Practical 1

Aim: Right linear grammar to left linear grammar

import sys

class Grammar:

def main(self):

temp = [''] * 20

left = [''] * 20

tempn = [''] * 20

right = ''

count = 0

print("Enter The Right linear grammar (separated by '-'), e.g., S-aB")

print("Enter 'q' to Quit")

str_list = []

while True:

line = input()

if line == 'q':

break

str_list.append(line)

print("The Right linear grammar is:")

for rule in str_list:

print(rule)

print("Terminals are:")

try:

for rule in str_list:

for j in range(2, len(rule)):

if 'a' <= rule[j] <= 'z':

if not temp[0]:

temp[count] = rule[j]

else:

if rule[j] not in temp[:count+1]:

count += 1

temp[count] = rule[j]

except IndexError:

pass

print(" ".join([c for c in temp if c]))

print("\nNon-terminals are:")

count = 0

try:

for rule in str_list:

for j in range(2, len(rule)):

if 'A' <= rule[j] <= 'Z':

if not tempn[0]:

tempn[count] = rule[j]

else:

if rule[j] not in tempn[:count+1]:

count += 1

tempn[count] = rule[j]

except IndexError:

pass

print(" ".join([c for c in tempn if c]))

 print("\nThe Left linear Grammar is:")

for rule in str_list:

cr = 0

if 'A' <= rule[0] <= 'Z' and 'A' <= rule[-1] <= 'Z':

if (len(rule) - 2) // 2 >= 1:

for j in range(2, len(rule)):

left[cr] = rule[j]

cr += 1

for k in range((len(rule) - 2) // 2):

right = left[k]

left[k] = left[(len(rule) - 2) - 1 - k]

left[(len(rule) - 2) - 1 - k] = right

print(f"{left[0]}'-{rule[0]}'", end='')

for k in range((len(rule) - 2) - 1, 0, -1):

print(left[k], end='')

print()

else:

print(f"{rule[-1]}'-{rule[0]}'")

else:

print(f"Z'-{rule[0]}'", end='')

for j in range(2, len(rule)):

print(rule[j], end='')

print()

if __name__ == "__main__":

grammar = Grammar()

grammar.main()

Practical 2

Aim: Conversion of NDFA to DFA

import pandas as pd

# Input NFA
nfa = {input(f"State {i + 1}: "): {input(f"Symbol {j + 1}: "): input(f"End state(s) for state {i + 1} through symbol {j + 1}:
").split()
for j in range(int(input("No of Transitions: ")))} for i in range(int(input("No of States: ")))}

print("\nNFA:", nfa, "\nNFA Table:")

print(pd.DataFrame(nfa).transpose())
# Input Final States of NFA
nfa_final = input("\nEnter Final State(s) of NFA: ").split()

# Convert NFA to DFA

dfa, new_states, paths = {}, [], list(nfa[next(iter(nfa))].keys())
initial = "".join(nfa[next(iter(nfa))][paths[0]])
dfa[initial] = {}; new_states.append(initial)

while new_states:
curr = new_states.pop(0)
dfa[curr] = {}
for path in paths:
state = "".join(sorted(set(sum((nfa[s][path] for s in curr if path in nfa[s]), []))))
if state:
dfa[curr][path] = state
if state not in dfa: new_states.append(state)

print("\nDFA:", dfa, "\nDFA Table:")

print(pd.DataFrame(dfa).transpose().fillna("-"))

# Determine DFA Final States

dfa_final = [s for s in dfa if any(f in s for f in nfa_final)]
print("\nFinal States of the DFA:", dfa_final)
 Practical 3

Aim: Implementation of Warshall Algorithm and Kleen Closure

a)Warshall Algorithm
nv, INF = 4, 999
def floyd_warshall(G):
for k in range (nv):
for i in range (nv):
for j in range (nv):
G[i][j] = min(G[i][j], G[i][k] + G[k][j])
for row in G:
print( " " .join("INF" if x == INF else str(x) for x in row ))
G=[
[0,3,INF,5],
[2,0,INF,4],
[INF,1,0,4],
[INF,INF,2,0]
]

floyd_warshall(G)
b) Transitive closure

def transitive_closure(graph):
V = len(graph)
closure=[[0]* V for _ in range(V)]

for i in range(V):
for j in range(V):
closure[i][j] = graph[i][j]

for k in range(V):
for i in range(V):
for j in range(V):
closure[i][j] = closure[i][j] or (closure[i][k] and closure[k][j])
return closure

graph= [
[1, 1, 0, 1],
[0, 1, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 1, 1],
[0, 0, 0, 1]
]
result = transitive_closure(graph)
print("transitive closure:")
for row in result:
print(row)

Practical 4
Aim: Generating Simple Precedence Matrix

import numpy as np

from collections import deque

def topological_sort(precedence_matrix):
# Number of vertices

n = len(precedence_matrix)

# Compute in-degrees of each node

in_degree = [sum(col) for col in zip(*precedence_matrix)]

# Build adjacency list representation of the graph

graph = {i: [j for j, val in enumerate(precedence_matrix[i]) if val] for i in range(n)}

# Initialize a queue with all nodes having zero in-degree

queue = deque(i for i in range(n) if in_degree[i] == 0)

linear_order = []

# Process nodes in the queue

while queue:

node = queue.popleft()

linear_order.append(node)

# Decrement in-degree of neighboring nodes

for neighbor in graph[node]:

in_degree[neighbor] -= 1

if in_degree[neighbor] == 0:

queue.append(neighbor)

# Check if all nodes were processed

 if len(linear_order) == n:

return linear_order

# If not, there is a cycle in the graph

raise ValueError("Graph has a cycle or is not a DAG.")

# Example usage

precedence_matrix = np.array([

[0, 1, 0, 0],

[0, 0, 1, 0],

[0, 0, 0, 1],

[0, 0, 0, 0]

])

print("Topological order:", topological_sort(precedence_matrix))

Practical 5
Aim: Parsing using Simple Precedence Matrix
# Simple Precedence Parser in Python

# Define the grammar terminals and non-terminals

terminals = ['+','*','i','(',')','$']
non_terminals = ['E','T','F']

# Simple Precedence matrix

#+*i()$
matrix = [
['>','<','<','<','>','>'], # +
['>','>','<','<','>','>'], # *
['>','>','>','','','>'], # i
['<','<','<','<','=',''], # (
['>','>','','','>','>'], # )
['<','<','<','<','',''], # $
]

# Function to get the precedence relation from the matrix

def get_precedence(a,b):
if a in terminals and b in terminals:
i = terminals.index(a)
j = terminals.index(b)
return matrix[i][j]
return None

# Function to parse the input string

def parse(input_string):
stack = ['$']
i=0
input_string += '$'

print(f"Stack\tInput\tAction")
print(f"{''.join(stack)}\t{input_string[i:]}\t")

while i < len(input_string):

top = stack[-1]
current_input = input_string[i]

precedence = get_precedence(top, current_input)

if precedence == '<' or precedence == '=':

stack.append(current_input)
i += 1
action = "Shift"
elif precedence == '>':
while get_precedence(stack[-2], stack[-1]) != '<':
stack.pop()
stack.pop()
action = "Reduce"
elif precedence == '':
print(f"Error: No precedence relation between {top} and {current_input}.")
return False
else:
print(f"Error: unrecognized action.")
return False

print(f"{''.join(stack)}\t{input_string[i:]}\t{action}")

if stack == ['$'] and input_string[i] == '$':

print("Parsing Successful!")
return True
 print("Parsing Failed!")
return False

# Example Usage
input_string = "i+i*i"
parse(input_string)

Practical 6

Aim: Linearizing Simple Precedence Matrix to Precedence Functions

import numpy as np

# Sample terminal symbols

symbols = ['a', 'b', 'c']

# Input precedence matrix

# '<': -1, '=': 0, '>': 1
precedence_matrix = np.array([
[0, -1, 1],
[1, 0, -1],
[-1, 1, 0]
])
def compute_precedence_function(matrix, symbols):
n = len(symbols)

# Initialize Precedence functions f and g

f = [0] * n
g = [0] * n

# Assign precedence functions based on the matrix

for i in range(n):
for j in range(n):
if matrix[i][j] == 1:
f[i] = max(f[i], g[j] + 1)
elif matrix[i][j] == -1:
g[i] = max(g[i], f[j] + 1)

return f, g

# Compute precedence functions

f, g = compute_precedence_function(precedence_matrix, symbols)

# Output the precedence functions for each symbol

print("Precedence Function f:", {symbols[i]: f[i] for i in range(len(symbols))})
print("Precedence Function g:", {symbols[i]: g[i] for i in range(len(symbols))})

Practical 7

Aim: Generating Operator Precedence Matrix

def create_precedence_matrix(operators):
precedence_rules = {
('+','+'): '.>', ('+','*'): '<.', ('+','('): '<.', ('+',')'): '.>',
('*','+'): '.>', ('*','*'): '.>', ('*','('): '<.', ('*',')'): '.<',
('(','+'): '<.', ('(','*'): '<.', ('(','('): '<.', (')','+'): '>.',
(')','*'): '>.', (')',')'): '.>'
}
return [[precedence_rules.get((op1, op2), '.') for op2 in operators] for op1 in operators]

def print_precedence_matrix(operators, matrix):

print("Precedence Matrix\n " + " ".join(operators))
for op, row in zip(operators, matrix): print(op, " ".join(row))
if __name__ == "__main__":
operators = ['+', '*', '(', ')']
print_precedence_matrix(operators, create_precedence_matrix(operators))

Practical 8
Aim: Program for computation of FIRST AND FOLLOW of non-terminals.

from collections import defaultdict

# Input grammar as a dictionary

grammar = {
'S': ['AB', 'BC'],
'A': ['a', 'ε'],
'B': ['b'],
}

# FIRST and FOLLOW sets stored as Dictionaries

first = defaultdict(set)
follow = defaultdict(set)

# Function to compute the FIRST set for a given symbol

def compute_first(symbol):
# If already computed, return the FIRST set
if symbol in first and first[symbol]:
return first[symbol]

# If the symbol is terminal (lowercase), add it to its FIRST set

if symbol.islower() or symbol == 'ε':
first[symbol].add(symbol)
return first[symbol]

# If the symbol is non-terminal, iterate over its productions

for prod in grammar.get(symbol, []):
if prod == 'ε':
first[symbol].add('ε')
else:
for char in prod:
first_set = compute_first(char)
first[symbol].update(first_set - {'ε'}) # Add FIRST without ε
if 'ε' not in first_set:
break # Stop if no ε, as we found a terminal
else:
# If we reached the end and encountered ε, add ε to FIRST set
first[symbol].add('ε')

return first[symbol]
# Function to compute the FOLLOW set for a given symbol
def compute_follow(symbol):
if follow[symbol]:
return follow[symbol]

if symbol == 'S':
follow[symbol].add('$') # Assuming $ is the end of input marker

for lhs, productions in grammar.items():

for production in productions:
if symbol in production:
for i in range(len(production)):
if production[i] == symbol:
if i + 1 < len(production):
next_symbol = production[i + 1]
first_next = compute_first(next_symbol)
follow[symbol].update(first_next - {'ε'})
if 'ε' in first_next:
follow[symbol].update(compute_follow(lhs))
else:
if lhs != symbol:
follow[symbol].update(compute_follow(lhs))

return follow[symbol]

# Compute FIRST sets for all non-terminals

for non_terminal in grammar.keys():
compute_first(non_terminal)

# Compute FOLLOW sets for all non-terminals

for non_terminal in grammar.keys():
compute_follow(non_terminal)

# Display the FIRST and FOLLOW sets

print("FIRST sets:")
for key, value in first.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

print("\nFOLLOW sets:")
for key, value in follow.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")
 Practical 9
Aim: Conversion of Infix to Postfix notation, Postfix to Infix notations

a) Infix to Postfix notation

def precedence(op): return {'+': 1, '-': 1, '*': 2, '/': 2, '^': 3}.get(op, 0)
def is_operand(char): return char.isalnum()

def infix_to_postfix(expression):
stack, output = [], []
for char in expression:
if is_operand(char): output.append(char)
elif char == '(': stack.append(char)
elif char == ')':
while stack[-1] != '(': output.append(stack.pop())
stack.pop()
else:
while stack and precedence(char) <= precedence(stack[-1]): output.append(stack.pop())
stack.append(char)
return ''.join(output + stack[::-1])

expression = "A+B*(C-D)"
print("Infix Expression:", expression)
print("Postfix Expression:", infix_to_postfix(expression))
b) Postfix to Infix notations
def precedence(op): return {'+': 1, '-': 1, '*': 2, '/': 2, '^': 3}.get(op, 0)
def is_operand(char): return char.isalnum()

def infix_to_postfix(expression):
stack, output = [], []
for char in expression:
if is_operand(char): output.append(char)
elif char == '(': stack.append(char)
elif char == ')':
while stack[-1] != '(': output.append(stack.pop())
stack.pop()
else:
while stack and precedence(char) <= precedence(stack[-1]): output.append(stack.pop())
stack.append(char)
return ''.join(output + stack[::-1])

expression = "A+B*(C-D)"
print("Infix Expression:", expression)
print("Postfix Expression:", infix_to_postfix(expression))

Practical 10
Aim: Generation of three address code and DAG for the given arithmetic expression

class ThreeAddressCode:
def __init__(self):
self.temp_count = 0
self.code = []

def new_temp(self):
self.temp_count += 1
return f't{self.temp_count}'

def generate_tac(self, expression):

postfix = self.infix_to_postfix(expression)
return self.postfix_to_tac(postfix)

def infix_to_postfix(self, expression):

precedence = {'+': 1, '-': 1, '*': 2, '/': 2}
output = []
stack = []
tokens = list(expression.replace(" ", ""))

for token in tokens:

if token.isalnum(): # Operand
 output.append(token)
elif token == '(': # Left parenthesis
stack.append(token)
elif token == ')': # Right parenthesis
while stack and stack[-1] != '(':
output.append(stack.pop())
stack.pop() # Remove the '('
else: # Operator
while (stack and stack[-1] in precedence and
precedence[stack[-1]] >= precedence[token]):
output.append(stack.pop())
stack.append(token)

while stack: # Pop all the operators in the stack

output.append(stack.pop())

return output

def postfix_to_tac(self, postfix):

stack = []
for token in postfix:
if token.isalnum():
stack.append(token)
else:
arg2 = stack.pop()
arg1 = stack.pop()
temp = self.new_temp()
self.code.append(f'{temp} = {arg1} {token} {arg2}')
stack.append(temp)

return self.code

class DAGNode:
def __init__(self, value):
self.value = value
self.children = []
self.label = None

def __repr__(self):
return f"{self.value} (label: {self.label})"

class DAG:
def __init__(self):
self.nodes = []

def find_or_create_node(self, value):

for node in self.nodes:
if node.value == value:
return node

# Create a new node if not found

new_node = DAGNode(value)
 self.nodes.append(new_node)
return new_node

def create_dag(self, expression):

postfix = self.infix_to_postfix(expression)
return self.build_dag_from_postfix(postfix)

def infix_to_postfix(self, expression):

precedence = {'+': 1, '-': 1, '*': 2, '/': 2, '(': 0, ')': 0}
output = []
stack = []
tokens = list(expression.replace(" ", ""))

for token in tokens:

if token.isalnum():
output.append(token)
elif token == '(':
stack.append(token)
elif token == ')':
while stack and stack[-1] != '(':
output.append(stack.pop())
stack.pop()
else:
while (stack and stack[-1] in precedence and
precedence[stack[-1]] >= precedence[token]):
output.append(stack.pop())
stack.append(token)

while stack:
output.append(stack.pop())
return output

def build_dag_from_postfix(self, postfix):

stack = []

for token in postfix:

if token.isalnum():
node = self.find_or_create_node(token)
stack.append(node)
else:
arg2 = stack.pop()
arg1 = stack.pop()
node = self.find_or_create_node(f"{arg1.value} {token} {arg2.value}")
node.children.extend([arg1, arg2])
stack.append(node)

return stack[0]

def display(self, node, level=0):

if node:
print(' ' * (level * 4) + str(node))
for child in node.children:
self.display(child, level + 1)
# Example
expression = "(a + b) * (c + d)"

# Generate TAC
tac_generator = ThreeAddressCode()
tac = tac_generator.generate_tac(expression)
print("Three Address Code:")
for line in tac:
print(line)

# Generate DAG
dag = DAG()
root = dag.create_dag(expression)
print("\nDirected Acyclic Graph:")
dag.display(root)