Department of Electrical Engineering

ELEC261 - Digital Systems Design

ELEC261
Number Systems and Boolean Algebra

Lecture 1 Prof. F Bensaali

Content:
• Digital and analog
• Number systems
o Decimal, Hexadecimal (HEX), Octal, Binary, Binary-Coded-Decimal (BCD)
• Conversion between number systems
o Binary to HEX, Binary to Octal, Binary to Decimal
• Logic functions and logic gates
o Truth tables
• Boolean algebra
o Boolean representation of logic functions
o Boolean reduction of logic functions
o Boolean relations from truth tables

• Shorthand definitions for logic functions

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 Digitaland
Digital andanalogue
analog

 Human world signals are usually based upon continuous

analog signals that vary in time and space
 e.g., temperature variation in the room over a day

 To represent this analog world digitally we have to assign

numbers to successive parts of the analog signal and
process them instead

 It’s a conversion process from the continuous analog

world to the digital world

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 Digitaland
Digital andanalogue
analog (Cont’d)
(Cont’d)

Each value represented by a dot can be represented as a digital

code that consists of a series of 1s and 0s
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 Number systems
Number systems

 There are many number systems adopted in computer related

applications
 In dealing with digital electronics, you will need to be
conversant with DECIMAL, HEXADECIMAL, OCTAL, BINARY
and BINARY-CODED-DECIMAL (BCD) and be able to convert
readily between them
 In all number systems the position of the digits comprising any
number is representative of relative weighting of that digit
o The total number of units in a number is obtained by multiplying
each digit by the base raised to a power
o The power is determined by the digit position

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 Decimal
Decimal

Base Allowed digits

10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Example

• Total units:
(1x104)+(0x103)+(3x102)+(6x101)+(2x100)
• DECIMAL number: 1036210

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 Hexadecimal
Hexadecimal

Base Allowed digits

16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A(10), B(11),
C(12), D(13), E(14), F(15)
Example

• Total units:
(1x164)+(4x163)+(0x162)+(11x161)+(15x160)
• HEX number: 140BFH = 8211110

8
 Octal
Octal

Base Allowed digits

8 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Example

• Total units: (5x84)+(0x83)+(7x82)+(4x81)+(2x80)

• OCTAL number: 507428 = 2096210

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 Binary
Binary

Base Allowed digits

2 0, 1

Example

• Total units: (1x24)+(0x23)+(1x22)+(1x21)+(0x20)

• BINARY number: 101102 = 2210

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 Binary (Cont’d)
Binary (Cont’d)

 A binary digit is called BIT – The smallest unit

 An 8-bit binary number is called BYTE

 e.g., 00110101 (= 5310)
 A complete unit of information is called a word
 Generally consists of two or more bytes

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 Binary-Coded-Decimal (BCD)
Binary-Coded-Decimal (BCD)

Base Allowed digits

2 (encoded) 0, 1

 In this case, each digit of a decimal number is encoded

separately into the corresponding 4-bit binary code
o These codes, when placed end-to-end, form the BCD equivalent

Example

• BCD number: 1000000100110110BCD = 813610

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 Conversion: Binary
Conversion: Binary to
to HEX
HEX

• Write out the binary digits

Step 1

• Divide up into groups of four starting from the far right (leading zeros
Step 2 can be added to the last group to make up four bits if necessary)

• Obtain the corresponding decimal number for each group

Step 3

• Convert from decimal into the equivalent HEX alphanumeric

Step 4

Example 10110101
step 1:

step 2: 1011 0101

So 101101012 = B5H
step 3: 11 5

step 4: B 5
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 Conversion: Binary
Conversion: Binary to
to Octal
Octal

• Write out the binary digits

Step 1

• Divide up into groups of three starting from the right (leading zeros
Step 2 can be added to the last group to make up three bits if necessary)

• Obtain the corresponding octal digit for each group

Step 3

Example
step 1: 10110101

step 2: 010 110 101

So 101101012 = 2658

step 3: 2 6 5

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 Conversion: Binary to Decimal

 The method shown in slide 9 is the most fundamental method

but this is not always the quickest way
o For long binary numbers it is often easier to convert from
BINARY to HEX to DECIMAL, this saves several multiply
and add stages
Example
11111101
111111012 = FDH
1111 1101 = (15x161)+(13x160)
= 25310
15 13

F D
Binary to HEX HEX to Decimal

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 Conversion: Decimal
Conversion: Decimal to
to Binary
Binary

