Electric potential
We know, the total work required to move the charge from (B) to (A) location is,
𝐴
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝐵
Now dividing W by Q gives the potential energy per unit charge. The quantity denoted by VAB is know
as the potential difference between points B and A. Thus,
𝐴
𝑊
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = − ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑄 𝐵
Note that,
In determining VAB, B is the initial point while A is the final point.
If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from B to A; this implies that
the work is being done by the field. However, if V AB is positive, there is a gain in potential
energy in the movement.
VAB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly referred to as volts (V).
If the E field in above figure is due to a point charge Q located at the origin, then
𝑄
𝐸= 𝑎
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟
Then we have,
𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝐵
𝑟𝐴
𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −∫ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑟
𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑄 1 1
= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
Then,
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
Where, 𝑉𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐴 are the potentials at B and A respectively.
Potential difference produced by a line charge
We know,
𝜌𝐿
𝐸 = 𝐸𝜌 𝑎𝜌 = 𝑎
2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
The potential difference,
𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐿
𝐵
𝐴
𝜌𝐿
=∫ ( 𝑎 ) (𝑑𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑧 )
𝐵 2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
𝐴
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝜌
=− ∫
2𝜋𝜖0 𝐵 𝜌
𝜌𝐿
=− [ln 𝜌]𝐵𝐴
2𝜋𝜖0
𝜌𝐿 𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ln
2𝜋𝜖0 𝐵
Work done when displacement (𝝆) of source to point charge increase or decrease
We know,
𝜌𝐿
𝐸= 𝑎
2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
We also know, work done
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜌2
𝜌𝐿
= −𝑄 ∫ ( 𝑎 ) ∙ (𝑑𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑧 )
𝜌1 2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
𝑄𝜌𝐿 𝜌2 𝑑𝜌
=− ∫
2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌1 𝜌
𝑄𝜌𝐿
=− [ln 𝜌]𝜌𝜌21
2𝜋𝜖0
𝑄𝜌𝐿 𝜌2
𝑊=− ln
2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌1
Work done when displacement (𝝆) is same but, change in angle (𝝋).
We know,
𝜌𝐿
𝐸= 𝑎
2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
We also know, work done
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜌2
𝜌𝐿
= −𝑄 ∫ ( 𝑎 ) ∙ 𝑑𝐿
𝜌1 2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
Here, 𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . Change in agnle (𝜑) makes (𝜌) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑧) 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
𝜌2
𝜌𝐿
= −𝑄 ∫ ( 𝑎 ) ∙ (𝜌𝑑𝜑 𝑎𝜑 )
𝜌1 2𝜋𝜖0 𝜌 𝜌
𝑊=0
Potential Gradient (W.H.Hayt)
We know
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐿
For a very short element of length ∆𝐿 along which E is constant, leading to an incremental potential
difference ∆𝑉,
∆𝑉 = − 𝐸 ∙ ∆𝐿
If we designate the angle between ∆𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 𝑎𝑠 𝜃, then
∆𝑉 = − 𝐸 ∙ ∆𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Then,
𝑑𝑉
= − 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝐿
It is obvious that the maximum positive increment of potential, ∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , will occur when 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖𝑠 −
1, 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝐿 points in the direction opposite to E. For this condition,
𝑑𝑉
| =𝐸
𝑑𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Characteristics of the relationship between E and V:
The magnitude of the electric field intensity is given by the maximum value of the rate of
change of potential with distance.
This maximum value is obtain when the direction of the distance increment is opposite to E.
*Equipotential surfaces shown as lines in the two dimensional sketch.
At P, small incremental distance ∆𝐿 in various directions, to find that direction in which the potential
is changing the most rapidly. From the figure this direction appears to be left and slightly upward. So
the electric field intensity is therefore oppositely directed (to the right and slightly downward at P). Its
magnitude is given by dividing the small increase in potential by the small element of length.
The direction in which the potential is increasing the most rapidly is perpendicular to the
equipotentials (in the direction of increasing potential). If ∆𝐿 is directed along an equipotential, ∆𝑉 =
0. Then,
∆𝑉 = −𝐸 ∙ ∆𝐿 = 0
Since neither 𝐸 𝑛𝑜𝑟 ∆𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, E must be perpendicular to ∆𝐿 or equipotentials.
Now, by letting 𝑎𝑁 be a unit vector normal to the equipotential surface and directed toward the higher
potentials. The electric field intensity is then expressed in terms of the potential,
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=− | 𝑎
𝑑𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁
The magnitude of E is given by the maximum space rate of change of V and the direction of E is
normal to the equipotential surface (in the direction of decreasing potential).
Since 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝐿|𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when ∆𝐿 is in the direction of 𝑎𝑁 ,
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
| =
𝑑𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=− 𝑎
𝑑𝑁 𝑁
The operation on V by which –E is obtained is known as the gradient and the gradient of a scalar field
T is defined as
𝑑𝑇
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑇 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑁 𝑁
Using the new term, we now may write
𝐸 = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉
Now,
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
Also,
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐿 = −𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Since both expressions are true for any 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑧, then
𝛿𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = −
𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑉
𝐸𝑦 = −
𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑉
𝐸𝑧 = −
𝛿𝑧
Then,
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝐸 = −( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎 )
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝐸 = −( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 ) ∙ 𝑉
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
∴ 𝐸 = −∇ ∙ 𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, [𝛻 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎 𝑧 ]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎 (𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 )
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑎 (𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
𝛿𝜌 𝜌 𝛿𝜑 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎 (𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝛿𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝛿𝜑 𝜑
Gradient of a Scalar (Sadiku)
The gradient of a scalar field 𝑉 is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of 𝑉.
Mathematical expression for the gradient can be obtained by evaluating the difference in the field 𝑑𝑉
between points 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 of following figure,
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
=( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎 ) ∙ (𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑧 )
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
For convenience, let
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝐺= 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
Then
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐺 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐺 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑙
Or
𝑑𝑉
= 𝐺 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑙
Where 𝑑𝑙 is the differential displacement from 𝑃1 𝑡𝑜 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑙.
𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑙 is maximum when 𝜃 = 0, that is when 𝑑𝑙 is in the direction of 𝐺. Hence,
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
| = =𝐺
𝑑𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑛
Where, 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑛 is the normal derivative. Thus G has its magnitude and direction as those of the
maximum rate of change of V. By definition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore,
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 = ∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
The gradient of V can be expressed in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎 (𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 )
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑎 (𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
𝛿𝜌 𝜌 𝛿𝜑 𝛿𝑧 𝑧
𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎 (𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝛿𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝛿𝜑 𝜑
Mathematical problem-2:
Given,
𝑣 = 100 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸 =?
Solution:
We know,
𝐸 = −∇ ∙ 𝑉
𝛿 1 𝛿 1 𝛿
⟹ −( 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎 ) ∙ (100 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝛿𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝛿𝜑 𝜑
𝛿 (100 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝛿 (100 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
⟹ − 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎𝜃 − 0
𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝛿 𝛿
⟹ −(100 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (𝑟)2 𝑎𝑟 − 100𝑟 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑎𝜃
𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝜃
∴ 𝐸 = −100 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2𝑟) 𝑎𝑟 − 100𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝜃 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)
Mathematical problem-3:
Given,
𝑣 = 100 𝜌2
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸 =?
Solution:
We know,
𝐸 = −∇ ∙ 𝑉
𝛿 1 𝛿 𝛿
⟹ −( 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑎𝑧 ) ∙ (100 𝜌2 )
𝛿𝜌 𝜌 𝛿𝜑 𝛿𝑧
𝛿 (100 𝜌2 )
⟹ − 𝑎𝜌 − 0 − 0
𝛿𝜌
⟹ −100 (2𝜌) 𝑎𝜌
∴ 𝐸 = −200𝜌 𝑎𝜌 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)
Mathematical problem-4:
Potential field, 𝑉 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 5𝑧 and a point 𝑃(−4, 3, 6). Find following numerical values at point P:
(a) The potential, V
(b) The electric field intensity, E
(c) The direction of E
(d) The electric flux density D and
(e) The volume charge density 𝜌𝑣
Solution:
(a) The potential at 𝑃(−4, 3, 6)
𝑉𝑃 = 2(−4)2 (3) − 5(6) = 66 𝑉
(b) The electric field intensity
𝐸 = −∇𝑉
𝐸 = −4𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑎𝑦 + 5 𝑎𝑧 𝑉/𝑚
The value of E at point P is
𝐸𝑃 = 48 𝑎𝑥 − 32 𝑎𝑦 + 5 𝑎𝑧 𝑉/𝑚
And
|𝐸𝑃 | = √482 + (−32)2 + 52
|𝐸𝑃 | = 57.9 𝑉/𝑚
(c) The direction of E at point P is given by the unit vector
48 𝑎𝑥 − 32 𝑎𝑦 + 5 𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝐸,𝑃 =
57.9
𝑎𝐸,𝑃 = 0.829 𝑎𝑥 − 0.553 𝑎𝑦 + 0.086 𝑎𝑧
(d) Assuming these fields exist in free space, then the electric flux density
𝐷 = 𝜖0 𝐸 = −35.4 𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑥 − 17.71 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑦 + 44.3 𝑎𝑧 𝑝𝐶/𝑚3
(e) The volume charge density
𝜌𝑣 = ∇ ∙ 𝐷
𝜌𝑣 = −35.4 𝑦 𝑝𝐶/𝑚3
At P,
𝜌𝑣 = −106.2 𝑝𝐶/𝑚3
The Dipole
An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign are
separated by a small distance.
Consider the dipole shown in following figure, the potential at point 𝑃 (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑) is
𝑄 1 1
𝑉= [ 1 − 2]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2
Where, 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the distances between 𝑃 and +𝑄 and P and – 𝑄 respectively.
𝐼𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ≃ 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 𝑟1 ≃ 𝑟 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒,
𝑄 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
Electric field intensity,
𝐸 = −∇ ∙ 𝑉
𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉 1 𝛿𝑉
𝐸 = −( 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎 )
𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝛿𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝛿𝜑 𝜑
Then
𝑄𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑄𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸 = − (− 𝑎 𝑟 − 𝑎 )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 3 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 3 𝜃
𝑄𝑑 1 1
𝐸=− (−2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 3 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3 𝑎𝜃 )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄𝑑
𝐸=− (−2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝜃 )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 3
The potential field of the dipole may be simplified by making use of the dipole moment. The vector
length directed from – 𝑄 to +𝑄 as 𝑑 and then define the dipole moment as 𝑄𝑑 and assighn it the
symbol 𝑃. Thus
𝑝 = 𝑄𝑑
The units of 𝑃 are 𝐶𝑚.
Since 𝑑. 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, then we have
𝑄 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑝. 𝑎𝑟
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
This may be generalized as
1 𝑟 − 𝑟′
𝑉= 2
𝑝 ∙
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟 − 𝑟′| |𝑟 − 𝑟′|
𝑝 ∙ (𝑟 − 𝑟′)
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟 − 𝑟′|3
Energy Density in Electrostatic Fields
Three point charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 in an empty space shown in following figure.
No work is required to transfer 𝑄1 from infinity to 𝑃1 because the space is initially charge free
and there is no electric field.
The work done in transferring of 𝑄2 from infinity to 𝑃2 is equal to the product of 𝑄2 and the
potential 𝑉21 at 𝑃2 due to 𝑄1 .
Similarly, the work done in positioning 𝑄3 at 𝑃3 is equal to 𝑄3 (𝑉32 + 𝑉31 ), where 𝑉32 and 𝑉31
are the potentials at 𝑃3 due to 𝑄2 and 𝑄1 respectively.
Work to position 𝑄2 = 𝑄2 𝑉21
Work to position 𝑄3 = 𝑄3 (𝑉31 + 𝑉32 )
The total work done in positioning the three charges is,
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3
𝑊𝐸 = 0 + 𝑄2 𝑉21 + 𝑄3 (𝑉31 + 𝑉32 )_________________(1)
If the charges were positioned in reverse order, then,
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑊3 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊1
𝑊𝐸 = 0 + 𝑄2 𝑉23 + 𝑄1 (𝑉12 + 𝑉13 )_________________(2)
Where, 𝑉23 is the potential at 𝑃2 due to 𝑄3 , 𝑉12 and 𝑉13 are respectively the potentials at 𝑃1 due to 𝑄2
and 𝑄3 .
Now adding equations (1) and (2) gives,
2𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 (𝑉12 + 𝑉13 ) + 𝑄2 (𝑉21 + 𝑉23 ) + 𝑄3 (𝑉31 + 𝑉32 )
2𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉1 + 𝑄2 𝑉2 + 𝑄3 𝑉3 [𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑉12 + 𝑉13 = 𝑉1 ]
1
𝑊𝐸 = 2 𝑄1 𝑉1 + 𝑄2 𝑉2 + 𝑄3 𝑉3
Where, 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 are total potentials at 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3 respectively. In general, if there are 𝑛 point
charges then,
𝑚=𝑛
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∑ 𝑄𝑚 𝑉𝑚 (𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
2
𝑚=1
If, instead of point charges, the region has continuous charge distribution, then we have,
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑉 𝑑𝑙 (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
2
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝑆 𝑉 𝑑𝑆 (𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
2
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑉 𝑑𝑣 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
2
Since,
𝜌𝑣 = ∇ ∙ 𝐷
For volume charge, we can write
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫(∇ ∙ 𝐷) 𝑉 𝑑𝑣
2
𝑣
But for any vector A and scalar, the identity
∇ ∙ 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐴 ∙ ∇𝑉 + 𝑉 (∇ ∙ 𝐴)
Or,
(∇ ∙ 𝐴)𝑉 = ∇ ∙ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝐴 ∙ ∇𝑉
Applying the identity, we get,
1 1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫(∇ ∙ 𝑉𝐷) 𝑑𝑣 − ∫(D ∙ ∇𝑉 ) 𝑑𝑣
2 2
𝑣 𝑣
Applying divergence theorem to the first term on the right-hand side of this equation, we have
1 1
𝑊𝐸 = ∮(𝑉𝐷) ∙ 𝑑𝑆 − ∫(D ∙ ∇𝑉 ) 𝑑𝑣
2 2
𝑆 𝑣
As we know that
𝑉 varies as 1/𝑟 and 𝐷 as 1/𝑟 2 for point charges
𝑉 varies as 1/𝑟 2 and 𝐷 as 1/𝑟 3 for dipoles
So, here in the first term on the right-hand side of the equation
𝑉𝐷 must vary at least as 1/𝑟 3 and
𝑑𝑆 varies as 𝑟 2
Consequently, the first integral of the equation must tend to zero as the surface 𝑆 becomes large. So
the equations reduces to
1
𝑊𝐸 = − ∫(D ∙ ∇𝑉 ) 𝑑𝑣
2
𝑣
Since, 𝐸 = −∇𝑉 and 𝐷 = 𝜖0 𝐸, we have,
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫ D ∙ E 𝑑𝑣
2
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫(𝜖0 𝐸 ∙ E) 𝑑𝑣
2
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜖0 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣
2
From this, we can define electrostatic energy density 𝑊𝐸 (𝑖𝑛 𝐽/𝑚3 ) 𝑎𝑠
𝑑𝑊𝐸 1 1 𝐷2
𝑤𝐸 = = 𝐷 ∙ 𝐸 = 𝜖0 𝐸 2 =
𝑑𝑣 2 2 2𝜖0
