Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning, analysis, design, deployment,

and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus on −

x Systems analysis
x Systems design

Systems Analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposition of a system into its
components.
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to identify its objectives. It is
a problem solving technique that improves the system and ensures that all the components of the system work
efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
Analysis specifies what the system should do.

Systems Design
It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining its components or
modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need to understand the old system thoroughly
and determine how computers can best be used in order to operate efficiently.
System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system.
System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −

x Systems
x Processes
x Technology

What is a System?
The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized relationship between any set of
components to achieve some common cause or objective.
A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a
specific goal.”

Constraints of a System

A system must have three basic constraints −

x A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a predefined objective.

x Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components.

x The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems.
For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human resources information
system.

Properties of a System
A system has the following properties −

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Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve predetermined
objectives.

Interaction

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.
For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production department and payroll with
personnel department.

Interdependence

Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another. For proper functioning, the
components are coordinated and linked together according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the
required by other subsystem as input.

Integration

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together. It means that the parts of the
system work together within the system even if each part performs a unique function.

Central Objective

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not uncommon for an organization to state an
objective and operate to achieve another.
The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and
conversion.

Elements of a System
The following diagram shows the elements of a system −

Outputs and Inputs

x The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.

x Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.

x Output is the outcome of processing.

Processor(s)

x The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into output.

x It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either totally or partially,
depending on the output specification.

x As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases, input is also modified to
enable the processor for handling the transformation.

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Control

x The control element guides the system.

x It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and
output.

x The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and software. In order to keep
system in balance, what and how much input is needed is determined by Output Specifications.

Feedback

x Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.

x Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system.

x Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with information for action.

Environment

x The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates.

x It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.

x It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of organization’s
environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual performance of the business.

Boundaries and Interface

x A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify its components,
processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system.

x Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.

x The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of its interface with
other systems for successful design.

Types of Systems
The systems can be divided into the following types −

Physical or Abstract Systems

x Physical systems are tangible entities. W e can touch and feel them.

x Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs are the physical parts
of computer center which are static. A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs,
data, and applications can change according to the user's needs.

x Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas, representation or model of a
real system.

Open or Closed Systems

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 x An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the
outside of the system. For example, an information system which must adapt to the changing
environmental conditions.

x A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from environmental influences. A
completely closed system is rare in reality.

Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

x Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their performance and to
survive. For example, human beings, animals.

x Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For example, machines.

Permanent or Temporary System

x Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.

x Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished. For example, A DJ
system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the program.

Natural and Manufactured System

x Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal system.

x Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains.

Deterministic or Probabilistic System

x Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between system components is
known with certainty. For example, two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water.

x Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not known. For example, W eather
forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

x Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.

x In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a particular task. For
example, Computer programming.

x Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are performed by the machine. For
example, an autonomous robot.

Man–Made Information Systems

x It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular organization, under Direct
Management Control (DMC).

x This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for producing information
according to the need of an organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three types −

x Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of memos, instructions,
etc., from top level to lower levels of management.

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 x Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the day to day work related
problems.

x Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for managing business
applications. For example, automatic library system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and procedures for
developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the following activities −

x requirements
x design
x implementation
x testing
x deployment
x operations
x maintenance

Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks down the work into phases that
are required to implement either new or modified Information System.

Feasibility Study or Planning

x Define the problem and scope of existing system.

x Overview the new system and determine its objectives.

x Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.

x During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are also considered.

x A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.

Analysis and Specification

x Gather, analyze, and validate the information.

x Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.

x Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.

x Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.

x A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the software, hardware, functional,
and network requirements of the system is prepared at the end of this phase.

System Design

x Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and system interfaces.

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 x Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed and complete set of
specifications that can be implemented in a programming language.

x Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.

x Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the requirements stated in SRS
document.

x Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation

x Implement the design into source code through coding.

x Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects errors and defects.

x A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes test related tasks such as test
case generation, testing criteria, and resource allocation for testing.

x Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new system.

Maintenance/Support

x Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for users that is required once
the system is installing.

x Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or implement any new
requirements after the software is deployed at the customer location.

x It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may exist in the system even after
the testing phase.

x Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems and for a short time for smaller
systems.

Information Gathering Techniques

The main aim of fact finding techniques is to determine the information requirements of an organization used by
analysts to prepare a precise SRS understood by user.
Ideal SRS Document should −

x be complete, Unambiguous, and Jargon-free.

x specify operational, tactical, and strategic information requirements.
x solve possible disputes between users and analyst.
x use graphical aids which simplify understanding and design.
There are various information gathering techniques −

Interviewing

Systems analyst collects information from individuals or groups by interviewing. The analyst can be formal,
legalistic, play politics, or be informal; as the success of an interview depends on the skill of analyst as interviewer.
It can be done in two ways −

x Unstructured Interview − The system analyst conducts question-answer session to acquire basic
information of the system.

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 x Structured Interview − It has standard questions which user need to respond in either close (objective) or
open (descriptive) format.
Advantages of Interviewing

x This method is frequently the best source of gathering qualitative information.

x It is useful for them, who do not communicate effectively in writing or who may not have the time to
complete questionnaire.

x Information can easily be validated and cross checked immediately.

x It can handle the complex subjects.

x It is easy to discover key problem by seeking opinions.

x It bridges the gaps in the areas of misunderstandings and minimizes future problems.

