupings is based in kinship, friendships, and
partnerships. Kinship is the source of loyalty for every family to extended family. We see
this alliance of families when there are occasions like, marriage, baptism. The bonds of
friendship between other people sometimes is formed based on the culture of utang na
loob. Utang na loob happens when a person is being helped by another; saving
another’s life, providing employment, sponsoring the education of someone, and from
any simple help. In commercial context, Filipinos have a suki relationship. Business is a
relationship also. The relationship is develop between the customers and the owner
who agree to become regular customers and supplier. In the market, Filipinos would
usually buy from a supplier who will give them, in return, reduced prices of goods.

Activity 2:
1. Filipinos have developed so many good values; from family, friends, colleagues,
school mates, neighbors, relatives, like; suki system, utang na loob, religiosity,
hospitable, and others. From these values; 1. what will helped develop a better
society? 2. And what have you notice in the hindrance to its development? Give at least
3 and discuss extensively and provide a solution
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E. Summary of the Topic

Critical Reflection: In conclusion, what is a society, how is it formed? How does society
formed it members? What is the secret ingredient in an exemplar society?

Society is a unity of individual persons united together for a common purpose,

with common culture, tradition, way of living, values, aspiration, and beliefs, led by a
great leader at the service of common good, for his followers. The common factors that
organized the society is not, its members or individuals, neither it is united by a strong
leader nor, good followers, it a good relationships among its members and leaders that
creates society together. In the absence of good relationships, then we say that
together we stand and divided we fall.
United we stand divided we fall mean, in a society of individual persons, unity is
necessary, there is no society when there is no unity. An individual alone cannot do
everything. There is no difficult job that cannot be done. We are familiar with our Filipino
saying that: a broomstick can easily break, the whole broom is not. The value society is
in unity. Peace comes when we set aside our differences. Success is living in peace
and overcoming our differences and selfish interest. Let us then for a better society
emphasizes the importance of unity and states that success depends on unity.

Meeting the Standard

Task 1: F. Philosophical Review
a. Check your Cognition
__________ 1. He believed that ma are social animals. Like animals he has a tendency
of living and associate with others.
__________ 2. He viewed society as a social reality. Society is the first origin and
source
of importance for an individual.
__________ 3. He believed that it is the person who create society. Society is made
through the interaction of people.
__________ 4. It is the accumulation of individual values of human beings from spiritual
to material. Values.
__________ 5. It has helped developed society in matters of faith, rituals, prayers and
worship, to satisfy the desire of society , to understand what life is.
__________ 6. Is it a nation, a territory, an organized political society under a
government,
it includes; national, regional, provincial, local and political organizations.
__________ 7. He believed that a state is not a supreme incarnation of ideas, not an
agency entitled to power to coerce its people.
__________ 8. They are the early settlers of the Philippines, who wore leaves and
barks
of tress. They live on top of trees, along the rivers, and in places where
food
is abundant.
__________ 9. It is composed of few families living together, a basic, organized political
and social organization lead by a leader, a chieftain or the elder of group.
__________ 10. A form of social relationships, in the market where a business
relationship is formed between the supplier and the customer.

b. Evaluate your Comprehension

1. Explain the negative and positive effects of “Utang na loob” in the social relationships
of the Filipino society.
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2. Explain how society is formed and how human is formed by the society.
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Activity 3: SITUATIONAL
Doing and Becoming a philosopher (application: create 2 situations for the
students to analyse and apply their learning)
1. The Philippines society has been formed from multiple backgrounds and culture of
people. It is even composed of people coming from different societies with different
cultures including its colonizers. 1. Can we even say that we have our own unique
Filipino society? Why? 2. Can you find an original Filipino trademark in our present
society now a days? Give atleast 3 examples. 3. From different multiple societies in the
regions, What Filipino values have you find in common? Give atleast 3 and discuss
thoroughly. 4. Are these values made the Filipinos united or rise apart from each other?
Why? 5. Are these values have made the Filipinos divided and fall? Why?
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Achieving the Purpose

Activity 4: Good Home Mission
Read and understand Emile Durkheim’s theory on the Individual and the Society. Make
a reaction and reflection paper. Minimum of 300 words

