Science Reviewer
Credits to: Princess Mariam R. Ofrancia
Lesson 1 - Planet Earth: It’s Origin and Structure
Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has a large amount of liquid water.
- 70% Water
- 30% Land
Why is planet Earth habitable?
- Planet Earth is habitable because it has the right distance from the sun.
- It is kept warm by an insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical
ingredients for life including water and carbon.
- It can provide water, oxygen, useful biological products for humans, and has
suitable weather and climate.
Earth, Venus, and Mars may have similarities:
1.) They all are terrestrial planets, made of solid rocks and silicates;
2.) They all have an atmosphere;
3.) They all almost have the same time to rotate on their axes;
4.) Earth and Mars both have water;
5.) They all have carbon dioxide; and
6.) All have landforms.
Earth, Venus, and Mars have differences:
1.) Venus has no water;
2.) Venus and Mars don't have oxygen; and
3.) Earth has life forms.
What to take away from this lesson:
Planet Earth is considered habitable because of the following reasons:
1.) It has the right distance from the sun;
2.) It is protected from harmful solar radiation by its magnetic field;
3.) It is kept warm by an insulating atmosphere;
4.) It has the right amount of ingredients for life, including water and carbon
Earth is different from other planets in a way that it is the only planet with liquid water on the
surface.
a. Earth, Venus, and Mars may have similarities:
1.) They all are terrestrial planets, made of solid rocks and silicates;
2.) They all have an atmosphere;
3.) They all almost have the same time to rotate on their axes; Earth and Mars both have
water;
4.) They all have carbon dioxide; and
5.) All have landforms.
b. Earth, Venus, and Mars have differences:
1.) Venus has no water;
2.) Venus and Mars don't have oxygen; and
3.) Earth has life forms.
Lesson 2 - Earth’s Subsystems
What is a system?
It is a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified whole.
- EARTH is composed of SUBSYSTEMS.
1.) Atmosphere
- The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelops the lithosphere.
- composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of
other gases.
- Layers of the Atmosphere
- Exosphere
960 to 6,200 miles
Up to 2,700°F
- Thermosphere
86 to 372 miles
932°F to 3,632°F
- Mesosphere
32 to 85 miles
32°F to -130°F
- Stratosphere
11 to 31 miles
-60°F to 5°F
- Troposphere
0 to 10 miles
62°F to -60°F
- The mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are zones of diffuse atmospheric
components in the far reaches of the atmosphere
- .The stratosphere (10 to 50 km), contains ozone that protects life on the planet by
filtering harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
- .The troposphere (0 - 10 km) constitutes the climate system that maintains the
conditions suitable for life on the planet's surface
Interactions with other Earth System components
- Hydrosphere: The gases of the atmosphere readily exchange with those dissolved in
water bodies (e. g. oceans, lakes, etc. )
- Biosphere: The atmosphere supplies oxygen and carbon dioxide that form the basis of
life processes (photosynthesis and respiration).
- EXAMPLE:
- Typhoons (atmosphere) sweep across the ocean (hydrosphere) and onto the land
(geosphere), damaging the dwellings of people (biosphere) who live along the coast.
2.) Biosphere
- It is the “life zone” that includes all living organisms (including humans), and all
organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
- The biosphere refers to the relatively small part of Earth’s environment in which living
things can survive.
- It contains a wide range of organisms, including fungi, plants, and animals, that live
together as a community.
Interactions with other Earth System components
- Atmosphere: Life processes involve many chemical reactions which either extract or
emit gases to and from the atmosphere (e. g. Photosynthesis consumes carbon dioxide
and releases oxygen, whereas respiration does the opposite).
- Hydrosphere: Evaporation of water from leaf surfaces (transpiration) transfers water to
the atmosphere.
- Geosphere: The biosphere is connected to the geosphere through soils (mixtures of air,
mineral matter, organic matter, and water). Plant activity (e. g. root growth and organic
acid production) are also for the mechanical and chemical breakdown of the rocks.
3.) Hydrosphere
- contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet
- About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in
the form of ocean water . Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of
ice, and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater
- Frozen water - includes ice caps and glaciers - specifically called the Cryosphere.
- Subcomponents of the Hydrosphere are connected via the Hydrologic Cycle
-
Interactions with other Earth System components
- Atmosphere: Water is transferred between the hydrosphere and biosphere by
evaporation and precipitation. Energy is also exchanged in this process.
- Biosphere: Water is necessary for the transport of nutrients and waste products in
organisms.
- Geosphere: Water is the primary agent for the chemical and mechanical breakdown of
rock (weathering), to form loose rock fragments and soil, and sculpts the surface of the
Earth.
4.) Geosphere
- It is the solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as well the various
layers of Earth’s interior.
- It is not static (unchanging), but its surface (crust) is in a constant state of motion. 94%
of the Earth is composed of the elements oxygen, silicon, and magnesium.
- It is not static (unchanging), but its surface (crust) is in a constant state of motion.
Interactions with other Earth System components
- Atmosphere: volcanism spews significant amounts of gases into the atmosphere. For
example, volcanoes inject large amounts of sulphur dioxide to the upper atmosphere,
resulting in global cooling.
- Hydrosphere: The formation of many minerals involve incorporation or release of
water. Also, water speeds up chemical reactions that produce or destroy minerals, and
aids in the melting of rock.
- Biosphere: Nutrients released from rocks during their breakdown are dissolved in water
(to be used by aquatic plants).
Lesson 3 - Types of Rocks
What is a rock?
- It is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals or organic matter.
- Most rocks are composed of at least 2 minerals.
Rock Cycle
- Weathering: The process of breaking down and dissolving of rocks and minerals by
natural agents (wind, water, ice, gravity).
- Erosion: The eroding or being eroded by natural agents.
- Transportation: The movement of materials on the Earth’s surface.
- Deposition: The laying down of sediment carried by the wind, water, sea, or ice.
How are rocks formed?
Classification of rocks
1.) Igneous Rocks
- Igneous rocks begin as magma.
- Magma can form:
❑ When rock is heated
❑ When pressure is released
❑ When rock change composition
- They can be formed on or beneath Earth’s surface.
- Their textures depend on the size and shape of their mineral crystals
Types of Igneous Rocks
A.) Extrusive Rocks
- Rocks that are formed from cooled lava (above ground).
- They cooled very quickly, therefore formed small crystals.
- Example: Basalt
B.) Intrusive Rocks
- Rocks that are formed from cooled magma (below ground).
- They cooled very slowly, therefore formed large crystals.
- Example: Granite
2.) Sedimentary Rocks
- These are formed when sediments (sand, clay, and silt) are compressed and become solid
rock.
- They are formed at or near the
Earth’s surface.
- STRATIFICATION: the process in
which sedimentary rocks are
arranged in layers.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
A.) Clastic
- These are when rock fragments are
squeezed together. These rocks are
grouped by the size of rock
fragments which they are made of.
- Example: Shale
B.) Organic
- These are forms where the remains of plants and animals are deposited in layers.
- Example: Limestone
C.) Chemical
- These are formed when minerals dissolved in water solution crystallize.
- Example: Halite
3.) Metamorphic Rocks
- These are formed when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich
fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors.
- Most metamorphic rocks are formed deep underground.
- Metamorphic rocks can form out of igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rock.
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
A.) Foliated Rocks
- Metamorphic rocks that have their grains arranged parallel layers or bands.
- Example: Limestone -> Marble
B.) Non-Foliated Rocks
- Metamorphic rocks that have their grains arranged randomly.
- Example: Granite -> Gneiss
Lesson 4 - Minerals
What is a Mineral?
- It is naturally occurring, inorganic solid with orderly crystalline structure and a definite
chemical composition.
What are the scientific requirements for a substance to be a mineral?
1.) Must be naturally occurring (they must occur in nature).
2.) Must be inorganic (not made of living things).
3.) Must be crystalline (have a crystal structure).
4.) Must be solid (minerals are not gases and liquids).
5.) Must have definite physical and chemical properties.
Physical Properties of Minerals
1.) Hardness
- minerals resistance to scratching.
- Mohs Hardness Scale (scale from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest)).
- A mineral can scratch a mineral softer than itself, likewise, a mineral can be scratched by
harder minerals.
Very Soft: Talc
Soft: Gypsum
Soft: Calcite
Semi-Hard: Fluorite
Hard: Apatite
Hard: Feldspar
Very Hard: Quartz
Very Hard: Topaz
Extremely Hard: Corundum
The Hardest: Diamond
2.) Streak
- The colour of the mineral in powdered form.
- Shows mineral’s true colour.
3.) Colour
- Can be misleading.
- Can vary with the type of impurities.
- Mineral’s colour may change depending on the surface
4.) Luster
- It is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral.
- How light is reflected off a surface.
2 Main Categories:
A.) Metallic - shiny like metal
B.) Non-metallic- dull, non-shiny surface
5.) Crystal Structure
- It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture.
- The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed / observed as these
crystals grow in open spaces.
6.) Tenacity
- Describes the minerals reaction to stress.
- Brittleness: a mineral turns into powder.
- Malleability: a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer.
- Flexible but elastic: minerals are bent but they remain in the new position.
- Ductility: a mineral can be stretched into wire.
- Flexible but inelastic: minerals are bent but they bring back to their original position.
7.) Sectility
- Ability of minerals to be sliced by a knife.
8.) Cleavage and Fracture
- The way the mineral breaks.
- Cleavage - minerals break along smooth, flat surfaces and every fragment has the same
general shape.
- Fracture - minerals that break at random with rough or jagged edges.
Rocks and minerals are everywhere! They help us to develop new technologies and are used in
our everyday lives.
Lesson 4 - GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES: Endogenic & Exogenic
1.) Exogenic Processes
- These are processes that take place at or near the earth's surface that makes the surface
wear away.
- The primary geomorphic agents driving exogenic processes are water, ice, and wind.
- They are very destructive, they are responsible for degradation and sculpting the earth's
surface.
- Weathering: It is the general term applied to combined action of all processes that cause
rock to disintegrate physically and decompose chemically because of exposure near the
Earth’s surface through the elements of weather such as water, ice, acids, salts, plants,
animals, and changes in temperature.
- Mass Wasting: It is the movement of rock and soil down slope under the influence of
gravity. Often lubricated by rainfall or agitated by seismic activity, these events may
occur very rapidly and move as a flow. The runout of a mass wasting event depends on
the volume of material, water content, and slope steepness.
- Erosion: A process where natural forces like water, wind, ice, and gravity move pieces of
earth like rocks, sand and soil. It is one way that the Earth's surface changes over time.
2.) Endogenic Processes
- Processes which originate below the Earth's surface; particularly applied to Earth
movements (by faulting and earthquakes) and volcanic activity.
- Volcanism: It is the eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a planet
through a vent.
Exogenic and endogenic processes are the forces that shaped the Earth’s surface.
What is Earth’s Internal Heat?
3 main sources of Heat on Earth
A.) Heat from when the planet formed and accreted.
B.) Frictional heating caused by the sinking of core materials to the centre of the Earth.
C.) Heat from the decay of radioactive elements (primary and major source of Earth’s energy).
- Faulting: A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock.
- Folding: It is a concept that embraces all geologic processes by which surfaces in rocks
become curved during deformation.
What is a Fold?
- It can be defined as a bend in a rock that is a response to compressional force.
- It can be likened to the waves in the ocean.
- Earth has a crest or uphold, and a trough or downhold.
- Folds are visible in rocks that contain layering.
What is a Fault?
- Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome the internal strength of the rock
resulting in a fracture.
- Defined as the displacement of once connected blocks of rocks along a fault plane.
- Fault blocks are the blocks of crust on each side of the fault.
