CHAPTER 3

HUMAN REPRODUTION
KEY CONCEPTS

HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The system consists of followings:

 Primary sex organ – A pair of testes

 Secondary or accessary sexorgans – rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas
deferens, seminal vesicle, prostrate glands, bulbourethral gland
 External genetalia – penis

TESTES

 Testes placed in scrotum outside the abdominal cavity

 Scrotum maintain low temperature of the testes (2–2.5o C) for spermatogenesis.
 Each testis contains 250 compartments called testicular lobules
 Each lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male germ cells
(spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells
 Outside the seminiferous tubulesinterstitial cells or Leydig cells present.
 Leydig cells synthesise and secrete hormones androgens

Testicular Seminiferous 1.Spermatogonia

Testis lobules tubules 2. Sertoli cells

ACCESSORY DUCTS
 Rete testis
 Vasa efferentia
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens
 Urethra

ACCESSORY GLANDS
 A pair of seminal vesicles
 Prostate gland
 Bulbourethral gland

Seminal plasma
 Secretions of accessory glands constitute the seminal plasma rich in fructose , calcium
and certain enzymes.
 Secretions of bulbourethral glands help in lubrication of penis.

HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The system consists of followings:

 Primary sex organ – A pair of ovaries
 Secondary sexorgans – a pair of oviduct (fallopian tubes), uterus, cervix and vagina,
 External genitalia – vulva.
OVARIES

 Produce female gamete ovum and steroid hormones (ovarian hormones)

 Located on each side of the lower abdomen
 Ovary is almond shaped body
 Ovary is coved by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma
 Stroma has two regions: Peripheral cortex and Inner medulla

OVIDUCT (FALLOPIAN TUBE)

Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm longand consists of following parts:

 Infundibulum (funnel shaped) - closer to ovary.

 Fimbriae - finger like projections of infundibulum
 Ampulla - wider part of oviduct
 Isthmus - last part of oviduct joins the uterus

UTERUS

 Looks like an inverted pear and called womb.

 Opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.
 Uterus wall has three layers of tissue:

i) Perimetrium – external layer

ii) Myometrium- middle layer
iii) Endometrium-inner glandular layer

EXTERNAL GENITALIA

Female external genitalia include followings:

 Mons pubis – cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hair
 Labia majora – fleshy folds of tissue extended down from mons pubis and surround
the vaginal opening.
 Labia minora – paired folds of tissue under labia majora
 Hymen – a membrane covering the opening of vagina partially
 Clitoris – tiny finger-like structure lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora
above the urethral opening

MAMMARY GLANDS

 Consists of glandular tissue and fats

 Glandular tissue is divided into 15-20 mammary lobescontainingclusters of cells
called alveoli.
 Alveoli opens into mammary tubules and form mammary duct.
 Mammary ducts join to form mammary ampulla connected to lactiferous duct

GAMETOGENESIS
The process of formation of gametes is called gametogenesis.
Gametogenesis
 Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
(in male) (in female)
SPERMATOGENESIS

The process of formation of sperms in males is called spermatogenesis.

 The spermatogonia (2n) in the inside wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic
division and form primary spermatocytes (2n).
 Primary spermatocytes (2n) undergo meiosis.
 Primary spermatocytes complete 1st meiotic division to forms 2 equal haploid
secondary spermatocytes.
 Secondary spermatocytes undergo 2nd meiotic division to form 4 haploid spermatids.
 Spermatids transform into spermatozoa (sperms)
 Sperm heads get embeded in sertoli cells and released from seminiferous tubules
called spermiation.

Spermatogonia (2n)

Primary spermatocytes (2n)

Secondary spermatocytes (n)

Spermatids (n)

Spermatozoa (sperms) (n)

HORMONAL CONTROL OF SPERMATOGENESIS

 Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to increase in secretion of

gonadotropin releasing hormone(GnRH) by hypothalamus
 Increased levels of GnRH act on anterior pituitary and stimulate secretion of
luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
 LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
 FSH acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in
spermiogenesis

Hypothalamus

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone(GnRH)

Anterior Pituitary

(LH) (FSH)
Luteinising Hormone Follicle Stimulating Hormone

Leydig cells Sertoli cells

Androgens Factors

Spermatogenesis Spermiogenesis
STRUCTURE OF SPERM

It is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail . A

plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm. The sperm head contains an elongated
haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome.

 Composed of head, neck, middle piece and a tail.

 Plasma membrane envelopes the body of sperm
 Sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion is covered
with acrosome.
 Acrosome contains enzymes that help fertilisation of ovum.
 Middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria that produce energy for movement of
tail.
 Seminal plasma along with sperms constitute semen.