Émile Durkheim
(1858—1917)
Excerpt from: https://www.iep.utm.edu/durkheim/

David Émile Durkheim was born in April 1858

in Épinal, located in the Lorraine region of
France. His family was devoutly Jewish, and
his father, grandfather, and great grandfather
were all rabbis. Durkheim, however, broke with
tradition and went to the École normale
supérieure in 1879, where he studied
philosophy. He graduated in 1882 and began
teaching the subject in France. In 1887 he was
appointed to teach Social Sciences and
Pedagogy at the University of Bordeaux,
allowing him to teach the first ever official
sociology courses in France. During his lifetime, Durkheim was politically engaged, yet
kept these engagements rather discrete. He defended Alfred Dreyfus during the Dreyfus
affair and was a founding member of the Human Rights League.
The Individual and Society
Durkheim is one of the first thinkers in the Western tradition, along with other
19th century thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Charles Peirce, and Karl Marx, to
reject the Cartesian model of the self, which stipulates a transcendental, purely rational
ego existing wholly independent of outside influence. In opposition to the Cartesian
model, Durkheim views the self as integrated in a web of social, and thus historical,
relations that greatly influence their actions, interpretations of the world, and even their
abilities for logical thought. What is more, social forces can be assimilated by the
individual to the point where they operate on an automatic, instinctual level, in which the
individual is unaware of the effect society has on their tastes, moral inclinations, or even
their perception of reality. Social forces thus comprise an unconscious “substructure” of
the mind, in which they have to varying degrees been incorporated by the individual. In
consequence, if an individual wants to know themselves, they must understand the
society of which they are a part, and how this society has a direct impact on their
existence. In fact, in a complete reversal of Descartes, Durkheim, following the
sociological method, advocates that in order to understand one’s self, the individual
must avoid introspection and look outside of themselves, at the social forces that
determine their personality. In these ways, Durkheim anticipated by at least fifty years
the post-modern deconstruction of the self as a socio-historically determined entity.
Partly because of this conception of the individual, and partly because of his
methodology and theoretical stances, Durkheim has been routinely criticized on several
points. Critics argue that he is a deterministic thinker and that his view of society is so
constraining towards the individual that it erases any possibility for individual autonomy
and freedom. Others argue that his sociology is too holistic and that it leaves no place
for the individual or for subjective interpretations of social phenomena. Critics have
gone so far as to accuse Durkheim of being anti-individual due in part to his consistent
claims that the individual is derived from society. Such critics, however, misconstrue a
number of elements of Durkheim’s thought. To begin, there is an important individual
component to society in that it is both external and internal to individuals. Durkheim
makes clear on several occasions that elements of society, such as religious beliefs,
morality, or language, are incorporated and appropriated by individuals in their own
manner. While it is true that représentations collectives, for example, are the work of the
collectivity and express collective thought through the individual, when the individual
assimilates them they are refracted and colored by the individual’s personal
experiences, thereby differentiating them. Thus, each individual expresses society in
their own way. It should also be remembered that social facts are the result of a fusion
of individual consciences. As such there is a delicate interplay between the individual
and society whereby the individual not only maintains their individuality, but is also able
to enrich the field of social forces by contributing to it their own personal thoughts and
feelings.
In another sense, critics claiming that Durkheim is anti-individual overlook his
analysis of modern society. Durkheim’s theory of the division of labor, as societies
develop, they cultivate differences between individuals by necessity. This grants
individuals an increasing amount of freedom to develop their personality. At least in
Western society, the development of and respect for individualism has grown to such an
extent that it has become the object of a cult; the individual is a sacred object and the
protection of individual liberties and human dignity has been codified into moral
principles. Granted that this individualism is itself a product of collective life, modern
society, if anything, encourages individual autonomy, diversity, and freedom of thought
as shared social norms.

As a whole, there is no antagonism between the individual and society in

Durkheim’s sociology. In fact, Durkheim argues that to adhere to a group is the only
thing that makes an individual human, since everything that we attribute as being
special to humanity (language, the ability for rational thought, the ability for moral action,
and so forth) is a product of social life. Far from being anti-individual, Durkheim never
lost sight of the individual, and the relation of the individual to society is a guiding
question throughout his work. Rather than showing that individuals are wholly
subservient to society for all aspects of their existence, Durkheim’s analyses
demonstrate that in order to understand the individual, it is necessary to situate them
within the network of social relations that informs and influences their life. This is exactly
what Durkheim’s sociology does, and its strength lies precisely in its illumination and
deconstruction of those elements of society that have the greatest bearing on and
realize themselves through the individual.