RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
STEEL
GROUP 2
NAME ACTUAL WRITTEN GROOMING
REPORT REPORT
Adora, Rhuzell R.
Adriano, Anjanette
Mojares, James Angelo C.
SUBJECT: CE05: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
TIME/DAY: 9:00 AM-10:00 AM / TF
SECTION: CEIT-02-401A
SUBMITTED TO: ENGR. ALELI N. REY
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ADORA, RHUZELL R. ADRIANO, ANJANETTE
MOJARES, JAMES ANGELO C.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
What is steel? ………………………………………………………….. 4
Classification, Properties and Types of Steel…………………………… 4
Structural Steel …………………………………………………………. 10
Common Structural Steel Shapes ……………………………………… 11
Advantage and Disadvantage of Steel ………………………………… 12
Steel Channel …………………………………………………………….. 13
Different Types of Steel Channels ………………………………………. 14
Applications of Steel Channels ………………………………………… 16
Reinforcing Steel Bar:Sizes and weights …………………………….. 17
References ………………………………………………………………….. 20
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Steel
is a strong and durable metal made primarily from iron and
carbon. The carbon content is added to improve its
strength, hardness, and resistance to wear. Steel is
versatile, used in a wide range of applications like
construction, automotive, machinery, and tools due to its
ability to be molded, welded, and strengthened. It’s also
recyclable, making it an eco-friendly material choice for
various industries. The main types of steel include Carbon
steel, Alloy steel, Stainless steel, and Tool steel.
Classification, Properties and Types of Steel
1. Carbon Steel
The primary combining ingredient in carbon steel is carbon. To increase iron's strength and
hardness, different quantities of carbon are added. Steel gets stronger and tougher as its carbon
concentration rises, but it also gets weaker. Carbon steel is commonly used in construction,
automotive parts, machinery, and tools due to its durability and cost-effectiveness. It comes in
three main types: low-carbon steel (mild steel), medium-carbon steel, and high-carbon steel,
each with different properties and uses.
● Low-Carbon Steel (Mild Steel)
Carbon Content: 0.05% to 0.25%
Properties: This kind of steel is easy to form, flexible,
and soft. Compared to higher-carbon steels, it is not as
strong, but it is impact-resistant and has better welding
ability.
Uses: It’s commonly used in construction, automotive
body parts, and manufacturing products like pipes,
wire, and structural steel. It’s also used in household items like kitchen appliances and
furniture due to its workability and low cost.
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● Medium-Carbon Steel
Carbon Content: 0.25% to 0.60%
Properties: The strength, hardness, and flexibility
of this steel are all balanced. Compared to high-
carbon steel, it is softer yet stronger than low-
carbon steel. Additionally, it may be heat-treated
to improve its qualities and has high wear
resistance.
Uses: Medium-carbon steel is used in applications
like automotive components (e.g., axles, shafts), machinery parts, railway tracks, and
gears. It’s also used in making some structural components that require higher strength.
● High-Carbon Steel
Carbon Content: 0.60% to 1.5%
Properties: Although high-carbon steel is extremely hard
and strong, it is also less elastic and more inflexible. It may
be heat-treated to improve its hardness and has high wear
resistance. However, because of its brittleness, it is more
challenging to deal with and weld.
Uses: High-carbon steel is used for making tools, cutting
blades, springs, and other components that require high
strength and durability. It's also used in manufacturing
high-strength wires and knives.
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2. Alloy Steel
Alloy steel is a type of steel that contains additional
alloying elements besides carbon to enhance its properties
such as strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, and
toughness. The specific properties of alloy steel depend
on the type and amount of alloying elements added.
Below are the main types of alloy steel:
● Low-Alloy Steel
Contains a small percentage (typically less than 8%) of alloying elements.
Stronger and than carbon steel while maintaining good weldability and machinability.
Used in construction, pipelines, pressure vessels, and automotive frames.
● High-Alloy Steel
Contains a higher percentage (more than 8%) of alloying elements.
Offers superior hardness, strength, and corrosion resistance.
Stainless steel is the most common type of high-alloy steel.
Common Alloying Elements and Their Effects:
The range of alloy steels is very wide and they are usually classified according to their structure,
which is responsible for their characteristics and properties:
Boron: optimizes tempering.
