CHAPTER 1

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY FIELD

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:
1. Define environment and its elements
2. Define Environmental Science
3. Understand the nature of environmental science as a field of
study
4. Enumerate the different fields related to Environmental Science
5. Know the necessary skills and career paths of environmental
science

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE deals with the study of how living and

nonliving things interact with their environment. Environmental science
is a multidisciplinary discipline. Understanding the environment, the
interaction of living and non-living things requires different aspects,
thus, knowledge of various disciplines from the natural and social
sciences is required.

FIELDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

As Environmental Science is a multidisciplinary field, there are general
education subjects that must be familiarized with. As the field deals
with the physical environment and how it affects interactions among
living things, most of the fields and skills involved come mostly from
the natural sciences.

1. Natural Sciences
Natural Sciences are a group of disciplines that study the physical
world and all the phenomena in nature.

Main Branches of Natural Science

A. Physical Sciences - is the study of the inorganic world.

B. Biological Sciences - is the study of life, from single-celled

organisms to complex plants and animals. It deals with the
living organisms to better understand life processes and its
interactions with their environments.
 2 Social Sciences
A social science is any branch of academic study or science that
deals with human behavior in its social and cultural aspects.

3 Urban and Landscape Planning

4 Climate, Earth and Disaster Science
5 Environmental Impact Assessment

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Ask a Question
The scientific method starts when you ask a question about
something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which,
Why, or Where?

2. Determine the goal of the study

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for
answering your question, do a background research. Find the
best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes
from the past. Focus on what needs to be completed and
accomplished.

3. Construct a hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an
attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be
tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will
be testing. Predictions must be easy to measure.

4. Test your hypothesis

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and
thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your
experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making
sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all
other conditions the same.
 You should also repeat your experiments several times to make
sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

5. Analyze your data and draw a conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your
measurements and analyze them to see if they support your
hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and
their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they will
communicate the results of their experiment and then go back
and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the
information they learned during their experiment. This starts
much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if
they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to
test it again in a new way.

6. Communicate your results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your
results to others in a final report and/or a display board.
Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by
publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting
their results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In
a science fair, judges are interested in your findings regardless of
whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

SKILLS IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FIELD

1. Searching and reading books and scientific journals - important in

finding reference literature for a study or practice
2. Fieldwork – capability to conduct experiments, as well as endure
and gather data outside or remote environments
3. Laboratory – involves data collection and conduct of experiments
in a special facility using the necessary equipment or materials. It
also involves understanding of important protocols
4. Documentation – involves note-taking, picture-taking and
encoding for data gathering
5. Data management – arrangement labelling of collected data or
notes
6. Familiarization and use of instruments and equipment
7. Coding, programming, and use of softwares – necessary in
analysis to produce results, as well as automation
 8. Analysis of results and technical writing – involves a systematic
narrative on description of results, discussing implications,
drawing conclusions and creation of recommendations.

CHAPTER 2
THE ECOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:
1. Familiarize with the definition and interrelationship of ecology,
ecosystem and biodiversity
2. Understand the theories behind evolution and adaption, and
species biodiversity and why they are important in preservation
of plant and animal species and resources

Properties of Life
All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions:
order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction,
adaptation, growth and development, regulation/ homeostasis, energy
processing, and evolution. When viewed together, these eight
characteristics serve to define life. The cell is the smallest unit of a
living thing. Cells vary in size and characteristics. Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic are the two divisions of cells. Prokaryotes are single-celled
organisms by which the cells do not possess a nucleus, rather its DNA
is contained in a nucleoid. Eukaryotes are multi-celled organisms
wherein the cells have a nucleus, and other parts such as the
organelles, chloroplasts and mitochondria are enclosed inside a
membrane.

