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Alterations in Documents
27
SUSAN E. MORTON
BONNIE L. BEAL

Contents
27.1 Erasures........................................................................................................................320
27.2 Associated Evidence....................................................................................................324
27.3 Cutting.........................................................................................................................325
27.4 Interlineations and Additions ....................................................................................326
27.4.1 Sequence of Writing .......................................................................................327
27.4.2 Paper Condition and Sequence .....................................................................329
27.5 Obliterated or Overwriting ........................................................................................331
27.5.1 Overwritings and Insertions ..........................................................................333
27.6 Proof of an Unaltered Document .............................................................................333
27.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................................334
References .............................................................................................................................335

On numerous occasions documents are altered during their preparation or after their
completion with full knowledge of all parties concerned and without an attempt on the
part of anyone to perpetrate fraud. However, there are other instances — more numerous
than generally believed — in which an addition or other alteration is made with intent to
cheat some party in an otherwise fair and legitimate transaction. When such an act has
been committed, or is suspected, a document examiner may be consulted. Since these calls
for assistance are not infrequent, effective techniques have been devised through extensive
research and experimentation not only to disclose evidence of the alterations or additions,
but also to demonstrate what has been changed and what the original contents were.
Documents are changed in several ways, and each method requires a separate technique
for detection and for the restoration or decipherment of the original material. The most
common procedures include the removal of portions by erasure, obscuring the writing by
opaque marks, and the addition of material either by interlineation or by extending
portions of the document. Now we shall consider the more common problems in which
handwriting, typewriting, or printing has been removed from the document or expunged
in some manner. Under these conditions the ultimate objective is always to restore the

319

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320 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

original writing so that it can be read in its entirety, but there are instances when only
portions can be deciphered.

27.1 Erasures

It is common knowledge that writing, typewriting, or printing may be removed by either

chemicals, abrasion, or scratching with a sharp instrument like a knife. Not all of these
methods are successful in removing each class of marking medium, but all are encountered
in a variety of problems.
Virtually all erasures can be detected by a thorough examination. On a rare occasion,
an extremely skillful removal of fluid ink writing with a chemical erasing fluid or solvent
might remain undetected, but the combined effect of two factors should leave some
evidence of the act itself. First, the chemicals react with the paper to form visible or latent
stains. These stains, and possibly fragments of original ink, can often be discerned visually
or under infrared (IR) illumination. Second, eradication fluids usually remove sizing from
the paper, leaving it much more porous and absorbent than untreated paper. If an attempt
is then made to write over the erased area with a fiber-tip or roller ball pen, the fluid ink
is very apt to spread out and be wicked into the bare paper fibers, leaving an evident blotch.
Roughened paper fibers also may be observed in the area.
With increasing frequency, checks are being chemically washed, dried, and sometimes
pressed. A study conducted by Licht1 has shown that ballpoint pens are the easiest to
remove with no latent remnants left in the paper. These chemical washes are very difficult
to detect (Figure 27.1). Sometimes the previous entry is not completely removed and may

Figure 27.1 This image depicts a portion of a check that has been chemically washed. Small
remnants of ink from the previous original entry can be observed upon close inspection (top
image). The bottom image is the same area under IR luminescence. Remnants of the original
ink are not visible.

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Figure 27.2 In this poor chemical wash portions of the original ink are still visible (upper
image). Under IR luminescence the original entries of “Shell” and “Fifteen and no/100” can be
seen.

Figure 27.3 The reverse side of the check depicted in Figure 27.2 is shown. Chemical staining
is evident.

be viewed microscopically or with IR lighting (Figure 27.2). Staining around the edges of
the check may be apparent as well under IR lighting (Figure 27.3).
Overwriting with a ball pen may not appear to be abnormal, but some evidence of
erasing probably will remain. Examination with oblique lighting, an electrostatic detec-
tion device (EDD), a microscope, photography, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, or IR lumi-
nescence should establish in most instances that there has been alteration. In contrast
to this, even very skillful erasures by means of abrasion or scratching generally leave
much more definite telltale traces consisting of disturbed paper fibers and portions of
the original strokes that were not completely removed. These erasures are consequently
more easily detected.

