Formal Semantics Universal Quantifier

A universal quantifier pertains to something

the represent a whole. For every tomato
Formal semantics as a subfield of there are 15 seeds, all planets outside the
linguistics solar system are inhabitable, etc...
 it is the study of meaning with the Existential Quantifier
application of Formal methods
through logical symbols to determine Existential Quantifiers is the opposite of
their truth value---these said truth “For every” of a Universal Quantifier. They
values are the direct relation of a assert at least one existence in context of a
proposition to the truth. whole.
 Formal semantics is a field of study
within linguistics and philosophy that Intentionality
uses formal systems, particularly Intentionality distinguishes the literal truth
mathematical logic. of the meaning to its interpretations given
Representational semantics refers to in a specific context that concerns
the mental association of a meaning rather propositional attitudes. Intentionality also
than its natural, physical, or tangible deals with a sentence's subjectivity (Which
representation. is represented by the letter/symbol S)

The word mole denotatively means “any of Modality

numerous burrowing insectivores Modality deals with possibility in a given
(especially family Talpidae) with tiny eyes, context, it is how phrases are in relation
concealed ears, and soft fur” as defined by with the truth. There are 2 kinds of
Merriam Webster. While in a more creative Modality:
sense, a mole may pertain to a snitch or
spy in a given setting, since “moles” are Epistemic Modality which deals with the
known for sneakily burrowing and lurking in available resources in setting. It revolves
dark places, same as how a spy would around the speaker’s belief, knowledge,
behave. and uncertainty about a given proposition.
It conveys the speakers or utterer’s
perception towards the truth or falsehood
Quantifiers: of the proposition.

Universal quantifier: ∀, /\: for every, for all Modal verbs such as: Might, should,
would, etc.. Are obligatory for a modality to
Existential quantifier: Ǝ, \/: there exists a …
be considered Epistemic
such that, there is some … such that
Example: (∀ y)(Ǝ x)[x > y] is symbolic for
“for all y there is some x with x > y”. Theories
Logical connectives:  Truth-conditional semantics
Negation: ¬, ~ : o the theory in which the
not Conjunction: ∧, &: and Disjunction: ∨,
meaning of a sentence is
understood in terms of the
v: or Implication: →, –>: implies, if A then B
conditions under which it
Biconditional: ↔, : if and only if Logical
would be true or false
equivalence: ≡
 Model-theoretic semantics
Model-theoretical semantics
o a framework for understanding
Is a form of truth-conditional semantics that
the meanings of linguistic
provides a foundation in formal semantic
expressions by relating them
analysis.
to mathematical structures
called models
 Montague grammar
o a formal system for natural
language semantics-was
 developed by Richard chimps (Chierchia and
Montague in the late 1960s McConnell-Ginet (2000))
o connects syntax and  Disadvantage: very technical and
semantics highly formalized
o provides a framework that  the goal of this linguistic approach is
allows for the precise mapping to provide a precise and systematic
of linguistic expressions to way to represent and interpret the
their meanings meanings of words, phrases,
sentences, and texts, ensuring that
 Father of formal semantics: Richard the structure and meaning of
Montague (1960s) language are closely linked
 The search for meaning Model-theoretical semantics
o the search for mental  a mathematical framework for
representations (some interpreting verbal meanings
linguists)
 emphasizes truth conditions and
o the world around us (formal compositionality
semanticists)
 uses formal models with domains
Truth and interpretation functions to
 the correspondence theory of truth represent meaning systematically