ECOLOGY
Defined as the study of how organisms interact with one another and
with their nonliving environment. The study of ecology involves various
organisms, their lineage and the characteristics of their habitat. An
important aspect of ecology is understanding the ecosystem and how
it works. An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting
with one another and with their nonliving environment of soil, water,
other forms of matter, and energy, mostly from the sun. Ecosystems
can be natural or man-made and may vary in size or characteristics.
Crop fields, tree farms, gardens and reservoirs are considered as man-
made ecosystems. It is said that ecosystems do not have clear
boundaries and are not isolated from one another. Matter and energy
move from one ecosystem to another.

ENVIRONMENT AND ITS ELEMENTS

Environment is defined as anything that surrounds living and non-living
things and their dynamics. It is constituted by the interacting systems
of physical, biological and cultural elements inter-related in various
ways, individually as well as collectively.

1. Physical Elements
Physical elements are spaces, landforms, water bodies,
climate, soils, rocks and minerals.
2. Biological Elements
Biological elements as plants, animals, microorganisms and
humans that constitutes the biosphere.
3. Cultural Elements
 Cultural elements such as economic, social and political
elements are essentially manmade features.

SCOPE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere contains the gases that surround

the earth:
2. Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere comprises all types of water
resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoir, polar ice
caps, glaciers, and ground water:
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth.
It consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil
e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.
4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms
and their interactions with environment, atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
There are different types of ecosystems in the world, but they can be
classified into two broad categories: terrestrial and aquatic. A
terrestrial ecosystem can be found on land, while an aquatic
ecosystem can be found in bodies of water. Likewise, as mentioned,
ecosystems do not have clear boundaries, so there may be two or
more types of ecosystems in one ecosystem. The following are the
common types of ecosystem:

• Grassland Ecosystems are ecosystems with grass and herb types

of vegetation. Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of
the examples of grassland
ecosystems.
• Forest Ecosystems consist of a variety of plants, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth
and are the major carbon sink.
• Tundra Ecosystems are ecosystems which do not possess a lot of
trees and vegetation and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is
scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. The
ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is an example of a tundra
ecosystem.
• Desert Ecosystems are ecosystems with very little rainfall.
Probably the most famous desert ecosystem is the Sahara
Desert.
• Freshwater Ecosystems are ecosystems in lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams and wetlands.
• Marine Ecosystems are saltwater-based ecosystems such as seas
and oceans.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic components are the nonliving aspects of an ecosystem such

as water, air, nutrients, rocks, heat, and solar energy, while the biotic
ones are the living aspects such as plants, animals, microorganisms
and humans.

Biotic components can be further sub-categorized based on their

nutrition, or the type of food they can ingest. Autotrophs are organisms
that can produce their own food source through light, water, carbon
dioxide, or other chemicals. Heterotrophs are organisms that eat other
plants or animals for energy and nutrients, while saprotrophs are
organisms that feed on nonliving or decayed organic matter.

As described by these components, an ecosystem in itself is a source

of food, energy, habitat and livelihood by those who are living there. It
also provides balance and maintenance in the nutrient cycle and
natural processes such as water filtration and energy exchange.

TROPHIC LEVELS AND THE ECOSYSTEM CHAIN

A food chain in an ecosystem is a series of production and

consumption of energy. The chain can be described by its trophic
levels. A trophic level is each step in the food chain in an ecosystem.

The following are the trophic levels in an ecosystem food chain:

• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called

autotrophs as they can produce their own food via photosynthesis. Due
to this, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on
producers for food
• Consumers rely on plants and immediate consumers for food. The
following are categories of consumers:
- Primary consumers or herbivores are animals that ingest plants;
- Secondary consumers or carnivores are animals that ingest primary
consumers;
- Tertiary consumers or carnivorous predators and/ or omnivores are
animals that ingest lower level consumers;
• Decomposers are organisms that ingest non-living or decaying
matter by breaking them down.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define Environmental Awareness and Environmentalism.

ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

Producers, consumers, and decomposers undergo energy conversion

processes for their own needs. One process is photosynthesis which
described as the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar.