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322 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

Although the first step is always to ascertain that an erasure has been made, in any
investigation of this nature the step that is of greatest importance to those who stand to
be defrauded by the alteration is the restoration or decipherment of the erased matter. By
restoration it is meant that the original writing is revealed on the document either tem-
porarily or permanently, while decipherment includes any method, photographic or oth-
erwise, that permits determination of what has been erased. Whether or not this is to be
successfully accomplished depends on both the original writing medium and the manner
in which it has been erased.
In the case of synthetic dye inks found in porous-tip or roller pens, bleaching removes
not only the color, but virtually all of the chemicals from the paper as well. Here again is
an example of the fact that non-chemical erasures, while more easily detected, are less
readily deciphered. With these inks, photographic techniques or examination under IR
imaging systems are standard methods, although not every erasure can be successfully
deciphered.
Carbon ink is very difficult to expunge completely. Chemicals do not bleach it, but an
abrasive erasure or a skillfully used knife edge or razor removes the ink effectively. Deci-
pherment of the original ink is usually extremely difficult. If it has been completely erased,
the problem may be virtually impossible. However, whenever there are some traces of the
original writing, these may be intensified photographically or digitally to bring about at
least a partial decipherment.
Ballpoint pen ink does not erase easily. Two papers that examined the erasable ball
pen ink were written by Peter Pfefferli and Jacques Mathyer 2 and William J. Flynn.3 Exten-
sive rubbing is necessary to effect a full erasure because the ink penetrates the paper and
is not all on the surface. Common chemicals can completely remove ballpoint pen ink
from paper,1 though this technique may leave the indentation of the ball track. Photo-
graphic, UV, and IR luminescence methods, while not foolproof, are the better ways of
deciphering the original writing.
The decipherment of erased pencil writing, regardless of whether a black, indelible,
or colored pencil was used, presents not only a difficult but also an arduous and lengthy
task. The erasure can be made with a soft rubber eraser, which in the hands of a skillful
person hardly disturbs the paper surface. Even so, except when the writing was executed
with a very light touch, slight indentations of the original strokes may remain after
complete obliteration (Figure 27.4), and when incomplete, some carbon or pigment
traces are to be found (Figure 27.5). Both the indentations and traces serve as the basis
of decipherment. Visual and photographic examination under controlled light, involving
both oblique illumination and low-intensity diffused light, are effective methods of
reading the erased matter.4 At times reflected IR illumination is needed and, with colored
pencils, IR luminescence.
Utilizing the imaging software with an IR imaging system is a great tool in deciphering
erasures and capturing the image for the case notes. EDD examination of both front and
back of the paper is often useful in deciphering abraded writing, or at least graphically
demonstrating that an erasure has occurred.
With indelible pencil writing some of the unerased dye can be made more visible by
moistening with a fine spray of alcohol.5 The alcohol dissolves the remaining fragments
of dye, causing them to spread, thereby reproducing the erased portion.
If during the erasing process the paper surface was badly roughed, the problem
becomes more complicated. Under favorable circumstances, a complete decipherment can

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Figure 27.4 Impressions left of the initial number that was erased and then written over, as
viewed under oblique lighting.

Figure 27.5 Indentations of the original numeric amount are seen using oblique lighting.
Traces of the original graphite are seen at the bases of the 1 and 2.

be achieved, but there are many cases where only a part of the original matter can be read.
Should traces of the original matter remain, they may be intensified digitally with imaging
enhancement software or with an IR imaging system.
Computer-generated text may be easy or difficult to expunge, depending on the tech-
nology used to create it. Some inkjet inks are water soluble, though their removal in that
way will generally stain the paper. Toner such as laser printing can sometimes be scraped
off the page, but again, physical evidence will usually remain. The same techniques used
to decipher an erasure may be used here as well, but decipherment is usually very difficult.
When a lift-off ribbon has been used with a correcting typewriter, impressed outlines of
the letters usually remain. Virtually all of the pigment is removed, but the impression of the