 a successful match is called true; an  largely influenced by Richard

unsuccessful match is false Montague, who applied principles of
logic to natural language
 the listener who understands the
sentence can determine the truth  domains: a set of entities or objects
conditions of the uttered sentence, language is assumed to be talking
that is, know what conditions in the about that can include individuals,
world would make the sentence true events, times, and other relevant
entities
Why is formal semantics important?
 interpretation functions: non-logical
 Using logical expressions as a constants to elements in the domain
semantic metalanguage of discourse that assign meanings to
basic expressions of language
o allows semanticists to bring
the economy and formality of  "All cats are mammals."
logic's conventional discipline
into linguistics, as well as the o Domain (D) = {cats,
benefits of the long fight to mammals} - the set of objects
build mathematics and logic o Interpretation Function (1)=
on shared principles
 I (cat) = {cat1, cat2,
 Denotational approaches and cat3} - the set of all
o offer an additional advantage: cats
they escape the circularity  I (mammals) = {cat1,
problem cat2, cat3, dog, and
o aims to connect language to elephant} the set of all
the world rather than just mammals.
convert between o Logical Representation:
representations
 Predicate Logic Form
o enable us to better =∀x(cat(x)→mammal(x)
understand the relationship )
between human languages
and the simpler sign systems  Meaning: "For all x, if x
of other creatures such as is a cat, then x is a
vervet monkeys, baboons, and mammal."
 o Truth of the Sentence:  John: j
 Explanation: Since o the convention is that
every cat in the model predicate logic forms begin
is also in the set of with the predicate, followed by
mammals, the sentence the subject constant.
'All cats are mammals'
is TRUE in this model.  John smokes: S(j)

Translating English into a logical o if we want to leave the

metalanguage identity of the subject
unspecified we can use
 Predicate logic variables (lower case letters
from the end of the alphabet:
o also known as first-order logic w, x, y, z)
o a formal system used by  S(y)
semantics to express and
analyze the structure and  The verbs in transitive sentences
meaning of sentences. require more than one nominal:
 Logical symbols: o Bill adores Abby: A(b,a)
o not (negation) o Abby prefers Bill to John:
P(a,b,j)
o A and (conjunction)
 Our notation so far can reflect
o V or (conjunction) negative and compound sentences
o ← if...then (material by making use of the logical symbols
implication) shown earlier:

o V exclusive or (exclusive o Mary doesn't laugh: '¬L(m)

disjunction, XOR) o John smokes and Kate drinks:
o if and only if (truth-value S(j)∧D(k)
equivalence) o If Bill drinks, Abby gets angry:
o 3 some (existential quantifier) D(b)→A(a)

o all/every (universal quantifier)  We can also translate sentences that

contain relative clauses like (the
Simple statements in predicate logic student) who failed the exam and so
on.
 a subject-predicate structure in
which the subject is a referring o Luna is a cat that doesn't purr:
expression (John) and the predicate C(l)∧¬P(l)
tells us something about the subject
(smokes). o John admires Bea, who is a
writer: A(j, b) A W(b)
o the predicate is treated as a
skeletal function that requires Quantifiers in predicate logic
the subject argument to be  an important feature of natural
complete. languages that formal semanticists
o represent the predicate by a have to deal with in their translation
capital predicate letter into logical form is quantification.

 smokes: S  In English, for example, quantifiers

include words like one, some, a few,
o the subject argument, on the many, a lot, most, and all.
other hand, can be
represented by a lower-case o A student wrote a letter.
letter (usually chosen from a o The verb phrase wrote a letter of
to t and called an individual various members of a class of
constant) students. We could assert this
 predicate will be true of (at least)  For every person x, there
one member by saying the is some person y that
sentence above. they love. The universal
quantifier comes
o The sentence can vary the range leftmost and contains
of its applicability: the existential quantifier
 A few students wrote a in its scope.
letter.  Negative words, like English 'not,' also
 Many students wrote a display scope over a predication, and
letter. a second advantage of this type of
representation is that it allows us to
 Most students wrote a disambiguate some sentences which
letter. contain combinations of quantifiers
and negation.
 All students wrote a
letter. o Everybody didn't visit Aiah.:
>x¬(V(x,a)
 Every student wrote a
letter. Truth-value of sentences
o We could also deny it applies to  Truth-value of a sentence must
any of them by using: No student reflect the compositionality of
wrote a letter. meaning.
o Both of these English quantifiers  procedure for just three basic types
are represented in predicate logic of sentence: a simple statement, a
by the universal quantifier, compound sentence with A "and,"
symbolized as . and sentences with the universal and
existential quantifiers, V and 3.
∀x(S(x)→W(x,l))
o Every student wrote a letter:
Evaluating a simple statement
 For everything x, if x is  We might construct some relevant
a student then x wrote sentences in predicate logic as
a letter. below. Some are true of M1 and
some are false.
 Some are represented in predicate
logic by the existential quantifier, o a) D(r)
symbolized as 3.
o b) G(b)

∃x(S(x)∧W(x,l))
o Some student wrote a letter:
o c) J(e, b)
o d) G(p)
o e) S(j)
Predicate letters A, B, C, etc,.
Individual constants a, b, c, etc,.  For example: Ringo
Individual variables x, y, z, etc., played the drums.
Truth functional ¬,∧,∨,∨,→,≡
connectives  The procedure for
Quantifiers ,V checking if S(j) is true is
based on the
denotational definitions
Some advantages of predicate logic we gave earlier and can
translation be schematized as:
 Scope ambiguity  [S(j)]M1=1 iff $
[j]M1
 occurs when there is more than one
quantifier in a sentence.

∀x∃y(L(x,y))
o Everyone loves someone: Cognitive Semantics
 The study of how people learn and  A newer paradigm that developed in
understand language. the late 20th century, with significant
contributions from Charles J. Fillmore,
 The study of how the human mind Paul Kay, and William Croft.
affects how we understand language.
 Proposes that linguistic knowledge is
 The investigation of how meaning is made up of constructions, which are
created through cognitive processes. form-meaning pairs ranging from
 Combines language and general single words to intricate sentence
cognition. structures.

 Proposes a direct link among linguistic  Proposes that language is influenced

structures and human experience and by real patterns of use in real
perception. communication.

 Challenges traditional models and the  The study of meaning in human

formal approaches that see linguistic languages, focusing on how people
meaning as an autonomous system. understand and create meaning.

 A linguistic approach that focuses on the  Explores how our cognitive abilities
relationship between language and the and experiences shape our
human mind. understanding and use of language.

 Emphasizes the processes whereby  Explores how our cognitive abilities

meaning is construed and and experiences shape our
comprehended. understanding and use of language.

 Suggests that meaning is deeply  Studies how the human mind

embedded in our perceptual and interacts with language.
conceptual experiences.  The study of how people learn and
 Psychological and neurological insights understand language.
are melded to create an understanding  The study of how the human mind
of how people perceive and affects how we understand language.
communicate concepts.
 The investigation of how meaning is
 Stands in contrast to more traditional created through cognitive processes.
theories by emphasizing mental
representation.  Combines language and general
cognition.
 An interdisciplinary approach to the
study of language, mind, and  Proposes a direct link among
sociocultural experience that first linguistic structures and human
emerged in the 1970s. experience and perception.
 A broad movement that cognitive  Challenges traditional models and
semantics belongs to (Taylor, 2006). the formal approaches that see
linguistic meaning as an autonomous
 A theoretical framework which system.
stresses the fact that grammar
consists of constructions, which are  A linguistic approach that focuses on
form-meaning pairs that vary from the relationship between language
single words to more complicated and the human mind.
sentence forms.
 Emphasizes the processes whereby
 Dismisses the categorical split meaning is construed and
between syntax and semantics, comprehended.
suggesting that grammatical
structure and meaning are one and  Suggests that meaning is deeply
the same. embedded in our perceptual and
conceptual experiences.
 Emphasizes the notion that grammar
is made up of constructions that  Psychological and neurological
combine form and meaning. insights are melded to create an
 understanding of how people  Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT):
perceive and communicate concepts. Understanding abstract concepts by
linking them to more concrete
 Stands in contrast to more traditional experiences through metaphors (Lakoff
theories by emphasizing mental & Johnson).
representation.
Mental Spaces Theory: How people build
 An interdisciplinary approach to the dynamic conceptual structures during
study of language, mind, and discourse (Fauconnier & Turner).
sociocultural experience that first
emerged in the 1970s. Image Schema Theory: Basic conceptual
structures formed from physical
 A broad movement that cognitive experiences, used to organize thought
semantics belongs to (Taylor, 2006). (Johnson).
 A theoretical framework which Langacker's Cognitive Grammar:
stresses the fact that grammar Language is rooted in language-
consists of constructions, which are independent cognitive processes
form-meaning pairs that vary from (Langacker).
single words to more complicated
sentence forms. Metaphor: Figure of speech where one
thing is compared to another without using
 Dismisses the categorical split "like" or "as."
between syntax and semantics,
suggesting that grammatical o Standard Metaphor: Direct
structure and meaning are one and comparison between two unrelated
the same. things.
 Emphasizes the notion that grammar  Example: "The classroom was a
is made up of constructions that zoo."
combine form and meaning.
o Implied Metaphor: Comparison
 A newer paradigm that developed in without directly mentioning one of the
the late 20th century, with significant things being compared.
contributions from Charles J. Fillmore,
Paul Kay, and William Croft.  Example: "She barked orders at
her team."
 Proposes that linguistic knowledge is
made up of constructions, which are o Extended Metaphor: Metaphor that
form-meaning pairs ranging from continues throughout a sentence,
single words to intricate sentence paragraph, or story.
structures.  Example: "Life is a journey."
 Proposes that language is influenced o Mixed Metaphor: Combination of two
by real patterns of use in real unrelated metaphors.
communication.
 Example: "We'll cross that bridge
 The study of meaning in human when we pull the trigger."
languages, focusing on how people
understand and create meaning. o Dead Metaphor: Commonly used
metaphor that people no longer notice
 Explores how our cognitive abilities as a metaphor.
and experiences shape our
understanding and use of language.  Example: "The foot
of the bed."
 Explores how our cognitive abilities
and experiences shape our
understanding and use of language.
o Metonymy: Figure of speech where a word
 Studies how the human mind interacts or phrase is replaced by something closely
with language. associated with it.
Key Concepts  Place for Institution or Authority:
  Example: "The White o Construal: How people construe and
House issued a represent meaning from their perspective
statement." or point of view.
 Object for Related Concept:  Profiling: Selection of specific
portions of an event to highlight.
 Example: "She has a
good head on her  Example: "Floyd
shoulders." broke the glass with
a hammer."
 Product for Company or Industry:
 Perspective: Choice of viewpoint
 Example: "He drives from which an event is described.
a Ford."
 Example: "The
 Symbol for the Concept: children ran around
 Example: "The pen is the house."
mightier than the  Focus: Choice of which element of a
sword." scene stands out as most salient.
o Image Schemas: Recurring patterns of  Example: "The light
bodily and social experiences used to emanated from a
mentally structure perceptions and events. beacon" vs. "The
 Containment Schema: Understanding beacon emitted
of inclusion, exclusion, protection, light."
and restriction.  Sequential Scanning: Viewing an
 Example: "She event as a series of discrete steps.
remained within the  Example: "Keegan
confines of the law." entered the room."
 Force Schema: Interaction between  Summary Scanning: Viewing an
entities involving exertion or event as a single, complete action.
resistance of forces.
 Example: "Keegan's
 Example: "The entrance into the
government imposed room."
strict regulations."
o Categorization: Mental categories formed
 Path Schema: Conceptualization of through experience influence our
events as movements along a understanding of words and concepts.
trajectory.
 Prototype Theory: Categories are
 Example: "John structured around central, highly
walked from the park representative examples.
to the library,
stopping by the café  Example: "Bird"
on his way." (robin vs. penguin).
o Polysemy: When a word has multiple  Embodiment: Mental representation
related meanings. and language are shaped by physical
interactions with the world.
 Example: "bank" (financial
institution) and "bank" (side of a  Idealized Cognitive Models
river). (ICMs): Conceptual structures
that help us understand word
o Mental Spaces: Conceptual packets meanings in different contexts.
constructed for local understanding and
action.  Radial Categories: Lexical
meanings that flow from a
 Example: "Romeo is probably in love prototype through various related
with Juliet" (Base Space and senses.
Possibility Space).
  Example:
Different
interpretations of
"over."
o Contextual Meaning Construction:
Meaning is dynamically constructed
based on prior knowledge and
communicative situation.
 Example: "Light" (physical
illumination, weight, emotional
state).
o Conceptual Integration Theory
(Conceptual Blending): Taking
knowledge from different domains of
experience and combining them to
create a new analogy.
 Example: "The ship plows the
sea" (ship as a vehicle + sea as a
road).
Key Points
 Cognitive semantics views meaning as
dynamic and shaped by human
experience, perception, and
conceptualization.
 Metaphor and metonymy are crucial to
language as they enable us to
understand sophisticated concepts by
relating them