Chemical Equation 6C02 + 6H20 -> C6H1206 + 602 which means

reactants, carbon dioxide and water are converted by light energy
captured by chlorophyll into sugar and oxygen.

In contrast, chemosynthesis is the process by which certain microbes

create energy by mediating chemical reactions Mostly those who
belong to the producers category undergo chemosynthesis. Deep sea
creatures such as mussels which reside and stay in seafloor
hydrothermal vents are the usual chemosynthesis processors. Some
specialized bacteria can convert simple inorganic compounds from
their environment into more complex nutrient compounds without
using sunlight, through chemosynthesis.
As for cell respiration, there are two types that can be described,
Aerobic respiration is a chemical reaction that transfers energy to cells
through the use of oxygen. Sugar, or glucose, is converted into carbon
dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration on the other hand converts
energy without the use of oxygen. One example of anaerobic
respiration is fermentation by which glucose is converted to gas
compounds. Two types of fermentation are in the forms of lactic acid
and alcohol.

It is ideal that energy balance exists among consumers. This balance is

maintained through energy flow via the food chain and nutrient cycling
in the biosphere. The energy decreases as it is transferred into each
step of the food chain. Each level in the chain consists of biomass, the
dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms. The
percentage of usable chemical energy transferred as biomass from one
trophic level to the next is called ecological efficiency. Nitrogen cycle
also enables conversion of nitrogen into nutrients for plants and
animals. Sulfur cycle is the process where sulfur is regulated via the
natural pathways in the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Transfer of
phosphorus happens via natural means as well such as erosion and
plate tectonics on biosphere.

These processes are essential in maintaining energy balance in the

ecosystem. However, there are imbalances that happen due to human
activities which result in interruption of cycles. Examples of these
occurrences are runoffs in water systems, use of excess fertilizers, and
pollution.

EVOLUTION

An important topic in the field of environmental science is species and

their evolution. Species are defined as organisms that breed in nature
and produce fertile offspring. Evolution is the change in the
characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection. Species evolve through time and
environmental changes via adaptation. Adaptation is defined as
acquiring characteristics of other living things in order to survive its
habitat and the environment.

Charles Darwin is the father of the theory of evolution, where he

mentioned its three vital components: Heredity, Variation and
Fitness. Details of the theory are laid out in his book published in
1859 entitled Origin of Species. Heredity refers to specific mechanisms
by which characteristics or traits are passed from one generation to
the next via genes. It is the process by which characters are passed on
from parent to progeny; it is the basis of heredity. Variation is the
degree by which progeny differ from their parents.

A related concept when it comes to evolution is ecological succession.

Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of a
biological community evolves over time. There are two types of
succession: primary and secondary. Primary succession is an ecological
succession that begins in essentially lifeless areas, such as regions in
which there is no soil or where the soil is incapable of sustaining life.
Secondary succession on the other hand is the plants and animals
recolonize a habitat after a major disturbance-such as a devastating
flood, wildfire, landslide, lava flow, or human activity. These
disturbances result in habitat fragmentation, introduction of new
species, and creation of invasive and non-invasive species. A climax
community refers to a stable ecosystem in its final stage of ecological
succession. In a climax community, the plants and animals are in
balance with each other and their environment.

POPULATION BIOLOGY

Discussions on evolution and ecological succession leads to

understanding the concept of population and its growth or decrease.
Population refers to the total number of a single species living in an
area. A community is a group or association of populations of two or
more different species occupying the same geographical area at the
same time. The rate of growth is the number of individuals which can
be produced per unit of time under ideal conditions.

Reduction of population may happen due to limited food and

resources. Carrying capacity (K) refers to the population of a species
that can be supported without depleting the available resources. In this
sense, boom and bust happens when a population undergoes a
repeated cycle of overshoots followed by crashes.

The life span of a species varies by species. Maximum life span refers
to the longest period of life reached by a given type of organism.
Survivor curves show differences in relative longevity among species.
Demographic bottleneck also happens where a few members of a
species survive a catastrophic event. This may result in inbreeding,
which may lead to the expression of detrimental recessive genes and
therefore reduces genetic diversity.