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324 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

letter may be intensified.6 Side lighting, an IR imaging system, a plastic-cast technique,5 or

application of the chemical solution used in pencil problems may lead to full or partial
decipherment. Nevertheless, cases are encountered in which the erasure has been so thorough
that none of the techniques give satisfactory results.
Problems resulting from the removal of a stamp impression or printed matter, or from
an erased carbon copy, are less frequent, and the best results are apt to lead only to a partial
decipherment. Controlled lighting, and reflected IR, IR luminescence, or UV illumination
may provide some results. The latter two techniques are most effective when the impression
was bleached out with chemicals, the former when there are some fragments of the original
impression. Often with these problems the paper surface has been seriously damaged by
abrasive erasing.
Despite excellent results on many erasure problems, there are cases in which the
restoration or decipherment of erased writing may not be successful. So much depends
on the individual case — the materials erased; the care and handling of the document
prior to undertaking the restoration or decipherment; the time between the writing,
erasing, and attempted restoration or decipherment; and other factors often individual to
the particular problem. Each restoration or decipherment may involve a great deal of
experimentation and time. While the previous paragraphs have indicated scientific tech-
niques that may be helpful, much progress is usually made by visual study aided by
magnifiers, and sometimes reducing lenses under various controlled-lighting conditions,
including oblique or subdued lighting, as well as moderate-intensity daylight illumination.
Thus, when an erasure is first suspected, it is well to submit the document for examination
immediately. This eliminates unnecessary handling, which may reduce the chances of
success, and also allows sufficient time to investigate the problem thoroughly.

27.2 Associated Evidence

While associated evidence may not necessarily involve technical study, it does serve a very
useful role in the decipherment and verification of decipherments of erased and altered
documents. Associated evidence would be any other documents that relate closely to the
altered document. One obvious example would be a photocopy made prior to the alter-
ation. Locating the photocopy would reveal immediately what had been changed. Other
types of evidence might involve accounting records in which one such record had been
changed but other entries in the bookkeeping system had not been. Thus, anyone familiar
with the manner in which the books are kept would be able to locate the associated entries
and reconstruct the original entry.
It is always possible that portions of the associated evidence also have been altered.
For example, in an accounting record, the erasure and change of a particular entry may
require that the totals at the end of a section or a page be changed as well. Although great
care may have been taken with the critical entry, it is not uncommon for the changes in
the subtotals or totals to have been made carelessly or with only partial erasing. The result
is that the original totals can be deciphered more readily than the key erased figure. In
such a way, the critical entry could be reconstructed. Many other examples could be pointed
out, and often consultation with the document examiner him- or herself may bring to
mind where to look for this type of evidence.

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Figure 27.6 An altered money order is illustrated. Image A shows a portion of the document
under normal lighting. Images B and C show magnification of the areas altered by cutting the
original portion of the document and replacing it with areas from another money order, in this
case the letters NI and a 9. Image D demonstrates the adhesive on the reverse side illuminated
with UV lighting.

27.3 Cutting

A rare, though not unheard of, alteration of a document can be achieved by skillful cutting
away of some portions and then inserting new material to fill the gap. Of course, it is
necessary to devise some means of securing the inserted material in place. The document
may be pasted to another sheet, or stamps or tape may be affixed to the back of the
document (Figure 27.6). Checkwriter imprints have been altered by this means. 7 Careful
inspection of the paper will reveal the alteration, but casual observers and even those who
handle the document in business transactions, businessmen and bank employees, have
been fooled by checks altered in this manner.
If the paper is thick, only the top layer need be cut out and the inserted material cut
so that it fits accurately into the depression. Contest cards and pari-mutuel tickets are
known to have been produced with key numbers modified in this way. 8 Detection of the
alteration is possible, of course, but what was there originally normally cannot be ascer-
tained.