Chromium: increases resistance to corrosion and wear.
Copper: improves resistance to erosion.
Manganese: makes rolling easier, while increasing its toughness and corrosion resistance.
Nickel: lowers the temperature for hardening and for deformation when tempered. In addition, it
increases its toughness without compromising malleability.
Titanium: prevents oxidation and improves the material’s resistance to high temperatures.
Tungsten: provides hardness at very high temperatures.
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Molybdenum: increases hardness and makes it easier to harden in air or oil.
Aluminum: deoxidizes molten steel.
Vanadium: improves hardness and strength, and reduces fatigue in alloys.
3. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is a type of alloy steel that contains at least
10.5% chromium, which gives it excellent corrosion resistance
by forming a protective oxide layer on its surface. It is also
durable, strong, and resistant to rust, staining, and heat.
Because of these properties, stainless steel is widely used in
kitchenware, medical instruments, construction, automotive,
and marine applications.
Types of Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is classified into different types based on its microstructure and composition:
● Austenitic Stainless Steel
➔ Most common type (e.g., 304, 316 stainless steel).
➔ Contains high amounts of chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) for excellent corrosion
resistance.
➔ Non-magnetic and highly resistant to heat.
➔ Used in kitchen sinks, utensils, food processing, medical equipment, and marine
applications.
● Ferritic Stainless Steel
➔ Contains high chromium (10.5%–27%) but low or no nickel (e.g., 430 stainless steel).
➔ Magnetic and has good resistance to corrosion.
➔ More affordable but less strong than austenitic stainless steel.
➔ Used in automotive parts, appliances, and architectural decorations.
● Martensitic Stainless Steel
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➔ Contains moderate chromium (12%–18%) and low nickel (e.g., 410, 420 stainless
steel).
➔ Very strong and hard but less corrosion-resistant.
➔ Can be heat-treated for increased hardness.
➔ Used in cutlery, surgical instruments, turbine blades, and tools.
● Duplex Stainless Steel
➔ A mix of austenitic and ferritic stainless steel, offering both strength and corrosion
resistance (e.g., 2205 stainless steel).
➔ Stronger than austenitic and ferritic stainless steel.
➔ Used in marine environments, chemical processing, and oil & gas pipelines.
● Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steel
➔ Contains elements like aluminum, copper, and niobium, which enhance strength through
heat treatment (e.g., 17-4 PH stainless steel).
➔ Used in aerospace, military applications, and high-performance tools.
4. Tool Steel
Tool steel is a high-strength, heat-resistant type of
steel designed for cutting, shaping, and drilling
materials. It is known for its hardness, wear
resistance, and ability to maintain a sharp edge, even
under extreme conditions. Tool steel is commonly
used for machine tools, dies, molds, cutting blades,
and high-performance industrial applications.
Types of Tool Steel
Tool steel is categorized based on its properties and the types of applications it is designed for:
● Water-Hardening (W-Series) Tool Steel
➔ Hardened using water quenching.
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➔ High hardness but brittle, best for low-impact tools.
➔ Used in hand tools, chisels, and woodworking tools.
● Cold-Work Tool Steel
Designed for tools that operate at low temperatures without softening. It has three subcategories:
➔ O-Series (Oil-Hardening) – Balanced hardness and toughness, used in stamps and
punches.
➔ A-Series (Air-Hardening) – More resistant to cracking, used in pressing dies and
cutting tools.
➔ D-Series (High-Carbon, High-Chromium) – Extremely hard and wear-resistant, used in
shear +blades and industrial knives.
● Shock-Resistant (S-Series) Tool Steel
➔ Designed to absorb high impact and shocks without breaking.
➔ Used for jackhammer bits, hammers, and chisels.
● High-Speed (H-Series) Tool Steel
➔ Retains hardness even at high temperatures, perfect for cutting metals at high speeds.
➔ Common in drill bits, saw blades, and lathe tools.
➔ Example: M2 and T1 steel are widely used in machining and industrial cutting
applications.
● Hot-Work (H-Series) Tool Steel
➔ Designed to withstand extreme heat and repeated use without losing hardness.
➔ Used in die casting, forging tools, and high-temperature molds.