• Divide the decimal number successively by 2 and note the remainder

Step 1

• Repeat the process till the division result is zero

Step 2

• Read the remainders in reverse order (starting with the last one)
Step 3

Example
60 / 2 = 30 remainder 0 LSB
30 / 2 = 15 remainder 0
6010 = ?2 15 / 2 = 7 remainder 1 6010 = 1111002
7 / 2 = 3 remainder 1
3 / 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 / 2 = 0 remainder 1 MSB
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 Voltage level
Voltage level representation
representation of
of binary
binary numbers
numbers

 A single wire (a data line) can assume a voltage level to

represent a binary bit

 Eight wires (Bus) can then be used for a whole byte

 A very common system uses zero volts (0 v) as binary ‘0’ and

+5 volts (+5 v) as binary ‘1’

Example

Level 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

voltages +5 V +5 V 0V +5 V 0V 0V +5 V 0V

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 Combinational and
Combinational and sequential
sequential logic
logic
 Digital electronics is classified into:
o Combinational logic
o Sequential logic
 Combinational logic: output is a function of, and only of, a
COMBINATION of the present inputs
 Sequential logic : output depends not only on the present
inputs but also on the past history (or SEQUENCE) of the inputs
o It has storage (memory)
outputs

Inputs
Combinational
logic Memory
element

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 Logic functions
Logic functions and
and logic
logic gates
gates

 Any decision that can be answered YES/NO or TRUE/FALSE

can be mathematically represented as a combination of logic
functions
 Readily available logic gates can be used to implement logic
functions

o Logic gates are building blocks of all digital electronic chips

including CPUs
o Logic gates are illustrated diagrammatically using logic symbols

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 Truth tables
Truth tables

 A truth table is a means of describing a logic function in terms

of its input

o For a binary logic system with a number of inputs ‘n’ , there are
N possible combinations of inputs
o In order to be a complete description of the logic function, a truth
table must contain N rows where N is given by:

N = 2n input combinations

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 Truth table entries

 Since a binary logic system has only two allowed states the
truth table must reflect this
 In an electrical system, two different voltage levels are used to
represent these states
o The actual voltages depend on the type of technology (Logic
family) used
o Two widely accepted descriptions for the two states are shown
below (NO particular voltage levels are implied so these
descriptions are valid for ANY logic family)

LOGIC 0 = LOW LOGIC 1 = HIGH

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 ‘NOT’ logic
‘NOT’ logic gate
gate (inverter)
(inverter)

Description of function
The X output is ‘1’ if input A is ‘0’
The output is the opposite (inverse) of the input

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 2-input ‘OR’
2-input ‘OR’ logic
logic gate
gate

Description of function
The output X is ‘1’ if input A is ‘1’
OR input B is ‘1’ (or both - inclusive OR)

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 2-input ‘NOR’
2-input ‘NOR’ (NOT-OR)
(NOT-OR) logic
logic gate
gate

Description of function
The output X is ‘1’ if neither input A is ‘1’
NOR input B is ‘1’
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 2-input ‘AND’
2-input ‘AND’ logic
logic gate
gate

Description of function
The output X is ‘1’ if input A is ‘1’ AND input B
is ‘1’
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 2-input ‘NAND’
2-input ‘NAND’ (NOT-AND)
(NOT-AND) logic
logic gate
gate

Description of function
The output X is NOT ‘1’ if input A is ‘1’ AND input
B is ‘1’
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 ‘XOR’ or
‘XOR’ or ‘EXOR’
‘EXOR’ (Exclusive
(Exclusive OR)
OR) logic
logic gate
gate

Description of function
The output X is ‘1’ if input A is ‘1’ OR input B is ‘1’
but not both (exclusive OR)
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 ‘XNOR’ or
‘XNOR’ or ‘EXNOR’
‘EXNOR’ (Exclusive
(Exclusive OR)
OR) logic
logic gate
gate

Truth Table
XNOR gate symbol
A B X
A
X
0 0 1
B A
X 0 1 0
B
Equivalent 1 0 0

1 1 1

Description of function
The output X is NOT ‘1’ if input A is ‘1’ OR input B
is ‘1’ but not both
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 Boolean Algebra

 Before studying digital logic, we shall consider Boolean

Algebra which can be used to describe digital logic
functions
 Boolean Algebra was devised by 19th Century Irish
mathematician George Boole
 Boolean Algebra deals with binary variables and
functions, which can only take one of two values