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326 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

27.4 Interlineations and Additions

Fraud can be committed just as effectively by addition as by subtraction. The insertion of
a modifying clause or sentence may completely change the meaning of a document in as
thorough a manner as the erasure of a key portion. The skill with which these modifications
are inserted varies from case to case, but as with erasures, effective methods have been
developed by which many fraudulent interlineations or additions are revealed.
Obviously, the crude insert of some important clause between the lines or crowded
along a margin immediately arouses suspicion. However, many additions are carefully
worked into the form of the document when very convenient space either within it or
immediately above the signature was provided by careless preparation. When these inser-
tions are skillfully done, they may pass unnoticed by the casual observer, but still, these
inconspicuous manipulations can be revealed by physical faults that are disclosed through
proper techniques and study.
To disclose that an insertion or addition has been made may involve an extensive study
of the document as a whole. Many of its elements, which have been discussed in earlier
sections, assume special importance. The lack of uniformity of ink; the work of more than
one pen or output device; crowding, uneven margins, or different spacing algorithms of
a modifying section, if printed; evidence of the insertion of pages through study of the
paper and fastening devices (Figure 27.7); sharp variation in handwriting; and any of a
score of other factors individual to the problem at hand may point out the insertion. There
is, however, one other sign that points conclusively to the fact that the document was not

Figure 27.7 The insertion of a sheet of paper is determined by the examination of the staple
holes. The top image is from the first page, the middle from the second, and the bottom from
the third. Notice the additional perforation between the two main staple holes (top and bottom
images). It was created when the end of the staple punched through the back of the sheets. The
perforation is not found on the second page, providing evidence that it was not in place at the
time the original stapling occurred.

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put together in normal order — evidence that the sequence of intersecting writing strokes
or strokes across the folds or perforations in the paper is not in the logical sequence that
would be consistent with the natural or alleged preparation of the document.

27.4.1 Sequence of Writing

Intersecting writing strokes may have distinctive patterns, depending upon the order of
writing, the lapse of time between the two writings, the density of the two strokes, and
the kind of inks, writing instruments, and paper used. With the stereoscopic microscope
or a hand magnifier aided by skillfully controlled lighting and IR or digital imaging systems,
the true order of preparation may be revealed and demonstrated to a lay observer.
What appears to be the obvious solution may not always be the correct answer. For
example, the line of deepest color usually appears on top even if it was written first (see
color Figure 27.8 following p. 366). Careful study and testing is necessary before reaching
a conclusion. A very fluid ink may underflow existing lines so that it lies physically under-
neath older entries. Some of the more common criteria for determining sequence are
considered in the following paragraphs.9
If we consider the intersection of two writing strokes or the intersection of writing
and printed text, the majority of problems are covered. Substantial, repeated intersections
of two writings offer a higher probability of success than a single, indifferent intersection,
such as a weak stroke crossing another or two lines barely touching one another, which
only very infrequently can produce a clear indication of the order of writing.
Fluid ink flows into the paper, and when such a line strikes another fresh fluid ink or
other hydrophilic material, the second line tends to spread out or widen at the intersection.
This condition is encountered with fluid ink pen writing and at times with that of porous
pens. If the first stroke is completely dry, the phenomenon is less apt to occur. When the
first stroke contains a significant groove created by a stiff pen point or a roller pen, a
relatively light second stroke may be found to narrow slightly or even to skip at the
intersection with the groove. There is also the possibility with highly soluble dye inks and
fresh fluid ink that the second ink can dissolve a portion of the first line, spreading its ink
beyond the edge of the original stroke (Figure 27.9).
Ballpoint pens with non-aqueous inks are rolled onto the paper. The ink does not
flow. When two such pen strokes intersect, the grooved lines caused by pressure on the
ball are critical in determining the order of writing. Interruption of the groove edges on
one line would indicate that it was written first. If the first groove is deep, the second line
may narrow slightly as it crosses, or may show a microscopic skipping. This same phe-
nomenon can occur when the ballpoint pen crosses a significantly grooved pencil stroke.
An additional means of studying the continuity of the edges of two intersecting ball-
point pen strokes involves lifting some of the ink at the point of intersection from the
paper. Igoe and Reynolds10 suggest the following method for achieving such a lift. The
glossy side of Kromekote paper, which is a high-gloss backing material used extensively
for mounting lifted latent fingerprints, is placed against an intersection in which the edge
marks show more prominently, and the back of the paper is rubbed with a blunt point
using even pressure. The resulting lift can show more clearly which of the two lines is
continuous across the intersection. To improve the results with older ink lines, like those
found on documents written several years before, Godown11 has proposed pretreatment
of the Kromekote paper with a dilute solution of thymol in alcohol. The lift is then made

