Institute of General Semantics
SEMANTICS, GENERAL SEMANTICS: AN ATTEMPT AT DEFINITION
Author(s): S. I. HAYAKAWA
Source: ETC: A Review of General Semantics, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter 1944-1945), pp. 116-120
Published by: Institute of General Semantics
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A Review of General Semantics
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* DISCUSSION *
SEMANTICS. , GENERAL SEMANTICS :
AN ATTEMPT AT DEFINITION*
S. I. HAYAKAWA
that of logic.' The study of 'significance'
SEMANTICS, toricallinguistic
torical linguistic (l) study The branch
study thatthatdeals
deals ofsys-
his- was to her far more than the study of
tematically with the changes in the mean- words, it was also the study of acts and
ings of words , as the lexicoprapher un- situations; 'significance' itself was more
derstands tmeaning> ; semasiology. (2) than lexical meaning' or 'finding the
The study of human responses to lin- referent'; it included both insight into
guistic (and other) symbols; the study of motives and moral judgment. The object
human behavior with , and under the stim- of her study, then, was the total interpre-
ulus of, symbols , including the linguistic; tative act, the reaction of the individual
signifies. to signs and sign-situations. Out of such
Since the publication in 1923 of The study, she urged, would develop general
Meaning of Meaning by C. K. Ogden principles of interpretation and evalua-
and I. A. Richards, interest in and con- tion, a 'method of mind.' This 'method
troversy about semantics have become so of mind' should be applied generally in
widespread that it is possible now to all intellectual endeavors and especially
speak of a 'semantics movement.' The in education, in order to escape the 'hot-
term 'semantics,' in spite of its original bed of confusion,' the 'prison of sense-
less formalism,' and the 'barren contro-
use by Michel Bréal to designate histori-
versy' which are the result, first, of the
cal inquiries into changes in the mean-
ings of words, is now used more frequent-
defects of our inherited languages ('The
leading civilizations of the world have
ly to refer to the kind of inquiry initiated
and encouraged by Lady Viola Welby been content to perpetuate modes of
under the name 'signifies.' Signifies was speech once entirely fitting but now
to her 'the science of meaning or the study
grossly inappropriate') and secondly, of
of significance, provided sufficient recog- defects in our habits of interpretation.
She proposed, therefore, systematic re-
nition is given to its practical aspect as a visions in both.
method of mind, one which is involved
in all forms of mental activity, including One of the central points in 'signifies'
was that many crucial problems which
* Reprinted from Dictionary of World Lit-
have disturbed both practical men and
erature by permission of the editor, Dr. Joseph
T. Shipley, and the publishers, Philosophical philosophers for centuries are essentially
Library, Inc., 15 E. 40th St., New York 16, linguistic, that is, they are the accidental
N. Y.
result of the particular set of linguistic
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DISCUSSION
conventions one happens to inherit. They C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards were
may also be the result of unconsciously enormously influential in advancing se-
held assumptions about language and its mantics, or, as they called it in The Mean-
relationship to whatever words stand for, ing of Meaning, the science of symbolism.
these assumptions being in turn the result They addressed themselves vigorously to
of ignorance of the functions performed the problems Lady Welby had regarded
by language. Support for Lady Welby's as fundamental, and pointed out that
contentions (which, of course, had been since 'New millions of participants in the
anticipated in part by many philosophers control of general affairs must now at-
from Francis Bacon to Jeremy Bentham) tempt to form personal opinions upon
has gathered from many and unexpected matters which were once left to a few,'
quarters since her time, and the word we must cease to look upon linguistic in-
'semantics' is now generally used to indi- quiry as 'purely theoretical,' but must
cate the speculations and findings in many rather 'raise the level of communications
fields of knowledge which throw light through a direct study of its conditions,
on the problems she raised. One group, its dangers and its difficulties.' They
the mathematicians and philosophers of welcomed the work of the empiricist
'logical positivist,' 'empirical rationalist,' philosophers and boldly attempted to
and 'physicalisť points of view, by mak- show the linguistic difficulties, the un-
ing sharp discriminations between the conscious intrusion of verbal superstitions,
various functions of language, has dem- the unconscious belief in word-magic,
onstrated, at least to its own satisfaction, that underlie many of the problems of
that metaphysical problems, being by na- esthetics and philosophy. Their basic dis-
ture incapable of empirical solution, had tinction was that words may be 'symbolic'
best not be discussed at all. Other prob- (referential) or 'emotive.' The kinds of
lems, they maintain, are translatable in meaning poetry communicates and the
'analytical' form, and when translated difficulties they offer the reader have been
they reveal themselves not to be problems the special concern of I. A. Richards, who
of 'reality' at all, but merely problems of now regards words as much more com-
vocabulary. That is to say, the 'necessary plex.
