Classical Physics Fundamentals
Classical physics refers to the theories and principles developed before the 20th century,
primarily governed by Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell’s electromagnetism, and
thermodynamics. Unlike quantum mechanics, classical physics assumes a deterministic,
continuous, and macroscopic view of the universe.
1. Newtonian Mechanics (Laws of Motion)
Isaac Newton formulated three fundamental laws describing motion:
1.1 Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia)
“An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted
upon by an external force.”
• Defines inertia (resistance to change in motion).
• Example: A book on a table remains still until pushed.
1.2 Newton’s Second Law (F = ma)
“Force equals mass times acceleration.”
• Explains how forces cause changes in motion.
• Example: Pushing a shopping cart (greater force → faster acceleration).
1.3 Newton’s Third Law (Action-Reaction)
“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
• Forces always occur in pairs.
• Example: A rocket expels gas downward (action), causing upward thrust (reaction).
2. Classical Gravitation (Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation)
• F: Gravitational force between two masses ( and ).
• G: Gravitational constant ( ).
• r: Distance between centers of masses.
• Predicts planetary motion (later refined by Einstein’s General Relativity).
3. Electromagnetism (Maxwell’s Equations)
James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism into four fundamental equations:
Equation Description
Gauss’s Law (Electricity)
Gauss’s Law (Magnetism)
Faraday’s Law
Ampère’s Law (with Maxwell’s correction)
• Predicts electromagnetic waves (light, radio waves).
4. Thermodynamics (Laws of Heat & Energy)
4.1 Zeroth Law
“If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are in equilibrium with each
other.”
• Defines temperature.
4.2 First Law (Conservation of Energy)
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or converted.”
• ΔU: Change in internal energy.
• Q: Heat added.
• W: Work done by the system.
4.3 Second Law (Entropy Always Increases)
“In an isolated system, entropy (disorder) never decreases.”
• Explains why heat flows from hot to cold.
4.4 Third Law (Absolute Zero)
“As temperature approaches absolute zero, entropy approaches a minimum.”
5. Wave Mechanics (Classical Waves)
• Sound Waves: Longitudinal waves in a medium (air, water).
• Light Waves: Transverse electromagnetic waves (predicted by Maxwell).
• Doppler Effect: Frequency shift due to motion (e.g., ambulance siren).
6. Limitations of Classical Physics
• Fails at very small scales (quantum mechanics needed for atoms).
• Fails at high speeds (relativity modifies Newtonian mechanics).
• Cannot explain blackbody radiation or photoelectric effect (led to quantum theory).
Summary Table: Classical vs. Quantum Physics
Feature Classical Physics Quantum Physics
Determinism Predictable (exact trajectories) Probabilistic (wavefunctions)
Energy Continuous Quantized (discrete levels)
Particles vs. Waves Distinct (no duality) Wave-particle duality
Scale Macroscopic (everyday objects) Microscopic (atoms, particles)
Gravity Newton’s Law General Relativity
Key Takeaways
• Classical physics works perfectly for everyday objects (cars, planets, bridges).
• It breaks down at atomic scales (quantum effects dominate) and near light speed
(relativity applies).
• Newton, Maxwell, and thermodynamics form the foundation of engineering and
technology.