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328 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

Figure 27.9 Fluid ink that is fresh can be pulled along the line of a pen that passes over the
top. This spreading of the ink is seen under IR luminescence. This phenomenon may not be
visible if the second ink has a stronger luminescence, thereby masking the spreading of the
underlying ink.

by rubbing the back of the sheet with a warm tacking iron for about 5 seconds. At this
time there are a number of companies developing instruments and software to determine
line-intersecting problems. One paper that deals with one such instrument was written by
Veerle Berx and Jan De Kinder.12
Pencil-written intersections may contain evidence of continuous and interrupted stri-
ations or grooves in the two lines. Occasionally, the second line may drag particles of
pigment from the first line, a condition more readily observed if the two strokes are of
different colors. In fact, with any kind of intersection, if the second writing instrument
drags particles of pigment or dyes from the crossed line, this is significant evidence that
it was written last.
Several different considerations come into play when writing and printed text intersect.
With fluid ink crossing a relatively fresh typewriting or toner image, there is a tendency
for the water-based ink to be repelled by the oils and waxes or resin found in the typewriter
ink or toner. As a result, small gaps, a slight narrowing of the fluid ink line, or beading of
the ink can be observed. This same condition can occur when a fluid ink crosses a fresh
ballpoint pen line. Inkjet images will behave very much like fluid ink writing. If there is a
substantial interval of time between the preparation of the typewriting and the fluid ink
writing, no repelling may be observed since the oily materials in the typewriting have
completely dried out. Because of this complete lack of any repelling of the aqueous ink by
the typewriting, it is suggested that the typewriting was prepared first, but it is not a sure
indication of this fact. A rare phenomenon of the fluid ink spreading into completely dried
typewriting has been reported. This contradictory action is due no doubt to the disturbance
of the paper surface by the typewriting. There have been studies that show that when fluid
ink is written last across a toner line, the ink may penetrate the toner and absorb into the
fibers below.13
Ballpoint pen writing across typewriting can be recognized by the spectral reflection
revealed by low-angle illumination or somewhat more readily by vertical illumination of
the intersection.9 The lack of such reflection constitutes strong evidence that the writing

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preceded the typewriting. If both the typewriting and the ballpoint pen writing emboss
the paper, the condition of the edges of the embossing may assist in confirming the order
of preparation. Again, the lift-off technique can be employed using a relatively weak, tacky,
removable pressure adhesive. This material lifts the typewriting except when covered with
writing at the intersection. The lifted image shows a continuous outline of the typewriting
except when it is covered by ink. The presence of a break in the typewriting is a clear
indication that the writing overlays the typewriting, but if there is no break at the inter-
section, then the opposite conclusion can be drawn.
A further indication that the writing is over the typewriting can be derived when
the typewriting embosses the paper and the pen stroke shows a skipping at the center
of the typewritten stroke where the pen failed to make contact with the paper in the
deepest part of the embossing. This condition is often accompanied by damage to the
edges of the typewritten stroke resulting from the pressure of the pen against the edge
of the typewriting.
Many of the examinations above can be used when viewing ink strokes intersecting
toner. One study conducted by Michelle Novotny13 demonstrates that some inks will bleed
through the toner and soak into the fibers below. Other studies are being undertaken to
determine sequence of toner and ink lines that do not intersect. 14,15 Both studies demon-
strate the differences in the toner particles when they are below or above inked writing.
Color Figure 27.10 (following p. 366) depicts the spectral reflectance, using coaxial lighting,
of fluid ink written over the top of toner.