SPECIES DIVERSITY

There are currently 1.7 million species identified out of the at least 3
million estimated number. Diversity of species is more common in the
tropics and least in the arctic. Biodiversity describes the enormous
variety of life on Earth. It can be used more specifically to refer to all of
the species in one region or ecosystem. Biodiversity refers to every
living thing, including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans.
Genetic diversity refers to variation within a species, while species
diversity - variation of species within a community. Ecological
diversity explains the richness and complexity of a community.

Biodiversity has a lot of benefits in an ecosystem. It contributes to the

abundance of variety and availability of food. It also helps in terms of
aesthetic and cultural aspects. Further, it can help in the provision of
medicines as well.

Amid the benefits, there are also a lot of threats to biodiversity. One of
the threats is extinction. Extinction is the elimination of a species on
Earth. Natural extinction happens in one species per decade.

Fossil records suggest that greater than 99% of species in existence

are now extinct. Human-caused reductions in biodiversity occur in the
form of habitat destruction, such as conversion of forest to farmlands
and cities, mining and damming which result in fragmentation. Other
causes are invasion of habitat, pollution such as via pesticides,
chemicals, lead, overuse of resources by humans, and overharvesting
of live specimens for commercial products.

The list of species which are already near or in danger of extinction are
found on the endangered species list. Initiatives to prevent this threat
are ongoing, such as the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES). It is signed by 100 plus countries and
aims to monitor and restrict species harmed by trade. Zoos may help
but not enough, natural habitat, captive breeding not always
successful. Other initiatives which are done in the Philippine setting will
be covered in the environmental law topic.

Species diversity is also indicated by landscape biodiversity. In terms

of forests, tropical forests, primary forests and mangrove forests are
the most diverse. Tropical forests occur near the equator where wet
and dry seasons are present. Tropics have a high annual precipitation
occurrence mostly greater than eighty percent. It is usually warm with
little seasonal temperature variation. Due to this characteristic, tropical
forests have high biodiversity of species. Primary forests or old growth
forests compose primarily of native species with little indication of
human activity. Primary forests are economically vital due to high
wood consumption, usually for fuel and paper production.
Forests regulate climate because they are carbon sinks. Removal of
forests means removal of plants that take carbon out of the
atmosphere. Other land covers such as crops do not store carbon that
much. The act of removal of forests is called deforestation.
Deforestation may be caused by natural phenomena, but are usually
driven by man-made activities, such as transformation of forests into
infrastructure amid industrial and commercial developments,
subsistence agriculture or slash-and-burn, mining, and wood
extraction. In Southeast Asia, primary forests transformed into palm oil
production.

Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing

forests and woodlands that have been depleted. Reforestation is
dominantly done through monoculture due to its promotion of rapid
growth and easy harvesting. However, it supports little biodiversity.
Forest Protection is an initiative to save the natural forests in the
world. Around twelve percent of forests are now protected. The largest
and most dominant forest protection initiative in the world is the
United Nations Program for Reduced Emission from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation (REDD+). Countries and landowners that protect
and restore forests are rewarded by developed countries.

As for grasslands, grazing is where domestic livestock are allowed

outdoors to roam around and consume wild vegetation. Grazing can be
done sustainably, as pastoralists herd their animals to adjust to
variations in rainfall and seasonal conditions. Oftentimes when a land
is overgrazed, it can lead to desertification. Proper grazing methods
must be implemented to avoid desertification.

Warm, shallow coral reefs such as the Great Barrier Reef, provide a
symbiotic relationship with algae which supplies nutrients essential for
photosynthesis. Reefs provide shelter and access to sunlight. Coral
bleaching and cyanide dynamite fishing are the most common threats
to coral reefs. There are also cold coral reefs which do not require
sunlight and are widely distributed at the bottom of the seas and
oceans. Bottom trawling is a threat in cold reefs.