propositions' of logic and mathematics Anthropological researches have fur-
give us information not about the uni- ther contributed to semantics. Bronislaw
verse but about our use of words. In the Malinowski, in his study of primitive lan-
light of an adequate theory of signs, or guages, finds that 'to regard (language)
semiotic, we shall have a basis, according as a means for the embodiment or ex-
to leading members of this group (Otto pression of thought is to take a one-sided
Neurath, Rudolph Carnap, Bertrand Rus- view of one of its most derivate and spe-
sell, C. W. Morris, Leonard Bloomfield, ciaÜ2ed functions.' Language is rather a
etc.), not only for the solution of prob- 'mode of behavior.' Linguistic events are
lems previously held to be insoluble, but therefore not to be studied in isolation in
also for the unification of knowledge, by terms merely of their lexical content or
the discovery of the relationship of the logical coherence, but in their relation-
languages of the various sciences to each ship to the social institutions, activities,
other, and the relationship of the lan- and rituals of which they are a part. In
guages of ethics and poetry to that of short, linguistic events are explicable only
science. in terms of their non-linguistic context.
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ETC.: A REVIEW OF GENERAL SEMANTICS
Malinowski's suggestion that this con- Pre-occupied with the correction of
textual approach be applied toward the 'ideas,' he is extremely attentive to words,
study of the utterances of civilized man propositions, and their internal order and
has been carried out, notably by Thurman coherence ('logic') ; he is likely to regard
W. Arnold, with results that are at once as irrelevant, therefore, all the non-
amusing and provocative. Anthropologi- linguistic setting and consequences which,
cal linguists (e.g., B. L. Whorf) study- according to the semanticist, give to
ing languages outside the Indo-European linguistic events whatever significance
family have performed a further service they may possess. For this reason, the
to semantics in showing the enormous mentalist does not concede the existence
variety of structures that languages may of any special 'semantic' problems other
possess, and in so doing have demon- than the necessity, here and there, of
strated that 'laws of thought' are by no changes or improvements in vocabulary
means as 'universal' as they were believed to 'eliminate confusion.' The semanticist,
to be.
on the other hand, regards the study of
The 'operationalism' of P. W. Bridg- such at present generally ignored matters
man, who holds that the 'meaning' of as our unconscious attitudes toward lan-
scientific statements resides in the opera- guage, the place of symbols in human
tions' involved in testing their validity, behavior, the influence of the structure
has done much to eliminate unconscious
of our inherited tongues, and the non-
metaphysical assumptions from scientific linguistic contexts and consequences of
thought. Excellent semantic observations linguistic events as indispensable in the
have also been contributed by social psy-
emancipation of humanity from super-
chologists and students of propaganda stition and idolatry.
(Lasswell, Doob, etc.), by psychologists
(Piaget, Koffka, etc.), while the literature
of psychoanalysis is crowded with infor-
General ambitious
ambitious semantics. attempt totosynthesize
attempt The mostand
synthesize and
mation about human linguistic and sym-
made usable such scientific and linguistic
bolic functioning that must eventually be
findings as are here called 'semantic' is the
understood by semanticists and absorbed
work of Alfred Korzybski, Polish (now
into their discipline.
American) mathematician and engineer.
'Adherents of mentalistic psychology,'
says Leonard Bloomfield, 'believe that . . . In his Science and Sanity (1933) he pro-
prior to the utterance of a linguistic form,
poses a system of general semantics,'
there occurs within the speaker a non- which discards 'theories of meaning'
physical process, a thought , concept , (which he regards as leading inescapably
image , feeling, act of will, or the liké. to verbal and terminological hair-split-
. . . For the mentalist language is the ting) in favor of a study of 'evaluations,'
expression of ideas, feelings, or volitions .' i.e., the responses of the human organ-
This mentalist position, widely held not ism-as-a-whole to signs and sign-situ-
only by the lay public but also by many ations. Underlying our 'evaluations,' or
scientists, philosophers, and literary men, 'semantic reactions,' says Korzybski, are
is the principal barrier to the understand- neurologically channelized epistemolog-
ing of semantics. The mentalist's conten- ica! and linguistic assumptions. These
tion is that if people's 'ideas' are straight- assumptions, when infantile, primitive, or
ened out, language will take care of itself. unscientific, lead not only to confusions
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DISCUSSION
and perplexities in discourse and discus- similarities ; it compels one to take heed
sion, but also to misevaluations in every- of contexts ; hence it automatically makes
day life: misevaluations which, when for the better adjustment of the individ-
serious enough, require the attention of ual to the situation at hand.
psychiatrists. Such misevaluations are, What Korzybski hopes to perform with
furthermore, , systematic and widely his 'indexing' - and this is only one of
shared; education and social institutions several such devices - is to replace, by
may be built upon them; in such cases education, old orientations based upon
(and he cites our present plight as an aristotelian (and earlier) 'laws of
example) cultures, like individuals, may thought' by a 'non-aristotelian orienta-
be compulsively driven into a persistence tion': one that will free man from his
in those very acts or policies most certain crippling dogmas and superstitions and
to bring about their destruction. enable him to bring to bear the attitudes
In order to safeguard ourselves against of modern science upon problems hither-
the false notions about the world inevit- to approached by debate, dialectics, and
ably conveyed by linguistic systems and incantation. (By modern science is not
response patterns inherited from our sav- meant nineteenth century 'materialism',
age ancestors, in order to force our nerv- the 'materialism' vs. 'idealism' controver-
ous systems to take into account the neces- sy being itself one of the barren disputes
sary refraction' of the linguistic medium, produced by the imperfections of lan-
in order to prevent the useful beliefs and guage.) The needed 'non-aristotelian
slogans of one age from becoming, under orientation,' with its- flexibility, its free-
changed circumstances, the obstacles to dom from dogmatism, its profound
progress in the next, Korzybski offers a recognition of the neuristic character of
set of 'semantic devices,' which are de- terms, its habit of seeking structural re-
signed to enable one to overthrow the lationships rather than 'things-in-them-
tyranny of prescientific habits of evalua- selves,' Korzybski finds already manifest
tion. These devices are intended to serve in many branches of science: in non-
both ends deemed necessary by Lady Euclidean geometry, in non-Newtonian
Welby, namely, the revision of language physics, in quantum mechanics, in psy-
and the revision of our systems of re- chosomatic medicine, in the topological
sponse. One of these devices (and they psychology of Kurt Lewin, in the axio-
are all simple) is 'indexing.' Traditional matic biology of J. F. Woodger, etc., as
education and social habits, based on well as in many branches of modern art
Aristotle's first 'law of thought' (A is A) , and literature. In characterizing this
incline men to respond to similarities, orientation as non-aristotelian,' he speci-
ignoring differences. Hence, 'meaning' fies the goal; in 'general semantics' he
being a matter of neuro-semantic con- offers a method whereby it may be gen-
ditioning, one tends to react to all cases erally achieved and universally applied.
of A uniformly, disregarding the differ- Human ignorance, he declares, is not
ences between the word-y4 and the nearly as serious a barrier to progress as
thin g-A, between At and Av between the inability to utilize knowledge already
At1941 and A™**, between ^context-* available.
and ^in-context-y The addition of these Those who agree with James Harvey
indexes, according to the rule A1 is not Robinson that the greatest problém con-
A2 , trains one in differences as well as fronting civilization is to 'overcome in-
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ETC.: A REVIEW OF GENERAL SEMANTICS
veterate natural tendencies and artificial his system. Some have been enthusiastic,
habits of long standing' and to 'create others less so; but most have conceded
an unpredecented attitude of mind to at least that he has dealt with problems
cope with unprecedented conditions, and of fundamental importance. On the other
to utilize unprecedented knowledge/ hand, those who feel that civilization can
have followed Korzybski's work with only be saved by the resuscitation of
interest, have experimented with his earlier systems ('classical,' medieval, etc.)
methods, have begun inquiries into the have found in general semantics little to
practical and theoretical implications of recommend.
References
Thurman W. Arnold, The Symbols of manity, 1921 ; Science and Sanity: An
Government , 1935; The Folklore of Introduction to Non- Aristotelian Systems
Capitalism, 1937; A. J. Ayer, Language, and General Semantics, 1933; C. W.
Truth, and Logic, 1936; Eric T. Bell, The Morris, Foundations of the Theory of
Search for Truth, 1934; Leonard Bloom- Signs, 1938; C. K. Ogden and I. A.
field, Language, 1933; The Linguistic Richards, The Meaning of Meaning,
Aspects of Science, 1939; P. W. Bridg- 1923; Jean Piaget, The Language and
man, The Logic of Modern Physics, Thought of the Child, 1926; I. A. Rich-
1927 ; Karl Britton, Communication, ards, Practical Criticism, 1929; Interpre-
1939; Rudolf Carnap, Philosophy and tation in Teaching, 1938; T. Weisenburg
Logical Syntax, 1935; Logical Syntax of and K. McBride, Aphasia, A Clinical and
Language, 1937 ; Jerome Frank, Law and Physiological Study, 1935; A. P. Weiss,
the Modern Mind, 1930; H. R. Huse, The Theoretical Basis of Human Be-
The Illiteracy of the Literate, 1933; Al- havior, 1925; V. Welby, What is Mean-
fred Korzybski, The Manhood of Hu- ing? 1903; Signifies and Language, 1911.
ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS :
MAPS AND TERRITORIES
JOHN H. JACOBS*
thing having intrinsic value in itself.
MODERN classified accounting
classified asasaa special
specialcan form properly
form ofofmathe-
mathe- be Many textbooks of accounting often
matics. It is the systematic organization start with certain 'fundamental' defini-
of numbers and accounts in double-entry tions. Students are not told about the
bookkeeping that enables managers of 'territory' which these verbalisms are to
industrial and social enterprises to draw represent. From these basic isolated defi-
pictures, 'maps' of the events changing nitions a system of accounting is built up,
each day. We often tend to isolate the and it appears to be entirely independent
system in our minds. Sometimes we find of the happenings of the world in which
ourselves considering the system as some- the student lives. Since he does not visu-
* B.S. (Lehigh) ; M.A. (Denver) ; presi- alize the territory which the figures rep-
dent, O.P. Baur Confectionery Company, Den- resent, the figures have little concrete
ver, Colorado; lecturer, University of Denver. meaning for him.
120
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