27.4.2 Paper Condition and Sequence

Writing across folds and perforations frequently leaves an accurate picture of the order of
events and can well substantiate contentions of fraud or authenticity. Fluid ink strokes
leave the clearest picture (Figure 27.11 and Figure 27.12). The flow of such ink across a

Figure 27.11 The smooth, continuous line created by the aqueous ink stroke is seen where
it intersects with the fold. This is evidence that the fold was made after the ink was applied.

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330 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

Figure 27.12 The paper was folded before the aqueous ink stroke was written. Note the
skipping and over-inking on the downstroke of the letter i.

worn fold in the paper spreads discernibly into the adjacent paper fibers in a manner that
immediately establishes that the writing followed the folding. A dried ink stroke that is
subsequently bent or broken by a fold is not affected in this way. Instead, it remains
unchanged, or with deep folds, the ink film may contain microscopic breaks. Ballpoint
pens may skip on the far side of a fold ridge or within the trough of a concave fold. There
are times when ink is rubbed off the ball housing at a fold intersection.
The sequence of fluid ink writing and a perforation follows a similar pattern. When
the perforations are put in the paper after the writing has been completed, both fluid and
ballpoint pen ink strokes are cleanly cut (Figure 27.13), but when the writer tries to write

Figure 27.13 The impression of a misaligned checkwriter cut through part of the signature.
The ridges of the checkwriter impression break some portions of the ink line, as seen in the
8, indicating that it was applied after the check was signed and raised.

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across a perforation, the fluid ink is very apt to flow along the cut edge. With a ballpoint
pen, the ink does not flow, but the ball can catch in the perforation, staining the edges.
Sometimes the crowding or twisting of the writing reveals the writer’s effort to avoid the
perforation entirely.
Pencil and printed text strokes across folds and perforations may leave evidence of
sequence as well, but the demonstration of the facts is a more complex problem than with
ink writing and may be subject to greater limitations. With pencil and toner images, there
is no ink that can flow into broken paper fibers. Still, typical differences in the continuity
of the writing strokes or the ridge of a fold may allow definite conclusions, although not
in every case. With these problems, as with all questions of sequence, experimentation
under controlled conditions is often needed to verify that an apparent determination of
sequence is the correct conclusion.
Under proper circumstances, sequence can be definitely established through these
examinations, and the order is definitely fixed. The weight of this evidence can be great.
When an unusual sequence of writing is established from the physical facts, it is not in
itself positive proof of fraud. Rather, this physical evidence must be weighed in conjunc-
tion with the other testimony and facts in the case. The burden of proof generally shifts
to those who oppose this new evidence, for it becomes their task to establish that this
situation can exist without conflict with the intent or original purpose of the document.

27.5 Obliterated or Overwriting

Overwriting — that is, the obliteration or blocking out of portions of writing by some
opaque material — is seldom used for fraudulent purposes because of its obviousness.
Nevertheless, from time to time such obliterations may be encountered in all types of
documents. Many times the writer blots out writing simply by striking over it thoroughly
with the same writing instrument with which the document is written. The anonymous
letter writer may attempt to block out a printed return address on the only available
envelope.
These examples serve to illustrate the diversity of problems. Virtually each case has its
own ramifications, requiring various techniques and making difficult an accurate, generalized
forecast as to the measure of success. The solution at best is a tedious process involving
extensive experimentation, and it must be recognized that failures are to be encountered.
Successful decipherment or restoration depends principally upon the medium
employed for the original writing and the covering material. Three possible methods of
solution present themselves: (1) to penetrate the covering layer so that the original
writing lying beneath is revealed, (2) to remove the obliterating material chemically or
by some other means while the original writing remains untouched, and (3) to try to
decipher the impression from the original writing or typewriting that has not been
destroyed by the obliterating action.
Imaging methods can succeed if a difference in color or chemical composition exists
between the original writing and the covering material. Separation may be affected with
filters of a color similar to the obliterating substances, but this attack breaks down when
the covering is a true black. The use of an IR imaging system that is capable of transmitted
light, IR luminescence, UV radiation, and oblique lighting may enhance the chance of
differentiation success as well. It has been shown that in utilizing scanning and imaging