Questionnaires

This method is used by analyst to gather information about various issues of system from large number of persons.
There are two types of questionnaires −

x Open-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that can be easily and correctly interpreted. They
can explore a problem and lead to a specific direction of answer.

x Closed-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that are used when the systems analyst
effectively lists all possible responses, which are mutually exclusive.
Advantages of questionnaires

x It is very effective in surveying interests, attitudes, feelings, and beliefs of users which are not co-located.

x It is useful in situation to know what proportion of a given group approves or disapproves of a particular
feature of the proposed system.

x It is useful to determine the overall opinion before giving any specific direction to the system project.

x It is more reliable and provides high confidentiality of honest responses.

x It is appropriate for electing factual information and for statistical data collection which can be emailed and
sent by post.

Review of Records, Procedures, and Forms

Review of existing records, procedures, and forms helps to seek insight into a system which describes the current
system capabilities, its operations, or activities.
Advantages

x It helps user to gain some knowledge about the organization or operations by themselves before they
impose upon others.

x It helps in documenting current operations within short span of time as the procedure manuals and forms
describe the format and functions of present system.

x It can provide a clear understanding about the transactions that are handled in the organization, identifying
input for processing, and evaluating performance.

x It can help an analyst to understand the system in terms of the operations that must be supported.

x It describes the problem, its affected parts, and the proposed solution.

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Observation

This is a method of gathering information by noticing and observing the people, events, and objects. The analyst
visits the organization to observe the working of current system and understands the requirements of the system.
Advantages

x It is a direct method for gleaning information.

x It is useful in situation where authenticity of data collected is in question or when complexity of certain
aspects of system prevents clear explanation by end-users.

x It produces more accurate and reliable data.

x It produces all the aspect of documentation that are incomplete and outdated.

Joint Application Development (JAD)

It is a new technique developed by IBM which brings owners, users, analysts, designers, and builders to define and
design the system using organized and intensive workshops. JAD trained analyst act as facilitator for workshop who
has some specialized skills.

Feasibility Study
Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary investigation that helps the management to take decision about
whether study of system should be feasible for development or not.

x It identifies the possibility of improving an existing system, developing a new system, and produce refined
estimates for further development of system.

x It is used to obtain the outline of the problem and decide whether feasible or appropriate solution exists or
n o t.

x The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire problem scope instead of solving the problem.

x The output of a feasibility study is a formal system proposal act as decision document which includes the
complete nature and scope of the proposed system.

Steps Involved in Feasibility Analysis

The following steps are to be followed while performing feasibility analysis −

x Form a project team and appoint a project leader.

x Develop system flowcharts.

x Identify the deficiencies of current system and set goals.

x Enumerate the alternative solution or potential candidate system to meet goals.

x Determine the feasibility of each alternative such as technical feasibility, operational feasibility, etc.

x Weight the performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.

x Rank the other alternatives and select the best candidate system.

x Prepare a system proposal of final project directive to management for approval.

Types of Feasibilities

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Economic Feasibility

x It is evaluating the effectiveness of candidate system by using cost/benefit analysis method.

x It demonstrates the net benefit from the candidate system in terms of benefits and costs to the organization.

x The main aim of Economic Feasibility Analysis (EFS) is to estimate the economic requirements of candidate
system before investments funds are committed to proposal.

x It prefers the alternative which will maximize the net worth of organization by earliest and highest return of
funds along with lowest level of risk involved in developing the candidate system.

Technical Feasibility

x It investigates the technical feasibility of each implementation alternative.

x It analyzes and determines whether the solution can be supported by existing technology or not.

x The analyst determines whether current technical resources be upgraded or added it that fulfill the new
requirements.

x It ensures that the candidate system provides appropriate responses to what extent it can support the
technical enhancement.

Operational Feasibility

x It determines whether the system is operating effectively once it is developed and implemented.

x It ensures that the management should support the proposed system and its working feasible in the current
organizational environment.

x It analyzes whether the users will be affected and they accept the modified or new business methods that
affect the possible system benefits.

x It also ensures that the computer resources and network architecture of candidate system are workable.

Behavioral Feasibility

x It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or behavior towards the development of new system.

x It helps in determining if the system requires special effort to educate, retrain, transfer, and changes in
employee’s job status on new ways of conducting business.

Schedule Feasibility

x It ensures that the project should be completed within given time constraint or schedule.

x It also verifies and validates whether the deadlines of project are reasonable or not.

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Entity Relationship Model

It is a technique used in database design that helps describe the relationship between various entities of an
organization.

Terms used in E-R model

x ENTITY − It specifies distinct real world items in an application. For example: vendor, item, student, course,
teachers, etc.

x RELATIONSHIP − They are the meaningful dependencies between entities. For example, vendor supplies
items, teacher teaches courses, then supplies and course are relationship.

x ATTRIBUTES − It specifies the properties of relationships. For example, vendor code, student name.
Symbols used in E-R model and their respective meanings.
Three types of relationships can exist between two sets of data: one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.

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