OOGENESIS

The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis.

 Millions of gametemother cells (oogonia) are formed in each fetal ovary and no more
oogonia are formed and added after birth.
 Oogonia start division, enter into prophase I of meiosis and get temporarily arrested at
that stage, called primary oocytes.
 Primary oocytes get surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and called primary
follicle.
 Primary follicles gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells called secondary
follicles
 Secondary follicle transforms into a tertiary follicle characterised by a fluid filled
cavity called antrum
 The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size, completes 1st meiotic
division
 It results a large haploid secondary oocyte and tiny 1st polar body
 Tertiary follicle changes into graafian follicle
 Secondary oocyte forms zonapellucidasurrounding it.
 Graafian follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from ovary by
ovulation.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstrual cycle - The cyclic changes that occur in the reproductive organs of primate
females, e.g. monkeys, apes and human beings is called menstrual cycle.
Menarche – The begining of first menstruation at puberty is called menarche.
Menopause- Menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age in human being which is termed
as menopause.

Phases of Menstrual cycle

1. Menstrual phase
2. Follicular phase (Proliferative phase)
3. Luteal phase (Secretory phase)
4. Next cycle begins
Menstrual Phase:

 Menstrual flow occurs and it lasts for 3-5 days.

 Due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus its blood vessels which
forms liquid that comes out through vagina.

Follicular Phase (Proliferative phase)

 Primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle.
 Endometrium of uterus regenerates through proliferation.
 These changes are due to increased levels of FSH , LH, estrogen hormones.
 FSH controls follicular phase, stimulates growth of follicles, secretion of estrogen
 FSH and LH reach their peak level in the middle of the cycle(about 14th day).
 High level of LH induces rupture of mature Graafian follicle and release of ovum
(ovulation).

Luteal phase

 Remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum.

 The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential for
maintenance of the endometrium.
 In absence of fertilisation, corpus luteum degenerates and causes disintegration of the
endometrium leading to menstruation, marking a new cycle.

FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION

 The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation.

 Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to
the ampullary – isthmic junction.
 So, all copulations may not lead to fertilisation and pregnancy.

EVENTS DURING FERTILISATION:

 Sperm comes in contact with zonapellucida and induces changes in membrane that
block entry of additional sperms
 Secretions of acrosome help sperm enter the cytoplasm of ovum
 Second meiotic division results a second polar body and a haploid ovum (ootid).
 Nucleus of sperm and ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote.

IMPLANTATION

 zygote moves from isthmus and cleavage starts.

 Blastomeresform (2,4,8,16 daughter cells)
 Embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called morula
 Morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst
 Blastomeres in blastocyst arrange into an outer layer trophoblast and inner group of
cells attached to trophoblast
 Trophoblast gets attached to the endometrium and the inner cell mass gets
differentiated as the embryo
 Uterine cells rapidly divide and cover the blastocyst
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

 Chorionic villi,finger like projections appear on the trophoblastand surrounded by the

uterine tissue and maternal blood.
 Chorionic villi and uterine tissue get interdigitated to form placenta
 Placenta connect the embryo through an umbilical cord
 Placentahelps in the transport of substances likeoxygen and nutrients to the embryo
and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by the
embryo.
 Placenta secretes hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL),estrogens , progesterones
 hCG, hPL and relaxin produce in women only during pregnancy
 Inner cell mass differentiates into an outer layer called ectoderm and an inner layer
called endoderm and mesoderm appears between ectoderm and endoderm
 Certain inner cell mass called stem cells have the potency to give rise to all the tissues
and organs

FEATURES OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

 The human pregnancy lasts for 9 months

 1st month – embryo’s heart is formed
 2nd month – foetus develops limbs and digits
 1st trimester (12 weeks) – major organ systems are formed e.g. limbs and external
genital organs are welldeveloped
 5th month – The first movements of foetus and appearance of hair on head
 2nd trimester (24 weeks) – body covered with fine hair, eye lids separate, eye lashes
formed
 End of nine months of pregnancy, foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

 Duration of human pregnancy (gestation period) – 9 months

 The process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth)is called parturition.
 Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and placenta induces
mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
 It triggers the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary
 Oxytocin acts on uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which in
turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
 The stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion results
stronger and stronger contractions and leads parturition.
 Lactation- Mammary glands undergo differentiation during pregnancy and starts
producing milk towards the end of pregnancy
 Colostrum - The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called
colostrum. It contains several antibodies essential to develop resistance for the new-
born babies.