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332 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

software, some inks may be differentiated. As a general rule, if complete and accurate
decipherment is to be achieved, the methods involve repeated attempts under slightly
different conditions.
When other methods fail, or are impractical, the obliterating material can sometimes
be removed or weakened by chemical or mechanical means. Success depends upon whether
the techniques employed affect only the obliterating substance, or at least have a more
pronounced effect on it than the writing beneath. Blue-black or aniline inks obliterating
carbon inks, pencil strokes covering inks, and many ink or pencil strokes hiding typewriting
are combinations that lend themselves to these methods of attack. Ordinary erasers and
common solvents that may affect writing inks when skillfully manipulated may achieve
the desired results. Thus, under favorable circumstances, this approach to the problem is
successful, but as the combination of materials that are not susceptible to this treatment
are numerous, success is far from universal.
One form of obliteration has rather widespread use today. This is the use of correc-
tion solutions or tapes in lieu of erasing, especially with typewriting. One technique is
to type through a correction ribbon or sheet covering the outline of the letters to be
retrieved. Usually, new typewriting is placed in the same area. The other technique is to
use liquid or tape correction material. These can be either painted on or placed over the
area to be removed. Again, new text can be written over the correction material. In most
instances a careful inspection will reveal the obliteration. Normally the original material
can be read by transmitted light (Figure 27.14) or by photocopying the back of the sheet
using color-tinted transparency film, so the image can be turned into a read right
position. When the correction material is too thick or there is interference from the
reverse side, the document may need to be immersed in petroleum ether, 16 or some of
the material may need to be removed for decipherment. A xylene substitute has been
found to be effective in removing most solutions with little or no detrimental effect to
the underlying ink.17,18 In some cases the only hope is that the opaquing material may

Figure 27.14 An obliteration made with opaquing solution is seen under normal lighting
(upper image). The bottom image shows the original number was a 2 when viewed from the
reverse side using transmitted light. (Courtesy of Jan Seaman Kelly.)

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be faulty and some portions of the original writing may yet be discernible. These partial
strokes or weak outlines of semiobliterated letters can be intensified and deciphered. All
these obliterations by and large require a diversity of methods combining various tech-
niques, experimentation, perseverance, and often a full measure of luck to ensure ulti-
mate success.

27.5.1 Overwritings and Insertions

Documents may be changed by overwriting words and portions of sentences or by insertion
of a character, word, sentence, or more. At times it is necessary to attempt to determine
what was originally written. In other instances, it is necessary only to show that the changes
were not made at the time of preparation of the document. Insertions in the form of
interlineations may be very obvious, but if it can be shown that they were made with
another writing instrument, by another writer, or on a different typewriter or printer, it
can go a long way toward attacking the value of the present version.
Insertions may be disclosed by differences in the writing material or differences in the
handwriting. Crowding of the inserted material compared to surrounding writing suggests
an addition. Microscopic study is used to detect differences in ink or writing instruments.
Intersecting strokes may disclose the wrong sequence. Using filters, ultraviolet and infrared,
is a useful tool. Most of the methods discussed in previous sections may come into play
in these problems as well.
Overwriting that is not very obvious may be established by disclosing double strokes.
Strokes that are not a part of the letters of the overwritten words assume significance.
If there is enough writing, it may be possible to show that there are writing characteristics
of someone other than the person who prepared the balance of the document.
Cases of this nature are not common. They are more often found in manipulation of
accounting records and check frauds (see color Figure 27.15 and color Figure 27.16 following
p. 366). Occasionally, they are incidental issues in document problems of entirely different
kinds. They do, however, represent another way that documents can be changed, and despite
the obvious appearance, changes of this nature will arise from time to time as evidence in
the case of one party to a litigation. They must be accurately evaluated.
Whole pages may be inserted in a multiple-page document. Their detection often
depends upon study of binding marks (such as staple holes if the pages are assembled in
this way) (see Figure 27.7), the paper for kind and size, the pen and ink, the printed text,
or the pencils. Indentations on a following page may be the key.