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 Boolean representation
Boolean representation of
of functions
functions

 George Boole devised a set of symbols (BOOLEAN

OPERATORS) and algebraic theorems which can be
used to describe and manipulate logic functions
 The Boolean operators are:

• = AND + = OR
⊕ = XOR 𝒇𝒇� = function ‘f’ inverted
(‘NOT f’ or ‘f BAR)

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Fundamental Boolean
Fundamental Boolean relations
relations and
and operations
operations

A AND B → f = A.B A.1=A

A.0=0
A OR B → f = A+B A.A=A
A XOR B →
� =0
A.A
f = A⊕B
A NAND B → f = A.B
A+1=1
A NOR B → f = A+B A+0=A
A XNOR B → f = A⊕B A+A=A
� =1
A+A
NOT A → �
f=A

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 Boolean reduction
Boolean reduction of
of logic
logic functions
functions
 Logic functions may be reduced in complexity by the application
of the following Boolean algebraic laws:
Commutative: A+B = B+A
A.B = B.A
Associative: (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
Distributive: A.(B+C) = A.B+A.C
A+(B.C) = (A+B) . (A+C)
� +B
De Morgan’s Theorem: A.B = A �
A+B = A� .B
�
NB: De Morgan is easily remembered by saying:
“SPLIT THE LINE AND CHANGE THE SIGN” 35
 Boolean reduction
Boolean reduction of
of logic
logic functions
functions (Cont’d)
(Cont’d)

Exercise
1. Use De Morgan’s theorem and Boolean algebra to verify the
following relation:
� .B=A+B
A+A
2. Reduce the following Boolean functions: Homework

a. f = A . B + A . B
� .B+A
b. f = A . B + A � .B
� +A.B
�

c. f = A � +A
� .C � .C+A
� .B
� +A.B
�

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 Boolean relations
Boolean relations from
from truth
truth tables
tables

 Any logic function can be represented by a truth table /

Boolean relation
 Since we can reduce a Boolean relation using Boolean
algebra, it is useful to be able to obtain Boolean
relation from truth table
 We will consider two forms of relations which can be
readily found from a truth table:
o Sum of Products – SOP
o Product of Sums - POS

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 Sum of
Sum of Products
Products (SOP)
(SOP)
• Establish a Boolean PRODUCT (AND) for each ROW in the truth
Step 1 table – this is called the BINARY CONNECTIVE

• Note every CONNECTIVE where f = 1 (TRUE)

Step 2

• Form the SOP by ‘OR’ing the TRUE CONNECTIVES together

Step 3

Example
Binary
ROW A B f State Connective
0 0 0 0 FALSE A�.B �
1 0 1 1 TRUE A �.B OR � .B+A.B
f=A �
2 1 0 1 TRUE A . B � =A⊕B
3 1 1 0 FALSE A.B
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 Product of
Product of Sums
Sums of
of (POS)
(POS)
• Establish the binary connectives as a Boolean SUM (OR) for each
Step 1 ROW of the truth table

• Note every CONNECTIVE where f = 0 (FALSE)

Step 2

• Form the POS by ‘AND’ing the FALSE CONNECTIVES together

Step 3

Example For the POS we take A/B = 0

and A� /B
� =1

A+B
�
A+B AND � + B)
f = (A + B) . (A �
�+B
A =A⊕B
�+B
A �
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 Shorthand definitions
Shorthand definitions for
for logic
logic functions
functions

 A shorthand form for defining logic functions can be

adopted by referring to the DECIMAL ROW NUMBERS
and writing them as a mathematical set
The row numbers referring to f = 0 are called MAXTERMS (M)
The row numbers referring to f = 1 are called MINTERMS (m)

 Using this notation we can define the XOR gate for

example as follows:

SOP: f(A,B) = ∑ 𝒎𝒎(𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐)

POS: f(A,B) = ∏ 𝑴𝑴(𝟎𝟎, 𝟑𝟑)

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 Shorthand definitions
Shorthand definitions for
for logic
logic functions
functions (Cont’d)
(Cont’d)
Exercise
Using the following equation:
- Complete the truth table and write the function in set form
using the maxterms
- Write f(A,B,C) as a Boolean SOP and POS

f(A,B,C) = ∑ 𝒎𝒎(𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟒𝟒, 𝟓𝟓, 𝟔𝟔)

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