● Special Purpose Tool Steel
➔ P-Series (Plastic Mold Steel) – Used for mold-making in plastic production.
➔ L-Series (Low-Alloy Tool Steel) – Versatile and used for machine parts.
Structural Steel
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Steel structures are built using interconnected structural steel components to form a rigid
framework capable of supporting loads. Steel's inherent strength allows these structures to be
dependable while using less material compared to concrete or wood. Modern construction widely
employs steel structures in diverse applications, ranging from heavy industrial facilities and
skyscrapers to equipment supports, infrastructure, bridges, towers, airport terminals, industrial
plants, and pipe racks.
Steel structures offer several compelling
advantages, including significant cost savings
due to inexpensive manufacturing, erection, and
reduced maintenance. Their inherent beauty
provides architects with creative freedom,
enabling long, column-free spans and abundant
natural light in virtually any structural form.
Fabrication occurs in controlled factory
environments, followed by rapid on-site erection by skilled personnel, ensuring a safe and well-
managed construction process. Finally, steel's durability is unmatched, withstanding extreme
weather conditions like high winds, earthquakes, hurricanes, and heavy snow, while also resisting
rust, termites, bugs, mildew, mold, and fungi, unlike wood-framed structures.
Structural steel comes in a variety of forms, each tailored for different applications. Project
specifications dictate the necessary shape and grade of the steel. These steels are categorized by
their cross-sectional shape, with I, T, and C shapes being common examples. A steel's grade
directly affects its mechanical properties, so choosing the right grade is vital for meeting the
project's design requirements.
Common Structural Steel Shapes
Structural steel shapes are defined by many standards worldwide, including angles, tolerances,
dimensions, and cross-sectional measurements. These standards also name the different steel shapes.
Many sections are formed by hot or cold rolling, while others are made by welding together flat or bent
plates.
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Here are standard common structural steel shapes:
1. L- shape - These are incredibly versatile. They're great for connecting other structural
members, forming corners of structures, and providing support for lighter elements.
2. U-shape - This shape provides good strength in one direction and is often used for framing,
supports, and as runners for doors or other sliding elements. They're commonly used in industrial
settings and for structural elements in buildings. They're more robust than angles.
3. C-shape - Very similar to U-shapes, C-shapes are also channels but may have slightly
different dimensions. They are often used as purlins, which are horizontal beams that support the roof
decking or sheeting
4. Z-shape - These shapes offer similar functionality to C-shapes and are also frequently used as
purlins. The specific geometry can provide slightly different structural advantages depending on the
application.
5. Tubular hollow cross form - These are closed shapes, meaning they form a complete tube.
They can be circular, square, or rectangular. Their closed shape makes them extremely strong in
torsion (twisting) and bending, making them ideal for applications where these forces are present.
Think of them in bridge trusses, crane booms, or as columns in buildings. They're very rigid and
stable.
6. Flatform - often referred to as plates, used to attach to construction parts to enhance bearing
strength.
7. Rectangular hollow cross-section - The rectangular open cross-section resembles the circular
hollow cross-section. This type is often used in many mechanical and construction steel industries.
8. Square hollow cross-section - Since this form is difficult to combine with other forms, the
square open cross-section is used only as a column or pillar of the building.
9. Taper-shaped beams and columns - These are beams or columns where the cross-sectional
dimensions change along their length. They're often used in industrial buildings and pre-engineered
metal buildings (PEMBs) because they allow for efficient use of material. They're designed to match
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the load requirements, being larger where the loads are higher and smaller where the loads are lower.
This saves material and weight.
Advantage of Steel as Construction Material
1. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Steel is incredibly strong for its weight. This means you can create structures with large spans and
high load capacities without excessive material. This is especially beneficial for high-rise buildings,
bridges, and long-span structures.
2. Durability
Steel is highly durable and resistant to many things that can damage other materials, such as rot,
termites, and cracking. With proper maintenance, steel structures can last for a very long time.
3. Ductility
Steel is ductile, meaning it can bend and deform without breaking. This is important because it
allows steel structures to absorb shocks and vibrations, such as those from earthquakes or high winds,
without collapsing.
4. Speed of Construction
Steel members are often prefabricated in factories and then assembled on-site. This speeds up the
construction process compared to materials that require more on-site fabrication.
5. Recyclability
Steel is one of the most recycled materials in the world. This makes it an environmentally friendly
choice.
6. Versatility
Steel can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes, making it suitable for a wide range of
construction applications.
Disadvantage of Steel as Construction Material
1. Cost
Steel can be more expensive than some other construction materials, particularly in its raw form.
However, the speed of construction and other benefits can sometimes offset this initial cost.
2. Fire Resistance
While steel itself doesn't burn, its strength can be significantly reduced at high temperatures. This
means that steel structures often require fireproofing measures, which can add to the cost.
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3. Corrosion
Steel is susceptible to corrosion (rust) when exposed to moisture and oxygen. This can weaken the
structure over time if not properly addressed. Regular maintenance, such as painting or galvanizing,
is required to prevent corrosion.
4. Buckling
Steel members, especially those under compression, can be susceptible to buckling (bending or
collapsing). Careful design and proper bracing are needed to prevent buckling.
5. Thermal Expansion
Steel expands and contracts with changes in temperature. This can cause problems in some
applications if not properly accounted for in the design.\
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Steel Channel
What are Steel Channels?
Steel channels are "C"-shaped hot-rolled carbon
steel sections featuring a vertical web and rounded
corners on the top and bottom flanges. They
include a wide web and two flanges, which can be
either parallel or tapered. The strength and
durability of steel make it an ideal material for
manufacturing metal channels.
How Steel Channels are Made?
A steel channel is a component made from hot-
rolled mild steel, featuring interior corners with a
defined radius. This design imparts the necessary
strength and rigidity for supporting steel angles
and various building applications. With the
appropriate tools and dimensions, steel channels
are relatively straightforward to fabricate. They
are typically produced according to ASTM A36
dimensional standards.
Why Steel Materials in Channels?
Steel is considered the optimal material for manufacturing metal channels due to its excellent
mechanical properties.
Hardness: The capacity to tolerate surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and
scratches is referred to as hardness. Hardness can suggest scratch resistance, abrasion resistance,
indentation resistance, and even shaping or localized plastic deformation resistance; therefore, it
is perhaps the most poorly defined material attribute. From an engineering aspect, hardness is
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significant because it increases resistance to wear caused by friction or erosion caused by steam,
oil, and water.
Toughness: The ability to absorb energy without cracking or rupturing. Toughness is also the
ability of a substance to resist fracture when strained. The difference between toughness and
hardness is that a material that deforms extensively without breaking can be called exceedingly
tough but not hard.
Different Types of Steel Channels
U Steel Channels
In what used to be just a flying cutoff die operation,
inline post fabricating can now comprise a variety of
die operations. Inline post-fabrication dies may now
perform all the hole punching and other notchings
previously performed in the pre-punch process. This
decreases the number of dies needed and enables
tighter tolerances on the notching sites without the
distortion that would occur if the U channel or J
channel was pre-punched and then bent.
Z Steel Channels
In other industries, these channels are known as Purlins.
Some channels are so large they are referred to as panels.
Purlins can be made from various metals, including
aluminum and stainless steel, and are typically pre-
finished with coatings like galvanized or other rust-
resistant finishes.
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C Steel Channels
C channels are among the most common types of
metal channels, used for supporting structures such
as buildings, walls, roofs, and ceilings. Roll-forming
can be used to create C channels in a variety of
specific shapes, sizes, and dimensions, all reflecting
the channel's C-shaped profile.
Hat Steel Channel
Similar to a C channel, a hat channel begins as a
U shape in the roll forming process, with the top
edges bent outward. Its design and structure
make hat channels ideal for roof framing
applications, and they are commonly referred to
as hat purlins, which are key components in roof
structures.
J Steel Channel
A J channel's configuration is achieved
by making one of the channel's sides
longer than the other, resulting in a profile
that resembles the letter J. Although the
basic J channel comes in a range of sizes
and applications, other types of J
channels are tailored to meet specific
application needs. Simple J channels
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without a hem, hemmed J channels, and J channels with a flat part that can be screwed or nailed
on are the three most frequent types.
Applications of Steel Channels
● Steel channels are commonly used to construct walls for garages, warehouses, and other
metal structures, where it is employed similarly to studs.
● Steel channel can be used to build the walls of pole barns, where it is run horizontally
from pole to pole to give an attachment point for the outside siding, which is often sheet
metal. It can also be used to support drywall, or other internal wall finishes on the interior.
● Steel channels can be used as rafters on light-duty roofs, running from the eaves to the
ridge and providing support for the roof deck.
● Steel channels can be utilized in both metal and wood-framed buildings to provide strong
frames for windows and doors. The channel is made up of four parts with miter joints on
each end, and it glides over the wall in the window or door opening.
● Steel channels can be used to strengthen the rigidity and strength of hardwood beams in
a wood-framed building when extra strength is required.
● Steel channels are frequently used to make car frames.
● Steel channels are commonly used in building trailers, such as flatbed trailers, box
trailers, and even travel trailers and recreational vehicles (RVs).
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● Steel channels are frequently used in commercial and industrial buildings, such as
warehouses, in conjunction with I-beams and other steel items.
● Solar panels must be lightweight yet durable
enough to survive extreme environments. Metal
channels are appropriate in these situations since they
meet both requirements.
Reinforcing Steel Bar: Sizes and Weights
Rebar, or reinforcing bar, is a bar that’s used to
reinforce and strengthen concrete under tension.
It’s typically made of steel, though fiberglass is
popular for certain projects because it doesn’t
corrode and is non-magnetic.
There are many steel rebar sizes, grades, and types
to support a variety of structures. Standard rebar
sizes can vary by country — metric size and
imperial size are two popular measurements. In the United States, common specifications are
published by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) and American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
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Rebar Size Chart
Each imperial bar diameter increases by
1/8 inch. You can multiply the bar size by
1/8 to get the nominal diameter in inches.
For example, #8 rebar = 8/8 inches (or 1
inch) in diameter. Common
measurements indicate the weight,
nominal area, and nominal diameter.
When working with rebar, it is imperative
to understand not just the size of rebar you
need, but also the grade and type of steel.
Here are common uses for each of the steel rebar sizes:
#3 — This thin and cost-effective mild steel rebar material adds strength to concrete roads,
driveways, or patios. It’s also common in poured concrete swimming pools to provide the pool
walls with shape and strength.
#4 — Slightly thicker, #4 rebar is perfect for adding strength to highways and can give
columns and slabs added strength.
#5 — This type of rebar is commonly used for bridges and highways.
#6 — Commonly found in foundations, retaining walls, and roads or highways.
#7 — This rebar size can provide support for structures like multi-story parking garages and
bridges.
#8 — #8 rebar is perfect for medium to heavy commercial applications. It can be used for
slabs, sea walls, columns, and beams.
#9 — This thick and durable material is the go-to rebar for high-rise construction projects, sea
walls, and retaining walls.
#10 — Perfect for medium to heavy commercial-use projects, this size provides structural
support in beams, columns, and more.
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#11 — This heavy-duty rebar is thick and strong, so it is often used for load-bearing structures.
#14 — One of the heaviest and thickest rebars available in standard sizes, the #14 rebar size is
well suited for bridges, parking structures, tall buildings, and docks.
#18 — This large, strong rebar size is used for large buildings, industrial facilities, and other
large-scale buildings.
The Composition of Rebar
Rebar steel is made of iron, with very small amounts of carbon, manganese, phosphorous, and
sulphur also included. The carbon element is what gives rebar its overall quality and tensile
strength. Mild cold-pressed steel typically has a carbon content of around 0.25%, whereas
higher-grade hot-rolled steel will have a carbon content closer to 0.40%.
Rebar Surface Deformation
As well as the material composition of rebar, its overall weight per linear metre is also
influenced by its diameter and by the surface deformation, or patterning, on the particular type
of rebar length or mesh sheet.
By surface deformation, we mean that the outer surface of the rebar has been worked into a
specific pattern to provide better contact with the poured concrete, thereby increasing the
overall structural strength of the slab or concrete form.
The patterning on a particular type of rebar may not make a material difference to its overall
tensile strength when compared with other patterns. Still, it could make a difference to the
weight of each length, so it is important to calculate weights accurately.
The table below indicates the weights of the most common types and diameters of rebar, to
highlight how much these vary for different projects.
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