27.6 Proof of an Unaltered Document

In the previous sections various techniques that may reveal alterations in documents were
discussed. The question does arise, however, as to whether it is possible to establish that
a document has not been altered and, if so, what procedures are necessary.
Proving that a paper is unaltered is a challenging problem. 19 It is an important one,
however, since it is incumbent upon document examiners to be able to prove genuineness
as well as fraud. This proof of genuineness is necessary to support the validity of certain
disputed documents. Actually, the procedure involves not the application of any single test,
but a consideration of all the applicable procedures to determine whether there has been
an erasure, a substitution, or any other type of alteration in a document. In each instance,

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334 Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents

the findings must be that no significant alteration has occurred that in any way would
change the intended purpose of contents of the document. It is the cumulative evidence
that establishes that the document is unaltered.
Therefore, depending upon how the document was prepared, the FDE must apply
those tests that are appropriate to establish that there has been no significant erasure, or
if there has been some minor erasure, that it is clear that such an act was merely to correct
an error, such as a misspelling, made in the preparation of the document. To accomplish
this requires the application of every appropriate test that could disclose the presence of
an erasure, and each must show negative results. It is the combination of these tests that
supports the conclusion that the document contains no erasures.
By the same token, tests that may reveal additions to the document must be considered,
such as those showing the use of more than one writing instrument, the addition of typed
or computer-generated text, or the insertion of material by an improper sequence of
intersecting lines or lines with folds or perforations. With a handwritten document, was
all the writing done with the same writing instrument and by the same writer, and is the
document free from evidence of undue crowding of key material? Thus, in dealing with
each specific page, the document examiner must be able to say that there is no evidence
that a word, sentence, or paragraph had been added.
A further consideration in a multiple-page document is whether any pages may have
been removed and others substituted, or new pages added into the document after execu-
tion. Such examinations, of course, involve consideration of the writing instrument,
printer, paper, manner of binding, and presence of writing indentations that may have
resulted from preparation of material on the previous page. There are the problems of
determining whether the entire document was prepared at one time in a continuous
manner, which involves considering the margins on page after page, the spacing between
lines, the manner of handling paragraphs, and, if handwritten, whether there is an abrupt
change in the quality of handwriting, which might suggest a different writing episode. In
this way the FDE should be able to show that no evidence is present that suggests or
establishes that the preparation of any page is inconsistent with any other pages.
Actually, an unaltered document is one that contains no erasures, no additions, and
no substituted pages. To establish this situation in a positive and definite manner involves
considering a great number of factors. There may be some instances even after considering
all the elements in which the FDE is unable to say positively that the document is unaltered,
but he or she can certainly point to the preponderance of the evidence that is inconsistent
with any change. Thus, the physical facts found within the document itself many times
govern just how positively this question can be answered.

27.7 Conclusions
Regardless of how a document is altered — whether it is by erasing, obliteration, or
insertion of new matter — it is vital to those who stand to be defrauded that all of the
evidence contained within the document itself be brought to light. The extent to which
this internal evidence can be extracted has been indicated and the limitations frankly
discussed. Despite occasional inadequacies, these techniques are more often potent tools
by which fraud can be revealed and, in a number of problems, the facts set forth.

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Alterations in Documents 335

The need to establish that a document has not been altered may involve a complex study.
There is no single, simple test. All potential tests for showing that something has been erased,
added, or modified in any way must be applied. When the combined results reveal no change,
it can be stated that there is no evidence to support that this document was altered.

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© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC