MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Salient features of physical geography of India and

the world
Distribution of key natural resources
NATURAL RESOURCES OF INDIA

What are natural resources ?

Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the Earth. They occur naturally,
which means that humans cannot make natural resources. Instead, we use and modify natural
resources in ways that are beneficial to us. The materials used in human-made objects are natural
resources. Some examples of natural resources and the ways we can use them are:

Natural resources Products and services

Air Wind energy

Animals Foods ( Milk, Steak, Bacon etc.),

Clothing ( wool, silk etc.

Coal Electricity

Minerals Coins, wire, Steel, Aluminium etc.

Natural gas Electricity and Heating

Oil Electricity, Fuel for vehicles

Plants Wood, Paper, Cotton etc.

Sunlight Solar power, Photosynthesis

Water Hydroelectricity, Drinking, Cleaning

Pscnotes.com Page 1
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

INDIA : NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Land Resources: In terms of area India ranks seventh in the world with a total area of
32, 87.263 sq. km. (32.87 crore hectare). It accounts for 2.42% of total area of the world.
In absolute terms India is really a big country. However, land man ratio is not favourable
because of the huge population size.

Land utilisation figures are available for about 92.9% of total geographical area, that is, for
3,287.3 lakh hectare. Forest constitutes 24.01 % of the total geographical area of country. Out of
a total land area of 304.2 million hectares about 170.0 million hectares is under cultivation. Food
grains have preponderance in gross cropped areas as compared to non food grains. According to
Agricultural Census, the area operated by large holdings (10 hectares and above) has declined
and area operated under marginal holdings (less than one hectare) has increased. This indicates
that land is being fragmented.

2. Forest Resources: India‘s forest cover is 78.92 million hectare which is 24.01 % of the
geographical area of the country. The per capita forest in India (0.5 hectare) is much less
than that in the world (1.9 hectares). According to the National Policy on Forests (1988),
one-third (33%) of the country‘s area should be covered by forests in order to maintain
ecological balance.
3. 3. Mineral Resources :

Iron-Ore: India possesses high quality iron-ore in abundance. The total reserves of iron-ore in
the country are about 14.630 million tonnes of haematite and 10,619 million tonnes of magnetite.
Haematite iron is mainly found in Chbattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa and Karnataka. The
major deposit of magnetite iron is available at western coast of Karnataka. Some deposits of iron
ore arc also found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Coal reserves : India has the fifth largest coal reserves in the world. As on 31 March 2015, India
had 306.6 billion metric tons (338.0 billion short tons) of the resource. The known reserves of
coal rose 1.67% over the previous year, with the discovery of an estimated 5.04 billion metric
tons (5.56 billion short tons). The estimated total reserves of lignite coal as on 31 March 2015
was 43.25 billion metric tons (47.67 billion short tons). The energy derived from coal in India is
about twice that of the energy derived from oil, whereas worldwide, energy derived from coal is
about 30% less than energy derived from oil. Coal deposits are primarily found in eastern and
south-central India. Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana
and Maharashtra accounted for 99.08% of the total known coal reserves in India. As on 31
March 2015, Jharkhand and Odisha had the largest coal deposits of 26.44% and 24.72%
respectively .

The top producing states are:

Pscnotes.com Page 2
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Odisha
 Chhattisgarh
 Jharkhand

Other notable coal-mining areas are as follows :

 Singareni collieries in Bhadradi district (Old Khammam District), Telangana

 Jharia mines in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand
 Nagpur & Chandrapur district, Maharshtra
 Raniganj in Bardhaman district, West Bengal
 Neyveli lignite mines in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu
 Singrauli Coalfield and Umaria Coalfield in Madhya Pradesh

Bauxite:

Bauxite is a main source of metal like aluminium. It is not a specific mineral but a rock
consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides. It is clay-like substance which is pinkish
whitish or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content.

The total reserves of bauxite in India are estimated at 27.40 crores tonnes. The major bauxite
producing states in India are Orissa, Jharkhand, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Goa in a descending order of importance.

Large amount of bauxite comes from:

Orissa : Sambalpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Ganjam,

Jharkhand : Lohardaga near Ranchi and Palamau districts,

Maharashtra: Ratnagiri and Kolaba, Thane, Satara of Kolhapur district,

Madhya Pradesh: Chhattisgarh – Balaghat, Rajgarh and Bilashpur,

Gujarat : Bhavanagar, Junagarh and Amreli,

Karnataka: Belgaum and Bababudan hills,

Tamil Nadu: Salem.

Uranium deposits : Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt (in the state of Jharkhand, formerly
part of Bihar) is the first uranium deposit to be discovered in the country in 1951. The
Singhbhum Thrust Belt (also known as Singhbhum Copper belt or Singhbhum shear Zone) is a
zone of intense shearing and deep tectonization with less than 1km width and known for a
number of copper deposits with associated nickel, molybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc. It

Pscnotes.com Page 3
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
extends in the shape of an arc for a length of about 160 km. This discovery of uranium at
Jaduguda in this belt paved the way for intensive exploration work and soon a few more deposits
were brought to light in this area. Some of these deposits like Bhatin, Narwapahar and Turamdih
are well known uranium mines of the country. other deposits like Bagjata, Banduhurang and
Mohuldih are being taken up for commercial mining operations. Some of the other areas like
Garadih, Kanyaluka, Nimdih and Nandup in this belt are also known to contain limited reserves
with poor grades. Apart from discoveries in the Singhbhum Thrust Belt, several uranium
occurrences have also been found in Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh. These include
Lambapur-Peddagattu, Chitrial, Kuppunuru, Tumallapalle, Rachakuntapalle which have
significantly contributed towards the uranium reserve base of India. In the Mahadek basin of
Meghalaya in NorthEastern part of the country, sandsyone type uranium deposits like Domiasiat,
Wahkhyn, Mawsynram provide near-surface flat orebodies amenable to commercial operations.
Other areas in Rajsthan, Karnataka and Chattishgarh hold promise for developing into some
major deposits.

Thorium

The IAEA's 2005 report estimates India's reasonably assured reserves of thorium at 319,000
tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India's reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A government of India
estimate, shared in the country's Parliament in August 2011, puts the recoverable reserve at
846,477 tonnes. The Indian Minister of State V. Narayanasamy stated that as of May 2013, the
country's thorium reserves were 11.93 million tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO2, with a
significant majority (8.59 Mt; 72%) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh
(3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%). Both the IAEA and
OECD appear to conclude that India may possess the largest share of world's thorium deposits.

Iron reserves : Iron ore is a metal of universal use. It is the backbone of modern civilisation. It
is the foundation of our basic industry and is used all over the world. four varieties of iron ore
are generally recognized.

(i) Magnetite: This is the best quality of iron ore . It possesses magnetic property and hence is
called magnetite. It is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka.

Pscnotes.com Page 4
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
(ii) Haematite:

It contains 60 % to 70 % pure iron and is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa,

Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

(iii) Limonite:

It contains 40 per cent to 60 per cent pure iron. It is of yellow or light brown colour. Damuda
series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and Kangra
valley of Himachal Pradesh.

(iv) Siderite:

It contains many impurities and has just 40 to 50 per cent pure iron. However, due to presence of
lime, it is self fluxing.

(4) Oil reserves : India had about 750 Million metric tonne of proven oil reserves as April 2014
or 5.62 billion barrels as per EIA estimate for 2009, which is the second-largest amount in the
Asia-Pacific region behind China. Most of India's crude oil reserves are located in the western
coast (Mumbai High) and in the northeastern parts of the country, although considerable
undeveloped reserves are also located in the offshore Bay of Bengal and in the state
of Rajasthan. The combination of rising oil consumption and fairly unwavering production levels
leaves India highly dependent on imports to meet the consumption needs. In 2010, India
produced an average of about 33.69 million metric tonne of crude oil as on April 2010 or 877
thousand barrels per day as per EIA estimate of 2009. As of 2013 India Produces 30% of India's
resources mostly in Rajasthan.

India's oil sector is dominated by state-owned enterprises, although the government has taken
steps in past recent years to deregulate the hydrocarbons industry and support greater foreign
involvement. India's state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation is the largest oil company.
ONGC is the leading player in India's upstream sector, accounting for roughly 75% of the
country's oil output during 2006, as per Indian government estimates. As a net importer of all oil,
the Indian Government has introduced policies aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil
exploration activities. As part of the effort, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas crafted the
New Exploration License Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold
100% equity possession in oil and natural gas projects. However, to date, only a handful of oil
fields are controlled by foreign firms. India's downstream sector is also dominated by state-
owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past recent years.

The Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPR) is an emergency fuel store of total 5 MMT
(million metric tons) or 36.92 MMbbl of strategic crude oil enough to provide 10 days of
consumption which are maintained by the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited.

Pscnotes.com Page 5
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Strategic crude oil storages are at 3 underground locations :
in Mangalore, Visakhapatnam and Padur(nr Udupi). All these are located on the east and west
coasts of India which are readily accessible to the refineries. These strategic storages are in
addition to the existing storages of crude oil and petroleum products with the oil companies and
serve in response to external supply disruptions .

In the 2017-18 budget speech by the Indian finance minister Arun Jaitley, it was announced that
two more such caverns will be set up Chandikhole in Jajpur district of Odisha and Bikaner in
Rajasthan as part of the second phase. This will take the strategic reserve capacity to 15.33
million tons.

Apart from this,India is planning to expand more strategic crude oil facilities in second phase
at Rajkot in Gujarat, Padur in and Udupi district of Karnataka.

(5) Natural gas reserves : Natural gas consists primarily of methane .Propane , butane, pentane
and hexane are also present . KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil
Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc. are natural gas reserves of India.

Wind energy resources : The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has
significantly increased in the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry
compared with Denmark or the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to
become the country with the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.

As of March 31, 2016 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 26,769.05 MW, mainly
spread across Tamil Nadu (7,269.50 MW), Maharashtra (4,100.40 MW), Gujarat (3,454.30
MW), Rajasthan (2,784.90 MW), Karnataka (2,318.20 MW), Andhra Pradesh (746.20 MW)
and Madhya Pradesh (423.40 MW) Wind power accounts for 14% of India's total installed power
capacity. India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind
power by 2022.

Solar power : Solar power is attractive because it is abundant and offers a solution to fossil fuel
emissions and global climate change. Earth receives solar energy at the rate of approximately

Pscnotes.com Page 6
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
1,73,000 TW. This enormously exceeds both the current annual global energy consumption rate
of about 15 TW, and any conceivable requirement in the future. India is both densely populated
and has high solar insolation, providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. India is
already a leader in wind power generation. In solar energy sector, some large projects have
been proposed, and a 35,000 km² area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power
projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 GW.

With about 300 clear sunny days in a year, India‘s theoretical solar power reception, just on its
land area, is about 5 PWh/year (i.e. = 5 trillion kWh/yr ~ 600 TW). The daily average solar
energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with about 1500–2000 sunshine hours per
year, depending upon location. This is far more than current total energy consumption. The India
Energy Portal estimates that if 10% of the land were used for harnessing solar energy, the
installed solar capacity would be at 8,000GW, or around fifty times the current total installed
power capacity in the country. For example, even assuming 10% conversion efficiency for
PV modules, it will still be thousand times greater than the likely electricity demand in India by
the year 2015.

NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam(NVVN) ,the nodal agency for implementing the first phase of
JNNSM , received 418 applications against a requirement of 650 MW(500 MW Solar Thermal
and 150 MW Solar PV) for Batch I. Out of this 343 applications were for solar PV and 55 for
Solar Thermal. The interest was high in the investor community for solar PV as applications
worth 1715 MW (343*5 MW) were received as against a total of 150 MW. 30 bidders were
selected through reverse bidding and projects were allocated to companies that offered highest
discount to base tariff rate of Rs. 17.91/kWh. Projects totaling 610 MW were awarded with 145
MW under solar PV and 470 MW under Solar Thermal. The winning bids for solar PV varied
from Rs. 10.95/kWh to Rs. 12.76/kWh and for Solar Thermal it was Rs. 11.14/kWh in Phase I
Batch I. Camelot Enterprises Private Ltd was the lowest bidder and other successful bidders
included Mahindra Solar One, Azure Power, SunEdison Energy, Lanco Infratech. The project
capacity under Batch I is 5 MW for solar PV and minimum 5 MW and maximum 100MW for
Solar Thermal. By July 2011, negotiations were concluded, PPAs awarded and financial closure
achieved for 34 projects.

Under batch II, the project size has been increased up to 20 MW and the base price for solar PV
projects is Rs. 15.39/kWh. NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) received 154 applications for
1915 MW of solar PV projects against a requirement of 350 MW. The results of the bidding for
solar PV projects indicate that the grid parity for solar power may not be too far off. The winning
bids varied from Rs. 7.49/kWh to Rs. 9.41/kWh. The average bid price for both batch I and II
was Rs. 12.15/kWh. French project developer Solairedirect emerged as the lowest bidder and
Green Infra Solar the highest bidder. The other successful bidders included companies like
Welspun Solar, Azure Power, SunBorne Energy and Mahindra Solar One. Around 70% and
85% of the allocated capacity under Phase I Batch I and Phase I Batch II respectively is to be
implemented in Rajasthan.

Pscnotes.com Page 7
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
LAND RESOURCES : UTILIZATION PATTERN IN INDIA

Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into
built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures,
and managed woods. It also has been defined as "the total of arrangements, activities, and input
that people undertake in a certain land cover type.

Land is a scarce resource, whose supply is fixed for all practical purposes. At the same time, the
demand for land for various competing purposes is continuously increasing with the increase in
human population and economic growth.

Agricultural land: Agricultural land (also agricultural area) denotes the land suitable for
agricultural production, both crops and livestock. It includes net sown area, current fallows and
land under miscellaneous trees crops and groves. Agricultural land in India totals approx. 46 %
of the total geographical area in the country. This is the highest among the large and medium-
sized countries of the world. This indicates The influence of favourable physical factors (like
size, extent of plains and plateaus, etc.) and The extension of cultivation to a large proportion of
the cultivable land. But, because of the large population of the country, the per capita arable land
(i.e. land suitable for agriculture) is low: 0.16 hectares against the world average of 0.24
hectares. About 15 per cent of the sown area is multi-cropped.

Non-agricultural land: This includes land under forests and permanent pastures,
land under other non-agricultural uses (towns, villages, roads, railways, etc.) and
land classified as cultivable waste as well as barren and uncultivated land of
mountain and desert areas.

The population continues to grow rapidly in India and great pressure is being placed on arable
land resources to provide an adequate supply of food and energy requirements. Even if land
resources are never exhausted, on a per capita basis they will decline significantly because they
must be divided among more people. Land is one such natural resources of a nation on which the
entire superstructure is created. Thus, land use is a synthesis of physical, chemical and biological
systems and processes on the one hand and human/societal processes and behavior on the other
hand. Land is important not only for producing food stuffs, cereals, fruits and vegetables for
consumption but also for generating surpluses to meet the increasing demands created by rising
population and developing industrial sector, for laying down the transport network,
communication lines, for the construction of dwellings and public institutions, etc. Due to
unprecedented population growth, man has made uses and misuses of land resources causing
environmental degradation.

Again environmental degradation in developing countries like India, especially its manifestations
in the form of soil erosion, deforestation etc, is often attributed to rapid population growth. It has
however been increasingly realized that since these predominantly agricultural countries are
undergoing the process of technological progress and development, many other factors also
modify the relationship between population and land. Changing techniques of production,

Pscnotes.com Page 8
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
changes in the pattern of land utilization of natural as well as human resources, industrialization,
urbanization, changing life styles, rising aspirations, change in consumption pattern are some of
the macro level factors which make the relationship between population and land use much more
complex.

Agro-climatic zones in India and M.P

Agro-climatic zones of india

An ―Agro-climatic zone‖ is a land unit in terms of major climates, suitable for a certain range of
crops and cultivars.

With the 329 million hectares of the geographical area the country presents a large number of
complex agro-climatic situations.

India is divided into 15 agro-climatic zones.The 15 agro-climatic zones are:

Zone 1- Western Himalayan Region: Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh

Zone 2 - Eastern Himalayan Region: Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal and all North-Eastern states

Zone 3 - Lower Gangetic Plains Region: West Bengal

Zone 4 - Middle Gangetic Plains Region: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar

Zone 5 - Upper Gangetic Plains Region: Uttar Pradesh

Zone 6 - Trans-Gangetic Plains Region: Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan

Zone 7 - Eastern Plateau and Hills Region: Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal

Zone 8 - Central Plateau and Hills Region: MP, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh

Zone 9 - Western Plateau and Hills Region: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan

Zone 10 - Southern Plateau and Hills Region: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

Zone 11 - East Coast Plains and Hills Region: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Pondicherry

Zone 12 - West Coast Plains and Ghat Region: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka,
Maharashtra

Zone 13 - Gujarat Plains and Hills Region: Gujarat

Pscnotes.com Page 9
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Zone 14 - Western Dry Region: Rajasthan

Zone 15 - The Islands Region: Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep.

Western Himalayan Region

It includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Kumaun-Garhwal areas of Uttaranchal.
It shows great variation in relief. Summer season is mild (July average temperature 5°C-30°C)
but the winter season experiences severe cold conditions (January temperature 0°C to -4°C).

The amount of average annual rainfall is 150 cms. Zonal arrangement in vegetation is found with
varying height along the hill slopes. Valleys and duns have thick layers of alluvium while hill
slopes have thin brown hilly soils.

Eastern Himalayan Region

The Eastern Himalayan region consists of Sikkim, Darjeeling area (West Bengal), Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam hills, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. It is characterised
by rugged topography, thick forest cover and sub-humid climate (rainfall over 200 cm;
temperature July 25°C-33°C, January 11°C-24°C). The soil is brownish, thick layered and less
fertile. Shifting cultivation (Jhum) is practised in nearly 1/ 3 of the cultivated .

Lower Gangetic Plains Region

This region spreads over eastern Bihar, West Bengal and Assam valley. Here average amount of
annual rainfall lies between 100 cm-200 cm. Temperature for July month varies from 26°C-41°C
and for January month 9°C-24 0C. The region has adequate storage of ground water with high
water table. Wells and canals are the main source of irrigation.

The problem of water logging and marshy lands is acute in some parts of the region. Rice is the
main crop which at times yields three successive crops (Aman, Aus and Boro) in a year. Jute,

Pscnotes.com Page 10
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
maize, potato, and pulses are other important crops. Planning strategies include improvement in
rice farming, horticulture (banana, mango and citrus fruits), pisciculture, poultry, livestock,
forage production and seed supply. An export processing zone for marine and sea foods needs to
be established which should be equipped with modern facilities of freezing, canning,
dehydration, and quality control.

Middle Gangetic Plains Region

It incorporates eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (except Chotanagpur plateau). It is a fertile
alluvial plain drained by Ganga River and its tributaries. The average temperature of July month
varies from 26°C- 4I°C and that of January month 9°C-24°C.The amount of annual rainfall lies
between 100 cm and 200 cm. The region has vast potential of ground water and surface runoff in
the form of perennial rivers which is utilised for irrigation through tube wells, canals and wells.
Rice, maize, millets in, kharif, wheat, gram, barley, peas, mustard and potato in rabi are
important crops.

Upper Gangetic Plains Region

This region encompasses central and western parts of Uttar Pradesh. The climate is subhumid
continental with July month's temperature between 26°-41°C, January month's temperature
between 7°- 23°C and average annual rainfall between 75 cm- 150 cm. The soil is sandy loam. It
has 131 per cent irrigation intensity and 144 per cent cropping intensity. Canal, tube well and
wells are the main source of irrigation. This is an intensive agricultural region where in wheat,
rice, sugarcane, millets, maize, gram, barley, oilseeds, pulses and cotton are the main crops.

Trans-Gangetic Plains Region

The Trans Ganga Plain consists of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Chandigarh and Ganganagar district
of Rajasthan. The climate has semiarid characteristics with July month's temperature between
26°C and 42°C, January temperature ranging from 7°C to 22°C and average annual rainfall
between 70 cm and 125 cm. Private tube wells and canals provide principal means of irrigation.
Important crops include wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice, gram, maize, millets, pulses and oilseeds
etc.

Eastern Plateau and Hills Region

It comprises the Chotanagpur plateau Rajmahal hills, Chhattisgarh plains and Dandakaranya.
The region enjoys 26°C-34°C of temperature in July, 10°C-27° C in January and 80 cm-150 cm
of annual rainfall. Soils are red and yellow with occasional patches of laterites and alluviums.

Central Plateau and Hills Region

This region spreads over Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Bhander plateau, Malwa plateau and
Vindhyachal hills. The climate is semi-arid in western part to sub-humid in eastern part with

Pscnotes.com Page 11
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
temperature in July month 26°C-40°C, in January month 7°C-24°C and average annual rainfall
from 50 cm- 100 cm. Soils are mixed red, yellow and black growing crops like millets, gram,
barley, wheat, cotton, sunflower, etc.

Western Plateau and Hills Region

This comprises southern part of Malwa plateau and Deccan plateau (Maharashtra). This is a
region of the regard soil with July temperature between 24°C-41 °C, January temperature
between 6°C- 23°C and average annual rainfall of 25 cm-75 cm. Net sown areas is 65 per cent
and forests occupy only 11 per cent. Only 12.4 per cent area is irrigated. Jowar, cotton,
sugarcane, rice, bajra, wheat, gram, pulses, potato, groundnut and oilseeds are the principal
crops. The area is known for its oranges, grapes and bananas.

Southern Plateau and Hills Region

It incorporates southern Maharashtra, Karnataka, western Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil
Nadu. The temperature of July month lies between 26°C to 42°C, that of January month between
13°C-21°C with annual rainfall between 50 cm-100 cm. The climate is semi-arid with only 50
per cent of area cultivated, 81 per cent of dry land farming, and low cropping intensity of 111 per
cent. Low value cereals and minor millets predominate. Coffee, tea, cardamom and spices are
grown along the hilly slopes of Karnataka plateau.

East Coast Plains and Hills Region

This region includes the Coromandel and Northern Circar coasts. Here climate is sub-humid
maritime with May and January temperatures ranging from 26°C-32°C and 20°C-29°C
respectively and annual rainfall of 75 cm-150 cm. The soils are alluvial, loam and clay facing the
menacing problem of alkalinity.

West Coast Plains and Ghats Region

This region extends over the Malabar and Konkan coasts and the Sahyadris and is covered by
laterite and coastal alluvials. This is a humid region with annual rainfall above 200 cm and
average temperatures of 26°C-32°C in July and 19°C-28°C in January. Rice, coconut, oilseeds,
sugarcane, millets, pulses and cotton are the main crops. The region is also famous for plantation
crops and spices which are raised along the hill slopes of the Ghats.

West Coast Plains and Ghats Region

This region extends over the Malabar and Konkan coasts and the Sahyadris and is covered by
laterite and coastal alluvials. This is a humid region with annual rainfall above 200 cm and
average temperatures of 26°C-32°C in July and 19°C-28°C in January. Rice, coconut, oilseeds,
sugarcane, millets, pulses and cotton are the main crops. The region is also famous for plantation
crops and spices which are raised along the hill slopes of the Ghats.

Western Dry Region

Pscnotes.com Page 12
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
It comprises western Rajasthan west of the Aravallis. It is characterised by hot sa ndy desert,
erratic rainfall (annual average less than 25 cm), high evaporation, contrasting temperature (June
28°C- 45°C, and January 5°C-22°C), absence of perennial rivers, and scanty vegetation.

Ground water is very deep and often brackish. Famine and drought are common features. Land-
man ratio is high. Forest area is only 1.2 per cent. Land under pastures is also low (4.3 per cent).
Cultivable waste and fallow lands account for nearly 42 per cent of the geographical area. Net
irrigated area is only 6.3 per cent of net sown area which is 44.4 per cent of the geographical
area. Bajra, jowar, and moth are main crops of kharif and wheat and gram in rabi. Livestock
contributes greatly in desert ecology.

The Islands Region

The island region includes Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep which have typically equatorial
climate (annual rainfall less than 300 cm the mean July and January temperature of Port Blair
being 30°C and 25°C respectively). The soils vary from sandy along the cost to clayey loam in
valleys and lower slopes.

The main crops are rice, maize, millets, pulses, areca nut, turmeric and cassava. Nearly half of
the area is under coconut. The area is covered with thick forests and agriculture is a backward
stage. The main thrust in development should be on crop improvement, water management and
fisheries. Improved verity of rice3 seeds should be popularised so as to enable farmers to take
two crops of rice in place of one. For fisheries development multi-purpose fishing vessels for
deep sea fishing should be introduced, suitable infrastructure for storage and processing of fish
should be built up, and brackish water prawn culture should be promoted in the coastal area.

Agro-climatic zones of Madhya Pradesh

There are 11 agro-climatic zones in Madhya Pradesh.

1. Malwa Plateau: Indore, Dhar, (Dhar, Badnawar, Sardarpur tehsils) Shajapur, Mandsour,
Nimuch, Ratlam, Ujjain, Dewas Rajgarh districts and Petlawad tehsil of Jhabua district.
2. Vindhyan Plateau: Bhopal, Vidisha, Sehore (Sehore, Ashta, Ichhawar, Narsullaganj
tehsils) Raisen (Raisen, Gairatganj, Begamganj, Silwani, Goharganj, Udaipura tehsils),
Damoh, Guna (Chachora & Raghogarh tehsils) & Sagar districts.

3.Central Narmada Valley : Hoshangabad (Seoni-Malwa, Hoshangabad, Sohagpur tehsils),

Harda, Nasinghpur districts, Budhani and Barelli tehsil of Sehore and Raisen districts
respectively.

4.Satpura Plateau: Betul, Chhindwara districts.

5.Jhabua Hills: Jhabua, Jobat, Alirajpur tehsils of Jhabua district & kukshi tehsil of Dhar
district.

Pscnotes.com Page 13
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
6.Gird Region: Gwalior, Bhind, Morena, Shivpur-Kalan, Guna (Mungawali and Ashoknagar
tehsils), Shivpuri (Shivpuri, Kalaras, Pohari tehsils).

7.Kymore Plateau: Jabalpur, Katni, Rewa, Panna, Satana, Sidhi, Seoni and Gopadbanas &
Deosar tehsils of Sidhi district.

8.Bundel Khand Region: Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur, Datia districts, Karela, Pachore tehsil of
Shivpuri and Guna tehsil of Guna district.

9.Nimar Valley: Khandwa, Khargone, Barwani district, Manawar tehsil of Dhar district and
Harda district.

10.Northern Hills of Chhattisgarh: Shahdol, Umariya Mandla, Dindori district & Singrauli
tehsil of Sidhi district.

11.Chhattisgarh plain: Balaghat district.

Each zone has its unique set of natural resources and constraints. The eastern part of the State is
characterized by its rice based cropping systems, light alfisols which have low water holding
capacity and are prone to erosion mainly water erosion because of higher and often high intensity
rainfall. Rainfall in this part of the state is about 1500 mm mainly received during south-west
monsoon season. The central and western parts of the state follow soybean based cropping
system whereas pulses and oilseeds occupy an important place in the region. Important soil types
in different zones of the states are mixed red and black (Kymore plateau), medium and deep
black (Vindhya plateau), deep black with clay (Central Narmada Valley), Alluvial, Medium
black soil, Mixed red and Black soil and red and yellow soil (Grid sub zone), clay and clay loams
and sandy loam soils (Bundelkhand), light reddish brown to black clay loam (Satpura), Alluvial,
Recent alluvium and Calcareous (Food Prone Eastern Plain Zone).

 Northern low lying plains comprising Gwalior, Bhind and Morena districts and extend to
Bundelkhand up to the west of Panna range and excludes certain parts of Rewa district
between Panna and Kaymore hills of Baghelkhand.
 The Malwa and Vindhyan Plateau comprises of Vidisha, Shivpuri, Datia, Guna, Ujjain
and Mandsour districts and parts of Sehore, Raisen and Dewas districts. It consists of
large undulating plains of black cotton soil dotted with flat-topped hills. It has also hilly

Pscnotes.com Page 14
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Vindhyan Plateau situated it the north of Narmada Valley and to the south of the low-
lying regions of Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. It separated from east of Malwa plateau
to Maikal and Dorea hills of Satpura range.
 The Narmada Valley stretching from Jabalpur in the east up to Barwani district in the
west. It is nearly 560 Km long and 48 Km wide and is walled on the north by the
Vindhyan range and on the south by Satpura range. It covers the districts of Jabalpur,
Nasinghpur, Hoshangabad, Khandwa, Khargone, Barwani, Dhar, and some parts of
Raisen, Sehore, and Dewas districts.

Industries in India and M.P

Industrial transition in India
 The process of industrial transition divided into: industrial growth during the 19th century
and industrial progress during the 20th century
 Industrial growth during the 19th century
o Decline of indigenous industries and the rise of large scale modern industries
o 1850-55: first cotton mill, first jute mill and the first coal mine established.
Railway also introduced.
o Despite some industrialisation, India was becoming an agricultural colony
o The thrust to industrialisation came from the British because
 They had capital
 They had experience in setting up industries in Britain
 They had state support
o British industrialists were interested in making profits rather than economic
growth of India
o Parsis, Jews and Americans were also setting industries
o No Indian industrialists because
 Neither the merchants nor the craftsmen took the lead in setting industries
 While the craftsmen didn‘t possess capital, the merchants were happy with
trading and money lending activity which was also growing at that time.
o However, some Parsis, Gujaratis, Marwaris, Jains and Chettiars joined the ranks
of industrialists
 Industrial Growth in the first half of the 20th century
o Imp events that stimulated industrial growth
 1905: Swadeshi Movement
 First WW
 Second WW
o Great stimulus was given to the production of iron and steel, cotton and woollen
textiles, leather products, jute.
o Tariff protection was given to Indian industries between 1924 and 1939. This led
to growth and Indian industrialists were able to capture the market and eliminate
foreign completion altogether in important fields

Pscnotes.com Page 15
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
o The increase in industrial output between 1939 and 1945 was about 20 percent
o After the WW I, the share of the foreign enterprises in India‘s major industries
began to decline.
 Causes for the slow growth of private enterprise in India‘s industrialisation
o Inadequacy of entrepreneurial ability
 Indian industrialists were short-sighted and cared very little for
replacement and renovation of machinery
 Nepotism dictated choice of personnel
 High profits by high prices rather than high profits by low margins and
larger sales
o Problem of capital and private enterprise
 Scarce capital
 Few avenues for the investment of surplus
 No government loans
 Absence of financial institutions
 Banking was not highly developed and was more concerned with
commerce rather than industry
o Private enterprises and the role of government
 Lack of support from the government
 Discriminatory tariff policy: one way free-trade
 Restrictions transfer of capital equipments and machinery from Britain
 Almost all machinery was imported
o Despite these difficulties, the Indian indigenous business communities continued
to grow, albeit at a slow pace.

Forms and Consequences of Colonial Exploitation

 Main forms of colonial exploitation

o Exploitation through trade policies
o Exploitation through export of British Capital to India
o Exploitation through finance capital via the Managing agency system
o Exploitation through the payments for the costs of the British administration
 Exploitation through trade policies
o Exp of cultivators to boost indigo export: forced
o Exp of artisans by compulsory procurement by the Company at low prices:
gomastas were the agents of the Company who used to do this
o Exp through manipulation of export and import duties:
 Imports of Indian printed cotton fabrics in England were banned
 Heavy import duties on Indian manufactures and very nominal duties on
British manufactures.
 Discriminating protection was given (to industries that had to face
competition from some country other than Britain). This was whittled
down, however, by the clause of Imperial Preference under which imports
from GB and exports to GB should enjoy the MFN status.
o Exploitation through export of British Capital to India

Pscnotes.com Page 16
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 There were three purposes of these investment (in transport and
communication)
 To build better access systems for exploited India‘s natural
resources
 To provide a quick means of communication for maintaining law
and order
 To provide for quicker disbursal of British manufactures
throughout the country and that raw materials could be easily
procured
 Fields of FDI
 Economic overhead and infrastructure like railways, shippings,
port, roads, communication
 For promoting mining of resources
 Commercial agriculture
 Investment in consumer goods industries
 Investments made in machine building, engineering industries and
chemicals
 Forms of investment
 Direct private foreign investment
 Sterling loans given to the British Government in India
 Estimates show that foreign capital increased from 365 mn sterling in
1911 to 1000 mn sterling in 1933.
 British multinationals were the chief instruments of exploitation and it
were they who drained out the wealth of India.
 These investments show that
 British were interested in creating economic infrastructure to aid
exploitation and resource drain
 They invested in consumer goods and not in basic and heavy
industries to prevent the development of Indian industries
 Ownership and management of these companies lay in British
hands
 Exploitation through finance capital via the Managing agency system
 Managing agency system: The British merchants who had earlier
set up firms acted as pioneers and promoters in several industries
like jute, tea and coal. These persons were called managing agents
 It may be described as partnerships of companies formed by a
group of individuals with strong financial resources and business
experience
 Functions of managing agents
 To float new concerns
 Arrange for finance
 Act as agents for purchase of raw materials
 Act as agents to market the produce
 Manage the affairs of the business
 They were important because they supplied finance to India when
it was starved of capital

Pscnotes.com Page 17
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 In due course, they started dictating the terms of the industry and
business and became exploitative and inefficient
 They demanded high percentage of profits. When refused they
threatened to withdraw their finance
 Exploitation through payments for the costs of British administration
 British officers occupied high positions and were paid fabulous
remunerations.
 These expenditures were paid by India
 They transferred their savings to Britain
 India had to pay interest on Sterling Loans
 India has to pay for the war expedition of the Company and later
the Crown

Consequences of the exploitation

 India remained primarily an agricultural economy

 Handcrafts and industries were ruined
 Trade disadvantage developed due to the policy of the British
 Economic infrastructure was developed only to meet the colonial interests
 Drain of Wealth
 The net result of the British policies was poverty and stagnation of the Indian economy

Industrial Developement of Madhya Pradesh:-

Madhya Pradesh, the second largest Indian state, is endowed with rich natural resources,
salubrious climate and fertile agro-climatic conditions. In the recent years, Indian economy has
changed substantially. Market forces have begun to dictate investment flows across the industrial
sectors. Accelerating investments in industrial development for economic growth is one of the
major focus areas for Madhya Pradesh.

Salient Highlights of Industrial Developement of Madhya Pradesh:-

 Today, Madhya Pradesh is one of the fastest growing states in India, backed by an
impressive annual growth rate of 11.98% during 2011-12. The state has recorded an
impressive growth in GSDP averaging over 9% during the last decade of stable
governance, supplemented by creation of a robust support infrastructure in terms of
roads, water supply, irrigation capacity and a year round 24x7 power supply.
 Between 2004-05 and 2015-16, Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) expanded at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 11.84 per cent to US$ 86.32 billion whereas
the Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) expanded at a CAGR of 12.0 per cent to US$
77.55 billion.
 In Madhya Pradesh, investors have better options in terms of project location,
infrastructure, incentives and other facilities. At present the state has prospective

Pscnotes.com Page 18
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
investment proposals of more than US$ 104 billion under various stages of
consideration..
 Having established a strong pedestal for rapid economic development, the people centric
transparent policies and hassle-free investment procedures in the state are gradually
making Madhya Pradesh a Global Investment Hub. Already, domestic and global
multinational firms including TEVA, TCS, Infosys, John Deere, Bridgestone, Reliance,
Cummins, Volvo, Novartis, P&G, AkzoNobel, and Essar have made investment in the
state.
 The abundant manpower of the state has been developed into a skilled technical
workforce, with the presence of world class institutes like IIM, IIT, AIIMS, Engineering
colleges and several ITIs.
 The state is leading in textile manufacturing, automobiles, food processing, soya
processing, engineering and agriculture equipment manufacturing.
 The state is rich in natural resources, fuels, minerals, agriculture and biodiversity. It is
aggressively emerging as a solar power hub, and is targeting generation of 2,650 MW of
solar power by 2017. Upcoming theme based SEZs near Jabalpur, industry parks in
Indore and food parks at multiple locations aim to promote sectoral growth.
 Industry in Madhya Pradesh is largely natural resources driven. It has abundant natural
wealth in the form of limestone, coal, oilseeds, pulses, bauxite, iron ore, diamond, copper
ore, manganese ore, rock sulphate, silica, soya, cotton and so on. The state has a strong
industrial base in sectors like Textile, cement, steel, food processing, automobile and auto
components, pharma and optical fibre. Madhya Pradesh is rich in resources to attract
investment in the state
 The state has excellent infrastructure, with 19 industrial development parks, 129
industrial areas, six food parks, eight integrated development centres, three dry parks, one
stone park, one IT park, one SEZ and an apparel park at Indore. A gems and jewellery
park is being developed in Indore to promote the diamond industry in the state.

 Madhya Pradesh State Industrial Development Corporation Limited (MPSIDC) is the

nodal agency for industrial growth in the state. It is the central point to coordinate,
activate and ensure implementation of mega infrastructure projects. MPSIDC has
identified 19 industrial growth centres to attract medium and large industries and non-
resident Indians (NRIs) to the state, and provide various facilities and concessions to
them.

Advantage Madhya Pradesh:-

The government of Madhya Pradesh recognizes the need for faster economic development in the
state with a strategy for encouraging investment and achieving higher levels of economic
development.

Pscnotes.com Page 19
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Strong economy : One of the fastest growing states in India backed by an impressive
CAGR of 5% during the period 2006-12
 Robust industrial infrastructure : 231 Notified industrial Areas,19 growth centres, 4
notified Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and 12 product specific industrial parks to
facilitate industrial investments.
 Strategic location : Located at the centre of India, within the close proximity of all major
markets and tier- one cities across the country.
 Stable government and peaceful work environment : The government of Madhya
Pradesh has introduced several investor-friendly policies and created single window
secretariat, MPTRIFAC for smooth facilitation of investment process in the state.
 Excellent connectivity : A robust road network-99403 km, making it an ideal destination
as centralized manufacturing and distribution hub.
 Large land parcels for industrial use : Over 16,000 hectares of land for industrial use at
various strategic locations across the state.
 Strong consumer base: With population of over 70 million, the state has decadal
urbanisation growth rate of 26% with bigger cities growing as high as 40%.

Rich Natural Resources:-

 Madhya Pradesh has 11 different agro-climatic zones.

 Rich mineral wealth of iron ore, diamonds, copper ore, manganese ore, bauxite,
limestone, coal and marble, granite.
 12% of India's forests are in Madhya Pradesh.
 Scarce fuel resources such as coal and coal-bed methane are available in plenty.
 14% of India's coal reserves are in Madhya Pradesh.
 Asia's thickest coal seam is located in the district of Sidhi.
 Madhya Pradesh has operational diamond mines in India.
 144 BCM of coal bed methane reserves have been identified.
 Prospecting for blocks available for captive mining for power, cement, iron and steel
units.
 Large reserves of limestone, which is the basic construction raw material.
 Manganese and dolomite, key ingredients to iron and steel are found here.
 Exotic varieties of dimensional stones i.e., marble, granite and flagstone are available.
 Agri Bounty:-
 Largest producer of oilseeds in, the country at 23.92% of the total output.
 The state is in first position by producing 25% of pulses and 40% of Grams of total
Production of the country.
 Commercially favoured varieties of wheat and potato grown.
 Largest producer of garlic and coriander.
 Massive wastelands and government farms measuring from 50 to 3000 acres ready to be
offered for investment.
 Government of Madhya Pradesh has prepared a policy for allotment of Non Forest Waste
Land for the investors.
 Contract Farming is allowed.

Rich Biodiversity:-

Pscnotes.com Page 20
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 30% of state under forest cover.
 11 of 25 Global Agro-climatic Zones in the state.
 A largely unexploited species of rare, valuable medicinal-herbal plants.

Skilled Manpower & Education Centre:-

About 90,390 technical graduates and an overall figure of 2,70,000 graduates add to the
workforce each year. IIIT at Gwalior and Jabalpur, National Law Institute University and
National Judicial Academy, Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) at Bhopal, Indian
Institute of Management (IIM) and Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) at Indore and a large
number of such national level and renowned state level educational centre are located in Madhya
Pradesh.

Cluster based development at 6 key places:-

 Indore : Pharma, Textile, Food Processing, IT and Auto Components.

 Bhopal : Engineering, Textile, Biotech, Herbal, IT and Food Processing.
 Jabalpur : Garments, Mineral, Stone, Forest, Herbal and Food Processing.
 Gwalior : Electronics, IT, FMCG, Engineering, Stone and Food Processing.
 Rewa : Minerals, Cement, Agro and Forest Produces.
 Sagar : Mineral Processing and Stone.

Industry Facilitation:-

Madhya Pradesh is fast emerging as new destination for industries with following facilitation:-

 Creation of Industry - friendly administration and an incisive industrial promotion policy.

 The state provides a facilitative environment for the development of small, medium and
cottage enterprises.
 It has Special Economic Zones.
 Ensures reliable power to the industries.
 Air connectivity with major industrial towns available.
 Special package of incentives for Mega Investment Projects, with investment above Rs.
25 Crores.
 Assistance for setting up of Industrial Parks.
 Concessions for Tourism Projects.
 Single table clearance for mega projects through project clearance Implementation Board
(PCIB). Projects worth aprox. Rs. 2,64,129 Crores facilitated.

Established Institutional Mechanism:-

 MPTRIFAC is the Single Window Secretariat for investment facilitation

 District Level Investment Promotion Empowered Committee- headed by District
Collector
 State Level investment promotion Empowered Committee- headed by Industries Minister

Pscnotes.com Page 21
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Apex Level Investment Promotion Empowered Committee- headed by Hon'ble Chief
Minister.

Focus Sectors:-

Agribusiness & Food Processing:-

 Vibrant and fast fastest growing agricultural sector – registered average growth rate of
over 20% for the last 5 years.
 Largest producer of Soybean, Gram, Garlic and Pulses, in India
 Second largest producer of Wheat, Green Peas and Onion, in India
 4th largest producer of milk and 5th largest producer of fish, in the country
 Favorable ecosystem for agriculture production and related businesses – 5 crop zones, 11
agro climatic zones and 4 soil types
 Ready industrial infrastructure – 8 integrated and modern food parks operating in the
state

Investment Opportunities:-

 Direct Procurement – Fruits and Vegetables, Flowers, Dairy Products and Food Grains
 Infrastructure Development – Food Parks, Cold Storage, Warehousing & Logistics and
Irrigation Projects
 Food Processing and Value Addition – Soybean, Oats, Milk, Fruits and Vegetables

Automobile and Engineering:-

 Indore, commercial capital of Central India, and surrounding areas (Pithampur and
Dewas) constitute Automobile & Engineering hub of Madhya Pradesh
 Spread across 2,000 Ha., Pithampur Auto cluster has over 90 large and 700 SME units –
Auto, OEMs and Auto parts manufacturers
 Support infrastructure available around Pithampur include – National Automotive Test
Tracks (NATRAX), ICD, Skill development institutes like Indo German Tool Room and
Symbiosis University of Applied Sciences

Investment Opportunities:-

 Assembling and Manufacturing – Automobiles and Auto Components

 Centers of excellence – Automobile Design Centers, R&D Facilities and Training
Centers
 Infrastructure Development – Auto and Ancillaries Parks and Machine Tools Parks
 Auto financing and vehicle retailing

Pscnotes.com Page 22
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Urban Development:-

 Untapped Potential – only 28% of population in Madhya Pradesh lives in its 378 urban
centers, including in 4 cities with million plus population; vast room for urbanization
 Five cities are in SMART CITY mission of Government of India
 Investment plans of ~US$13bn/ Rs83,800 Crs in urban infrastructure in the next 4 years.
Major projects include – Smart cities Mission (US$3 bn/ Rs20,000 Crs), Housing for All
project (US$3 bn/ Rs 20,000 Crs), and Bhopal &Indore Metro Rail Projects (US$2.2 bn/
Rs 15,000 Crs)

Investment Opportunities:-

 Urban Transport – Public Transport Operations, Mass Rapid Transport (Metro/Light

Metro), Freight Terminal, Urban Transport Infrastructure, Flyovers, Ring Roads, Bridges
and Parking
 Affordable Houses and Real Estate – Affordable Housing Projects and Integrated
Townships
 Urban Services – Water Supply Management, Waste Water Management and Solid
Waste Management

Renewable Energy:-

 8x increase in renewable energy installed capacity in the last five years (438 MW in
2011-12 to 3,311 MW in February 2017)
 Capacity is further expected to increase over 3 times in the next three to four years-
10,950 MW capacity is under implementation
 Key projects include 135 MW Solar Power Plant at Neemuch and Rewa Ultra Mega
Solar Power Project (under implementation; 750 MW)

Investment Opportunities:-

 Solar and wind power plants

 Transmission & distribution infrastructure
 Renewable energy equipment/system production
 Switchgear and transformers

Pharmaceuticals:-

 Conducive ecosystem for pharmaceutical industry – over 280 pharmaceutical units

located in the state out of which 152 are formulation manufacturers
 Major pharmaceutical clusters in the state include Pithampur, Indore, Dewas, Mandideep,
Bhopal and Ujjain

Investment Opportunities:

 Bulk drug manufacturing, development of manufacturing devices

Pscnotes.com Page 23
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Clinical trial markets and high-end drugs
 Contract research services
 R&D and production of vaccines and recombinant therapeutics
 Biotechnology parks and other infrastructure

IT/ ITeS:-

 Madhya Pradesh is fast emerging as a location of choice for IT/ITeS companies

 12 IT-SEZs granted formal approval in the state; existing IT Parks at Electronics
Complex Indore, Crystal IT Park Indore and Malanpur Gwalior; proposed IT Parks at
Bhopal and Jabalpur
 Large talent pool – over 100,000 engineers graduate from Madhya Pradesh, annually

Investment Opportunities:-

 Ready–to–move built up space and developed/raw land plots available for IT/ITeS
industry in four major cities of Madhya Pradesh – Indore, Bhopal, Jabalpur and Gwalior
 The state is suited for running low cost IT/ITeS operations

Tourism:-

 Premiere tourist destination of India – tourist arrival has grown at a CAGR of 24% in the
last eight years (2007-2015); 78.4 mn tour the state in 2015
 Hub for wildlife and nature based tourism
 Major wildlife destinations include national parks of Kanha, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Panna
and hill station of Panchmarhi
 Major historical and cultural sites includes Sanchi, Khajuraho, Bhimbetka, Gwalior,
Mandu, Orchha, Ujjain, Omkareshwar, Maheshwar and Amarkantak.

Investment Opportunities:-

 Village, Wellness and Water Tourism

 Meeting, Incentives, Conferences and Events (MICE) Tourism
 Film, Eco and Religious fares
 Support infrastructure like wayside amenities and hotels

Textile:-

 5th largest cotton producing state in the Country with 17.5 lakh bales of production in
2014-15
 Country‘s 4.5% cotton is produced in MP
 Rich tradition of weaving and knitting

Pscnotes.com Page 24
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Madhya Pradesh has 65 textile mills
 Indore, Ujjain, Dhar, Dewas, Khargone, Khandwa, Burhanpur, Gwalior, Chhindwara,
Sehore, Jabalpur and Bhopal are major centers for textile industry in Madhya Pradesh

Investment Opportunities:-

 Ginning & Spinning

 Weaving & Knitting
 Dyeing & Finishing
 Garmenting
 Technical Textiles

ESDM:-

 Madhya Pradesh strongly promotes ESDM sector in the state. It is evident from
participation of the state in GoI‘s schemes for the sector
 The State is front runner in the implementation of GoI schemes like Digital India,
Electronics Manufacturing Cluster Scheme, Smart Cities Mission and National Solar
Mission
 Like GoI, The State Government targets to achieve zero electronic imports. To this end,
electronic manufacturing clusters are being developed to provides state-of–the-art
infrastructure for upcoming facilities
 Additionally, financial incentives are being offered under IT Policy and Analog
Semiconductor Fabrication Investment Policy of the state
 These policies provide for numerous concessions including land concessions, tax
reimbursements, capital subsidy and interest subsidy

Investment Opportunities:

 Setting up of Electronics Manufacturing Clusters(EMCs)

 Developing and manufacturing electronic components
 Developing semiconductor design
 Setting up of Semiconductor Wafer Fabrication(FAB) facilities
 Setting up Electronics Manufacturing Services(EMS) units
 Developing and manufacturing telecom products
 Developing and manufacturing industrial/consumer/medical/defence electronics

Defence:-

 India is the largest importer of arms in the world – accounts for about 14%of the world‘s
arms imports

Pscnotes.com Page 25
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Government of India is aiming to change this situation by promoting self-reliance and
indigenisation
 With historical ordnance manufacturing sites of Katni, Jabalpur and Itarsi, and presence
of companies like BHEL, L&T, Bharat Forge and Punj Lloyd, Madhya Pradesh provides
ready-made ecosystem for defence manufacturing

Investment Opportunities:

 Defence products manufacturing

 Supply chain sourcing opportunity
 Defence offsets
 Manufacture, Repair and Overhaul (MRO)

The following are some of the major initiatives taken by the government to promote
Madhya Pradesh as an investment destination:

 Under Prime Minister Graamin Sadak Yojana, during 2016-17, construction of more than
2,000 km of roads has been targeted by the state government. For the development of
various roads in the state, allocation of US$ 1.12 billion has been proposed by the state
government
 Work on construction of IT parks in 4 major regions of the state, including Indore,
Gwalior, Bhopal and Jabalpur, is expected to be initiated during 2016-17. Moreover,
electronic manufacturing clusters are also being established in Jabalpur and Bhopal. For
these new establishments, Government of Madhya Pradesh allocated an amount of US$
7.94 million as per the Budget 2016-17.
 For a structured growth, the government has divided the state into six clusters - Indore,
Bhopal, Jabalpur, Gwalior, Rewa and Sagar.
 MPSIDC has undertaken a US$ 13.3 million project to bring water from Narmada River
to Dewas under the BOT scheme. The project would likely resolve the water problems of
460 industries and facilitate further industrialisation of the Dewas industrial belt.
 The state is developing two SEZs at Hargarh and Umariya- Dungariya. Once operational,
the Hargarh SEZ will provide infrastructure support to mineral-based industries, while
Umariya-Dungariya will cater to the agriculture and food processing industries.
 The state government has announced plans to upgrade existing apparel clusters at Indore
and Jabalpur. The state government has established a textile park in Chhindwara.
 Indore has been identified for infrastructure development under the Textiles Centre
Infrastructure Development Scheme (TCIDS). Indore is a cluster of the readymade
garments industry with over 1,260 garment units.
 To attract investment into the textile sector, the government has provided an interest
subsidy for five years at the rate of five per cent for textile projects and seven per cent for
composite textile projects. Furthermore, the government provided 100% assistance in
plant and machinery for eight years under Industrial Investment Promotion Assistance
Scheme.

Pscnotes.com Page 26
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Demography of India and M.P.

Rural-Urban Composition:

For the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas
that in rural areas

Rural Population in India: 68.84%

Urban Population in India: 31.16%

Level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011 Census

The proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%

TOTAL RURAL URBAN RURAL POP URBAN POP

INDIA/STATE/UT
POPULATION POPULATION POPULATION PERCENTAGE PERCANTAGE

A & N ISLANDS 3,79,944 2,44,411 1,35,533 64.33 35.67

ANDHRA
8,46,65,533 5,63,11,788 2,83,53,745 66.51 33.49
PRADESH

ARUNACHAL
13,82,611 10,69,165 3,13,446 77.33 22.67
PRADESH

ASSAM 3,11,69,272 2,67,80,516 43,88,756 85.92 14.08

BIHAR 10,38,04,637 9,20,75,028 1,17,29,609 88.7 11.3

CHANDIGARH 10,54,686 29,004 10,25,682 2.75 97.25

Pscnotes.com Page 27
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

CHHATTISGARH 2,55,40,196 1,96,03,658 59,36,538 76.76 23.24

DADRA & NAGAR

3,42,853 1,83,024 1,59,829 53.38 46.62
HAVELI #

DAMAN & DIU 2,42,911 60,331 1,82,580 24.84 75.16

GOA 14,57,723 5,51,414 9,06,309 37.83 62.17

GUJARAT 6,03,83,628 3,46,70,817 2,57,12,811 57.42 42.58

HARYANA 2,53,53,081 1,65,31,493 88,21,588 65.21 34.79

HIMACHAL
68,56,509 61,67,805 6,88,704 89.96 10.04
PRADESH

INDIA 1,21,01,93,422 83,30,87,662 37,71,05,760 68.84 31.16

JAMMU &
1,25,48,926 91,34,820 34,14,106 72.79 27.21
KASHMIR

JHARKHAND 3,29,66,238 2,50,36,946 79,29,292 75.95 24.05

KARNATAKA 6,11,30,704 3,75,52,529 2,35,78,175 61.43 38.57

KERALA 3,33,87,677 1,74,55,506 1,59,32,171 52.28 47.72

LAKSHADWEEP 64,429 14,121 50,308 21.92 78.08

MADHYA
7,25,97,565 5,25,37,899 2,00,59,666 72.37 27.63
PRADESH

MAHARASHTRA 11,23,72,972 6,15,45,441 5,08,27,531 54.77 45.23

MANIPUR 27,21,756 18,99,624 8,22,132 69.79 30.21

MEGHALAYA 29,64,007 23,68,971 5,95,036 79.92 20.08

MIZORAM 10,91,014 5,29,037 5,61,977 48.49 51.51

NAGALAND 19,80,602 14,06,861 5,73,741 71.03 28.97

NCT OF DELHI 1,67,53,235 4,19,319 1,63,33,916 2.5 97.5

Pscnotes.com Page 28
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

ORISSA 4,19,47,358 3,49,51,234 69,96,124 83.32 16.68

PUDUCHERRY 12,44,464 3,94,341 8,50,123 31.69 68.31

PUNJAB 2,77,04,236 1,73,16,800 1,03,87,436 62.51 37.49

RAJASTHAN 6,86,21,012 5,15,40,236 1,70,80,776 75.11 24.89

SIKKIM 6,07,688 4,55,962 1,51,726 75.03 24.97

TAMIL NADU 7,21,38,958 3,71,89,229 3,49,49,729 51.55 48.45

TRIPURA 36,71,032 27,10,051 9,60,981 73.82 26.18

UTTAR PRADESH 19,95,81,477 15,51,11,022 4,44,70,455 77.72 22.28

UTTARAKHAND 1,01,16,752 70,25,583 30,91,169 69.45 30.55

WEST BENGAL 9,13,47,736 6,22,13,676 2,91,34,060 68.11 31.89

Age Structure:

Age- sex structure is one of the most important characteristics of population composition.
Almost all population characteristics vary significantly with age.

Information is included by sex and age group (0-14 years, 15-64 years, 65 years and over). The
age structure of a population affects a nation's key socioeconomic issues. Countries with young
populations (high percentage under age 15) need to invest more in schools, while countries with
older populations (high percentage ages 65 and over) need to invest more in the health sector.
The age structure can also be used to help predict potential political issues. For example, the
rapid growth of a young adult population unable to find employment can lead to unrest.

Below is the age structure of India:

Pscnotes.com Page 29
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

0-14 years: 27.71% (male 186,420,229/female 164,611,755)

15-24 years: 17.99% (male 121,009,850/female 106,916,692)
25-54 years: 40.91% (male 267,203,029/female 251,070,105)
55-64 years: 7.3% (male 46,398,574/female 46,105,489)
65 years and over: 6.09% (male 36,549,003/female 40,598,872) (2016 est.)

Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males. Sex ratio is a valuable
source for finding the population of women in India and what is the ratio of women to that of
men in India.

In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the population ratio in India 2011 is 940
females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011 shows an upward trend from the census 2001
data. Census 2001 revealed that there were 933 females to that of 1000 males.

While Kerala with sex ratio of 1084 top the list, Daman and Diu with sex ratio of 618 is at the
bottom of the list.

Below is the list of states according to the sex ration. In the list we can see the states with good
sex ratio.

2011 Census

Child
S.No. State Sex Ratio
Sexratio

- India 943 919

1 Kerala 1084 964

2 Puducherry 1037 967

3 Tamil Nadu 996 943

Pscnotes.com Page 30
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

4 Andhra Pradesh 993 939

5 Chhattisgarh 991 969

6 Meghalaya 989 970

7 Manipur 985 930

8 Orissa 979 941

9 Mizoram 976 970

Population of Madhya Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh is large state in central India located in the geographic heart of India, between
latitude 21.2°N-26.87°N and longitude 74°02'-82°49' E, retains landmarks from eras throughout
Indian history.Nicknamed the "heart of India" due to itsgeographical location in India. The state
is the second- largest in the country by area. With over 75 million inhabitants, it is the 5thlargest
state in India by population. It borders the state of Uttar Pradesh in the
northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharastra to the south, Rajasthan to the northwest and
Gujarat to the west. The state is fully landlocked. Total area of state is 308,252 km2 .

As per details from Census 2011, Madhya Pradesh has popul

ation of 7.27 Crores, an increase from 6.03Crore

in 2001.Density of state is 236 per sq km which is lower than national average 382 per sq
km.The population growth in this decade was 20.35 percent. Total population of Madhya

Pscnotes.com Page 31
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Pradesh as per 2011 census is 72,626,809 of which male and female are 37,612,306 and
35,014,503 respectively. In 2001, total population was 60,348,023 in which males were
31,443,652 while females were 28,904,371. The population of Madhya Pradesh forms 6.00 % of
India in 2011 while the figure was 5.87 percent in 2001.

Religious share of population

Hinduism is majority religion in state of Madhya Pradesh with 90.89 % followers. Islam is
second most popular religion in state with approximately 6.57 % followers; Christinity is
followed by 0.29 %, Jainism by 0.78 %, Sikhism by 0.21 % and Buddhism by 0.21 %. Around
0.83 % stated 'Other Religion', approximately 0.13 % stated 'No Particular Religion'. During last
decade population of Hindu has decreased while population of Muslim and Christian has
increased.

Description Population Percentage

Hindu 66,007,121 90.89 %
Muslim 4,774,695 6.57 %
Other Religion 599,594 0.83 %
Jain 567,028 0.78 %
Others 455,437 0.63%

RURAL AND URBAN DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION (2011 CENSUS):

Out of total population, 27.63% people live in urban regions. The total figure of population
living in urban areas is 20,069,405 of which 10,462,918 are males and while remaining
9,606,487 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 27.63
percent. While around 72.37 percent live in the villages of rural areas. In actual numbers, males
and females were 27,149,388 and 25,408,016 respectively. Total population of rural areas of
Madhya Pradesh state was 52,557,404. The population growth rate recorded for this decade
(2001-2011) was 72.37%.

Projection of future Population Of Madhya Pradesh in 2017 on the basis of likely Population
Growth Rate.

Year Projected Population

2012 7.40 Crore
2013 7.54 Crore
2014 7.68 Crore
2015 7.82 Crore
2016 7.96 Crore
2017 8.09 Crore

Pscnotes.com Page 32
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Year Projected Population

Sex Ratioin Madhya Pradesh is 931 i.e. for each 1000 male, which is below national average of
940 as per census 2011.Sex ratio inurban regions of State was 918 females per 1000 males. For
child (0-6) sex ratio the figure for urban region stood at 901 girls per 1000 boys. Total children
(0-6 age) living in urban areas of Madhya Pradesh were 2,483,664. Of total population in urban
region, 12.38 % were children (0-6).While female sex ratio inrural population per 1000 males
was 936 while same for the child (0-6 age) was 923 girls per 1000 boys. In Madhya Pradesh,
Child population forms 15.84 percent[, 8,325,731 children (0-6) ]of total rural population.

Literacy rate in Madhya Pradesh was 63.94% according to 2011 census; of that, male literacy
stands at 78.73 percent while female literacy is at 59.24 percent.Average Literacy rate in state for
Urban regions was 82.85 percent in which males were 88.67% literate while female literacy
stood at 69.46%. Total literates in urban region of Madhya Pradesh were 14,569,183. WhileIn
rural areas, literacy rate for males and female stood at 74.74 % and 48.49 %. Average literacy
rate in Madhya Pradesh for rural areas was 63.94 percent. Total literates in rural areas were
28,281,986.

MOST POPUTATIOUS REGION IN MADHYA PRADESH (2011)

Large Metropolitan Region Population Male Female

INDORE 2,170,295 1,127,910 1,042,385
BHOPAL 1,886,100 981,860 904,240
JABALPUR 1,268,848 661,436 607,412
GWALIOR 1,117,740 596,697 521,043

SUMMERY OF DEMOGRAPY IN MADHYA PRADESH:

Description 2011 2001

Actual Population 72,626,809 60,348,023
Male 37,612,306 31,443,652
Female 35,014,503 28,904,371
Population Growth 20.35% 24.34%
Percantage of total Population 6.00% 5.87%

Pscnotes.com Page 33
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Description 2011 2001

Sex Ratio 931 919
Child Sex Ratio 918 932
Density/km2 236 196
Total Child Population (0-6 Age) 10,809,395 10,782,214
Male Population (0-6 Age) 5,636,172 5,579,847
Female Population (0-6 Age) 5,173,223 5,202,367
Literacy 69.32 % 63.74 %
Male Literacy 78.73 % 76.06 %
Female Literacy 59.24 % 50.29 %
Total Literate 42,851,169 31,592,563
Male Literate 25,174,328 19,672,274
Female Literate 17,676,841 11,920,289

Tribes of Madhya Pradesh with particular

reference to vulnerable tribes
Scheduled Tribe of Madhya Pradesh

 Based on 2011 Census total popultaion of India is 121.08 Crore out of which ST
population is 10.45 Crore (8.6%) .
 The tribal communities in India are enormously diverse and heterogeneous. There are
wide ranging diversities among them in respect of languages spoken, size of population
and mode of livelihood.
 The number of communities that find their place in the list of the Schedule of the Indian
constitution is reflective of this diversity. The Government of India, in its Draft National
Tribal Policy, 2006 records 698 Scheduled Tribes in India.
 As per the Census of India 2011, the number of individual groups notified as Scheduled
Tribes is 705.
 Tribes of Madhya Pradesh have preserved their culture and tradition despite outside
cultural influence. Their culture is distinguished by the composite remains of the
Scythian and Dravidian culture.
 The prevalent religion of the tribes of Madhya Pradesh is

Pscnotes.com Page 34
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The tribes of Madhya Pradesh live in the primitive stage and far away from the main
stream of the development. Mostly, they live in the forests and are fully dependent on the
forest products, herbs, wood, etc. for their livelihood.
 The tribal population of Madhya Pradesh has carried on the practice of farming and
cultivation.
 In order to supplement their income, some of these tribal groups become labourers in
factories, industries
 In According to 2011 Census and Ministry of Tribal Affiars Reports the Tribal
Polpulation of MP

Total Population of MP
7,26,26,809

Total Population of ST in MP
1,53,16,784

Percentage of ST population in MP
21.1%

% STs in the State to total ST population in

India
14.7%

Sex Ratio in STs (Gender Composition of

984
Scheduled Tribe Population)
Literacy Rates of ST Population in State 73.6%

Total Scheduled Tribes in MP that included in Constiturional List of Scheduled tribe by

Government of India through President order with Name like

1. Agariya

Pscnotes.com Page 35
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
2. Andh
3. Baiga
4. Bhaina

5. Bharia Bhumia, Bhuinhar Bhumia, Bhumiya, Bharia, Paliha, Pando

6. Bhattra
7. Bhil, Bhilala, Barela, Patelia
8. Bhil Mina
9. Bhunjia
10. Biar, Biyar
11. Binjhwar
12. Birhul, Birhor
13. Damor, Damaria
14. Dhanwar
15. Gadaba, Gadba

16. Gond; Arakh, Arrakh, Agaria, Asur, Badi Maria, Bada Maria, Bhatola, Bhimma, Bhuta,
Koliabhuta, Koliabhuti, Bhar, Bisonhorn Maria, Chota Maria, Dandami Maria, Dhuru,
Dhurwa, Dhoba, Dhulia, Dorla, Gaiki, Gatta, Gatti, Gaita, Gond Gowari, Hill Maria,
Kandra, Kalanga, Khatola, Koitar, Koya, Khirwar, Khirwara, Kucha Maria, Kuchaki
Maria, Madia, Maria, Mana, Mannewar, Moghya, Mogia, Monghya, Mudia, Muria,
Nagarchi, Nagwanshi, Ojha, Raj, Sonjhari Jhareka, Thatia, Thotya, Wade Maria, Vade
Maria, Daroi

17. Halba, Halbi

18. Kamar
19. Karku
20. Kawar, Kanwar, Kaur, Cherwa, Rathia, Tanwar, Chattri
21. (Omitted)
22. Khairwar, Kondar
23. Kharia
24. Kondh, Khond, Kandh
25. Kol
26. Kolam
27. Korku, Bopchi, Mouasi, Nihal, Nahul Bondhi, Bondeya
28. Korwa, Kodaku
29. Majhi

Pscnotes.com Page 36
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
30. Majhwar
31. Mawasi
32. Omitted
33. Munda
34. Nagesia, Nagasia
35. Oraon, Dhanka, Dhangad

36. Panika [in (i) Chhatarpur, Panna, Rewa, Satna, Shahdol, Umaria, Sidhi and Tikamgarh
districts, and (ii) Sevda and Datia Tahsils of Datia district]
37. Pao
38. Pardhan, Pathari, Saroti
39. Omitted
40. Pardhi, Bahelia, Bahellia, Chita Pardhi, Langoli Pardhi, Phans
41. Pardhi, Shikari, Takankar, Takia [In (i) Chhindwara, Mandla, Dindori and Seoni districts,
(ii) Baihar Tahsil of Balaghat District, (iii) Betul, Bhainsdehi and Shahpur tahsils of
Betul district, (iv) Patan tahsil and Sihora and Majholi blocks of Jabalpur district, (v)
Katni (Murwara) and Vijaya Raghogarh tahsils and Bahoriband and Dhemerkheda blocks
of Katni district, (vi) Hoshang abad , Babai, Sohagpur, Pipariya and Bankhedi tah sils and
Kesla block of Hoshangabad district, (vii) Narsinghpur district, and (viii)Harsud Tahsil of
Khandwa district]

42. Parja
43. Sahariya, Saharia, Seharia, Sehria, Sosia, Sor
44. Saonta, Saunta
45. Saur
46. Sawar, Sawara
47. Sonr

State List of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups

PVTGs, currently including 75 tribal groups, have been identified as such on the basis of the
following criteria:

1. forest-dependent livelihoods,
2. pre-agricultural level of existence,
3. stagnant or declining population,
4. low literacy rates
5. a subsistence-based economy.

Pscnotes.com Page 37
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
PVTGs Group of MP includes Abhujh, Marias,Baigas, bharias, Birhor, Hill Korbas, Kamars,
Sahariyas.

States List of Scheduled Areas

 The Fifth Schedule (Aarticle 244(1)) contains provisions relating to the administration of
Scheduled Areas other than in Northeast India.
 First, areas can be designated Scheduled Areas on the order of the President, who can
similarly declare that certain parts of/entire Scheduled Areas cease to be such.
 Second, the Governor of each State having Scheduled Areas shall annually, or whenever
required by the President of India, submit a report to the President regarding the
administration of Scheduled Areas.
 Currently, certain parts of nine States of the country are covered by the Fifth Schedule.
 The list of Scheduled Areas of MP is as follows:

1. Jhabua,
2. Mandla,
3. Dhar,
4. Khargone,
5. East Nimar (khandwa),
6. Sailana tehsil in Ratlam district,
7. Betul,
8. Seoni,
9. Balaghat,

 Morena

Major Tribal Group of MP

Agaria Tribe, Madhya Pradesh

 Agaria Tribe is a small Dravidian caste mainly residing in several parts of Madhya
Pradesh.
 Agaria tribal people follow their traditional occupation of iron smelting.
 Agaria tribe is residing in various regions of central India, mainly Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and some parts of Maharashtra. As per surveys the Agaria tribal
communities are widely spread out in different districts of central India including
Mandla district, Raipur district, and Bilaspur district. Further, similar Dravidian
castes of Agaria tribe are found in parts of Mirzapur.

Pscnotes.com Page 38
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 History of Agaria Tribe -The history of the origin of the Agaria tribal community is
quite interesting. The name Agaria has been derived from the Hindu god of fire, namely
Lord Agni. Some historians also claimed that the name originated from the demon that
was believed to be originated from the flames of fire. The name of that demon of tribal
community is Agyasur.
 Although they do not form a homogenous group, most of them primitively belong to
Dravidian speaking group.
 Agaria tribes have been branched into various sub castes, Lohar castes too fall amongst
them. Others include Sonureni, Dhurua, Tekam, Markam, Uika, Purtai, Marai etc. The
names of these exogamous groups are same as that of the Gond tribes. The names of
these groups have been taken from the names of animals, plants and other objects of
nature.
 In their societies, marriage within the same sub-caste is prohibited.
 Main languages that they speak, for obvious reason, also have originated from the famous
Dravidian tribal language group.
 Agaria tribe has two endogamous divisions namely the Patharia Agaria and Khuntia
Agaria.
 As far as lifestyle of Agaria community is concerned, the society follows the patrilineal
rule. The father usually arranges marriages. In Agaria tribal communities, the marriage
proposal is first send by the boy's father to the girl's house. If the girl's father accepts the
marriage proposal then the boy's father visits their home where he is given a warm
welcome.
 Widow re-marriage is allowed. Late husband's younger brother, particularly if he is a
bachelor is considered as the most eligible one for second marriage.
 Divorce is permissible for either party on grounds of adultery, extravagance, or
mistreatment. Several birth and death rites are followed in their society.
 Culture of Agaria Tribe -Festivals of an Agaria society are truly colourful, bearing the
tradition of their own religion. Their ancestral god is Dulha Deo, and during festivals the
Agaria community sacrifices various animals like goat, fowl etc. They also worship the
forest Gond deity, Bura Deo and also the demon Lohasur, is the revered deity, whom they
believe dwells the smelting kiln.

Bharia Tribe, Madhya Pradesh

 Bharia Tribe is one of the significant tribal groups of Madhya Pradesh. Major
concentration of Bharia tribal community is in the Patalkot valley of this state.
 Bharia Tribe is a Dravidian tribe.. The name 'Bhumia', meaning Lord of the soil, is
another name for this tribal group. Some of the tribal communities of the Indian
subcontinent also identify Bharia Tribe as 'Bharia Bhumia'. Bhumia refers to priest of the
village Gods and is thus considered as a very respectable designation for the people of
this tribe.
 Bharia Tribe is further categorized into clans like Thakaria, Angaria, Bapothia,
Bhardia, Bijaraia, Mehania, Amolia, Papchalia, Nahal, Raotia and Gadaria.
 They belong from the phylum of Bhar tribe. Eminent anthropologists have conducted
numerous researches on the lives of this Bharia tribal community and have revealed that
this tribe is one of the indigenous tribes of the region.

Pscnotes.com Page 39
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Their main concentration is at the Patalkot valley in the Chhidwara district. Apart
from this, Jabalpur district and its adjoining regions of the state are also inhabited by the
people of Bharia Tribe..
 Occupation of Bharia Tribe - Following the tradition of most of the tribal communities
of the Indian subcontinent, the Bharia Tribe has adapted to the profession of cultivation.
Mainly, shifting cultivation is practiced by them in order to sustain their livelihood. Many
people of this tribe also collect various forest products like tubers, roots and fruits to meet
the demands of their daily survival.
 The region where this tribe dwells is quite rich in medicinal plants and the tribal people
possess a deep knowledge about them. The people of Bharia Tribe have also set up their
own treatment centres where they use herbal therapies for treating various heath hazards
and ailments. 'Bhagat' is the name given to the herbal healers of this tribe.
 The cultural exuberance of the Bharia Tribe has been prominently reflected in all its
socio-cultural elements such as festivals, songs and dances.
 Their societal structure is nuclear and about 78 percent of the Bharia households have
nuclear families.
 Their tribal language like Dravidian tribal Language is known as Bharia. The Bharia
tribal community lives in beautiful houses built by their own hands.
 Anthropologists of the Indian subcontinent have enumerated that most of these people
pay least attention to education and learning. The literacy rate of Bharia Tribe is hence
very low.
 They have a number of exogamous groups. The nuptial rituals of this tribe also have
typical attributes and the marriage proposal always first comes from the boy's side.
Bharia people also follow several birth and funeral rites. They have a Panchayat for the
maintenance of law and order in their community.
 Religions of Bharia Tribe -People of Bharia Tribe are highly religious by nature and
worship several Hindu deities. They celebrate festivals like Shivratri, Diwali, Holi,
Akhati and many more. Most of the people have adapted to Hinduism. Like most other
tribal communities, the Bharia Tribe is also greatly inclined towards religion and
spiritualism.

Binjhwar Tribe, Madhya Pradesh

 Binjhwar tribe is considered as a civilised Dravidian tribe or a caste formed out of a tribal
group. They are mainly found in regions of central India like Raipur and Bilaspur and
other adjoining areas.
 Madhya Pradesh is an abode of Binjhwar tribes who throng various places of the south
eastern region of this state including Bastar district. Due to the fact that the Binjhwar
residing region of the state is mainly covered with the forests, these Binjhwar tribes have
adopted the occupations like collection of forest products and also several minerals.
These tribes are wholly unaware of the external world and are quite contented with
their individual traditions and ethnic beliefs. Binjhwars are an offshoot of the prehistoric
Baiga tribe of Mandla District and Balaghat.
 Binjhwar tribe has four major sub-divisions, the Binjhwars proper, the Sonjharas,
the Birjhias and the Binjhias.

Pscnotes.com Page 40
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The tribe also has certain exogamous divisions. The names of these exogamous sects are
of diverse and combined character. Some of the names are Bagh, a tiger; Panknali, the
water-crow; Kamalia, the lotus flower; Pod, a buffalo; Tar, the date-palm; Jal, a net, and
others. The sept names differ as per different localities.
 In case of marriages, girls are allowed to choose their husbands. Marriage ceremonies are
usually held at bridegroom's place. They also allow divorce. In their societies, they
usually bury the dead. The Binjhwar people are very religious and they worship some
local deities of Chhattisgarh region.
 Tribe Festivals, dance, music form an integral part of these Binjhwar tribal community,
thus ennobling it to a great extent. In fact, their desi art, shrines and statuettes have got
popularity in the whole of the Indian subcontinent.
 The Binjhwar tribes too have developed faith for religion and spiritualism. To appease
the divine gods, the Binjhwar tribes carry on various rituals and customs
 Fairs and festivals are an integral part of the culture of the people of this Binjhwar tribe.
A huge three-day long fair is organised during the month of March. It has been
consecrated to the deity Aanga Devta. Apart from this, these Binjhwar tribes also revere
the Hindu god, Lord Ganesha.
 The major occupation of the Binjhwar tribes is Some of the Binjhwar tribes have taken
up handicraft as their occupation. In fact the Binjhwar artists prepare handicraft items
from bamboo, wood and a variety of metals. For selling in the fairs, these Binjhwar tribes
also made beautiful baskets, statues, mats, wall hangings, face masks. Binjhwar tribal
community is also acknowledged for its terracotta work.
 Melodious music and dance are a vital part of the Binjhwar tribal community. The
dance and music of people is of numerous varieties. The whole of the region quite often
bounces and reverberates with the beats of the drum of this Binjhwar tribal community.
 The culture of Binjhwar tribal community is considered to be enriched without exotic
culinary dishes that the tribal communities prepare. So these Binjhwar tribes are also not
an exception.

Boneya Tribe , Madhya Pradesh

 Bonya tribes also known as Korku can be mainly found at the Southern part of the state,
Madhya Pradesh.
 There are quite a number of the anthropologists and historians who also like to call these
Boneya tribes in another name called Korku.
 Major concentration are found in the southern parts of the state including southern Betul
District, north of the city of Betul, Hoshangabad District, East Nimar or Khandwa
District.
 The occupations of these Boneya tribes have taken up hunting, farming and also work
as laborers in the fields. Gathering forest products also is one of the chief occupations of
this Boneya tribal community.
 Another significant feature of this Boneya tribal community is that they converse with
each other in the beautiful language of the same name, which belongs to the famous
Austro- Asiatic language family. It is also popular amongst quite a number of people in
their alternative names like Bondeya, Bopchi, Korki, Kurku, Kuri, Ramekhera, Kurku-
Ruma etc.

Pscnotes.com Page 41
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Not only the language, these Boneya tribes also converse using its variants like Bouriya,
Bondoy, Ruma, Mawasi (Muwasi, Muasi). Nowadays, many Boneya tribes are there
who speak in Maarthi and also in Hindi language.

Damaria Tribes , Madhya Pradesh

 The origin of this Damaria tribal community has got a rich history to bank upon. The
Damaria tribes can be linked to the Rajputs. The popular saying of the Damaria tribal
society is that there was a king of Rajput who actually belongs to this Damaria tribal
community. Also, some people love to link up these Damaria tribes with another famous
tribes of the Indian subcontinent, namely Bhill tribes, who mainly resided in the
adjoining areas of Rajasthan and also Madhya Pradesh.
 Damaria tribal communities use the wonderful dialect of Vagadi. This Vagadi has got
local origination.
 It can be segregated into two exogamous groups. These include Upper Damor and
Lower Damor, each regarding themselves advanced and have their individual clans
namely Parmar, Sisodia, Rathor, Chauhan, Solanki etc.
 The cultural exuberance is rightly being in several of its aspects like house settlements,
clothing etc.
 Damaria tribal community, follow the norms of patriarchy. Patrilineal, patrilocal and kin
based rules are practiced. They by and large reside in the 'nuclear and monogamous
families'.
 Marriage also is an important institution of the Damaria tribal society. Child marriage is
also permitted. There are numerous instances where the Damaria tribes practice child
levirate, child sororate, Polygamy are permitted in the Damaria society. The match is
fixed through conciliation between both the families. As part of the marriage ritual, bride
price is a must. It is also called
 Although divorce is allowed in the Damaria society, 'compensation' is to be paid. Other
customs like widow, divorce, remarriages are acceptable. Closely linked to marriages,
there are also important rituals that are prevalent. The Suraj puja, mundan, sagai, shadi
bhoj are some of these rituals .
 Apart from marriages, there are few rituals that are associated with death ceremony. The
dead body is cremated. However, this Damaria tribal community buries the dead bodies
of the children.
 These Damaria tribes have got ardent faith on the religion and its related practices. Since
the Bhagat Movement, most of these Damaria tribes have adapted to Hinduism as their
main religion. These Damaria revere a plethora of Hindu gods and goddesses. These
include Mahadeo, Ganesh, Ram, Krishna, Ranchhod, Ganga Mata, Kalika Mata,
Khalri Mata, Phula Mata
 Fairs and festivals form an integral part of the Damaria tribal society. Dipawali, Holi,
Rakshabandhan, Navratri are chief festivals. They take part in fairs, namely, Jhela-
Bavaji ka Mela, Rewadi ka Mela, Amli ka Mela, Navratri ka Mela.
 The non-vegetarian items include fish, meat, chicken, flesh of wild animals and birds.
They devour 'home brewed mahudi' and also mutton. During marriage ceremony,
Mitha dalia of wheat, rice and dal are dished out.

Pscnotes.com Page 42
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 That these Damaria tribes are no less in producing artistic exuberances as highlighted in
its numerous art and craft products
 No festival of the Damaria tribal community is feted without dancing and singing that
adds fervor to the whole of the festive mood. Mewari and Vagri folk songs are some of
the beautiful songs that are sung at the time of Holi, festival of colors. Also quite a
handful of Damaria tribes fete Garba dance during Navratri festival.
 For better controlling and administration, these Damaria tribal community set up the
conventional panchayat system. These are held at clan and village level. The chief of
the panchayat is called Mukhia or patel.
 In order to sustain their livelihood, these Damaria tribes have adapted the occupation of
cultivation. These Damaria tribes also work as wage earner. The Damaria tribes have
taken up to the development programs and utilize variety of agricultural inputs such as
plough, water pumps, threshers, and chemical fertilizers. Today, few of the Damaria
tribes have also employed in 'white-collar' jobs and are leading an up to date, urbane
life.

Dhanwar Tribe ,Madhya Pradesh

 Dhanwar Tribe is a small and primitive tribe of Madhya Pradesh. Dhanwar Tribes are
basically followers of Hinduism and they are engaged in different occupations.
 Dhanwar tribe is a primitive tribe residing in Bilaspur zamindari estates. Dhanwar
tribes of Madhya Pradesh are also known as Dhanuwar, which signifies bows and
arrows.
 The name of the tribe has been derived from the term Dhanuhar, meaning a bowman. The
name is similar to those of Dhangar, or labourer, and Kisan, or cultivator. These names
are also applied to Oraon tribe and Halba tribe. The Dhanwars are not associated with
the Dhanuks, although the names have same meaning.
 Apart from Madhya Pradesh, the people of this tribal group are also scattered in and
around some parts of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
 Regarding the origin of Dhanwar tribe, it is said that they are probably an offshoot of
either Kawar tribe or Gond tribeor probably a mixture of both these tribes.
 Dhanwar tribe has no endogamous divisions. However, they are divided into several
totemistic exogamous sects. Many of these sects are named after different plants or
animals. Members of the sects abstain from killing or harming the animal or the plant
after which it has been named.
 In Dhanwar society, marriages within the same sect and between the first cousins are
prohibited. Usually, the father of the boy takes the initiative and looks out for a suitable
match for his son.
 They allow widow remarriage and divorce. Dhanwar tribes usually bury their dead.
 Dhanwars are religious people and they principal deities of this tribal group are Thakur
Deo (god of agriculture) and Dulha Deo (god of family and hearth).
 Dhanwar tribes are adept at professions like hunting. Also due to their stay in the forest
fringes, quite a handful of these Dhanwar tribes also have taken up profession of
gathering forest products like fruits, root vegetables
 In the earlier times, these Dhanwar tribes are cattle rearers and lead lives of that of typical
nomads. However, these days these Dhanwar tribes like to live a more settled life.

Pscnotes.com Page 43
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Maximum of these Dhanwar tribes reside in small hamlets. Some of the people of
Dhanwar group have developed their own indigenous industries. The chief products of
their cotton industries include bamboo mats and large baskets.
 The people of this tribal group are the ardent followers of Hinduism. Tattooing is an
important part of their culture. Women get tattooed at their parent's place.
 In their community, new born babies are named on the sixth day after birth. Like the
Kawars, the Dhanwars too do not have a language of their own. The name of their tribal
dialect is called Dhanwar and apart from this language the tribal folks are also fluent in
Chhattisgarhi language and Marathi language

Kawar Tribe , Madhya Pradesh

 Some of the anthropologists even have traced out the origin of these Kawar tribes, which
is quite significant. The popular legend that is popular in the whole of the state of
Madhya Pradesh, narrates that these Kawar tribes have descended from the family line of
the Kaurava kings of the Mahabharat.
 As far as occupations are concerned, these Kawar tribes have adapted to the occupation
of cultivation and farming. Just like many other tribal communities, education and
academics have always taken back seats.
 It is quite interesting to mention that in spite of their lack of educational opportunities,
these Kawar tribes are no less important in their culture and tradition.
 The culture of these Kawar tribes is quite ennobled and exuberant.
 In order to carry on conversation amongst themselves, maximum of these Kawar tribal
community, converse with each other in the wonderful language which is known as
 This language of the Kawari tribes belongs to the famous Indo-Aryan language family.
There are quite a number of people of Indian Territory who believe that it is a dialect of
Halbi.

Kharwar Tribe , Madhya Pradesh

 Kharwar tribal community of the Gujarat state has a belonging to the family of
Dravidian
 Some of the anthropologists also have traced the etymological significance of the term
Kharwar itself. It signifies the grass..
 There are quite a number of scholars who have put forwards their opinions and views
about the origination of these Kharwar tribal community. These Kharwar tribes belong to
the family of Dravidians.
 Some of the Kharwar tribes explain that these Kharwar tribes belong to the family of the
"Suryavanshi" Rajputs. So much so, these Kharwar tribes claim that the famous king
Raja Harishchandra is an ancestor of this tribal community.
 As far as the nature and habits of these Kharwar tribes are concerned, these Kharwar
tribes are quite introvert and shy. They always remain aloof from the external
influences of the modern society.
 What is also to note that these Kharwar tribes, unlike most of the tribal communities, do
not have the language of their own. These Kharwar tribes are also quite backward in
certain areas like education etc.

Pscnotes.com Page 44
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 In order to sustain their livelihood, these Kharwar tribes have adapted to the occupation
of farming and agriculture.

Kolam Tribe ,Madhya Pradesh

 Kolam tribes of Madhya Pradesh are also identified in different names like Kolamboli,
Kulme and Kolmi.
 The main concentration of this tribe is on the plains and mountainous region. These tribal
groups are reckoned as scheduled tribes and apart from Madhya Pradesh, they reside in
some parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
 The Kolam people are divided in different clans like Chal Deve, Pach Deve, Saha Deve,
and Sat Deve.
 Marriages between the same clans are not permissible.
 The Kolams use the name of their clans as their surnames.
 Some of the clans of this tribal community are Bhurchi, Lakhu, Vadang, Aanzi,
Konde, Shilekar, Kodape, Bode, Rampure
 Due to close affinity with the Gond tribes, the culture of the Kolam tribes resembles with
them in the fields of rituals and ceremonies.
 The people of this community take up agriculture as their major occupation. Some of
them are also engaged in forest works, hunting, making wooden articles
 Kolam tribal community uses the beautiful language of Kolami. This language belongs
to the famous Dravidian language family..
 Some of the members of this Kolam tribal community are also there who work as
laborers in lieu of daily wages. Other occupations include animal husbandry, hunting
and also food gathering. The Kolam food gatherers mainly produce various producers
from the forest areas and also sell them in the markets. The villages of these Kolam tribes
are known as 'pod' which is well planed and a Chavdi is located at the centre of the 'pod'.
A village goddess is established in front of the Chavdi.
 The Kolma society is It mainly follows the patriarchal norms. Amongst these Kolma
tribes, there has been an increasing trend to follow the nuclear family organization.
 Dowry system is prevalent, though there has been increasing trend to adapt to the practice
of paying bride price amongst the Kolam tribes.
 The Kolams are the believers of animism and they also believe in nature. They worship
different objects of nature and their ancestors. A number of tribal and Hindu gods and
goddesses are in the list of their religious deities..
 The Kolam people celebrate different rituals that include Matya or Churaghali, Bai-Baki,
Sati, Jaitur Pooja, Waghai Pooja, Chait, Mohdombari, Bhimayak, Korod, Morang Dev
pooja etc.

Pscnotes.com Page 45
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Agro ecology and its relevance to man

Agro-ecology and its relevance to man

The term agroecology can be used in multiple ways, as a science, as a movement and as a
practice. Broadly stated, it is the study of the role of agriculture in the world. Agroecology
provides an interdisciplinary framework with which to study the activity of agriculture. In this
framework, agriculture does not exist as an isolated entity, but as part of an ecology of contexts.
Agroecology draws upon basic ecological principles for its conceptual framework.

Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems, and the field of agroecology is not associated
with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic, conventional, intensive or
extensive. Furthermore, it is not defined by certain management practices, such as the use of
natural enemies in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of monoculture.

Additionally, agroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or inputs in agriculture but

instead assess how, when, and if technology can be used in conjunction with natural, social and
human assets[2]. Agroecology proposes a context- or site-specific manner of studying
agroecosystems, and as such, it recognizes that there is no universal formula or recipe for the
success and maximum well-being of an agroecosystem.

After the 1970s, when agronomists saw the value of ecology and ecologists began to use the
agricultural systems as study plots, studies in agroecology grew more rapidly. Gliessman
describes that the innovative work of Prof. Efraim Hernandez X., who developed research based
on indigenous systems of knowledge in Mexico, led to education programs in agroecology. In
1977 Prof. Efraim Hernandez X. explained that modern agricultural systems had lost their
ecological foundation when socio-economic factors became the only driving force in the food
system. The acknowledgement that the socio-economic interactions are indeed one of the
fundamental components of any agroecosystems came to light in 1982, with the article
Agroecologia del Tropico Americano by Montaldo. The author argues that the socio-economic
context cannot be separated from the agricultural systems when designing agricultural practices.

Relevence of agro-ecology

To arrive at a point of view about a particular way of farming, an agroecologist would first seek
to understand the contexts in which the farm(s) is(are) involved. Each farm may be inserted in a
unique combination of factors or contexts. Each farmer may have their own premises about the
meanings of an agricultural endeavor, and these meanings might be different from those of
agroecologists. Generally, farmers seek a configuration that is viable in multiple contexts, such
as family, financial, technical, political, logistical, market, environmental, spiritual.
Agroecologists want to understand the behavior of those who seek livelihoods from plant and

Pscnotes.com Page 46
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
animal increase, acknowledging the organization and planning that is required to run a farm.

Because organic agriculture proclaims to sustain the health of soils, ecosystems, and people, it
has much in common with Agroecology, this does not mean that Agroecology is synonymous
with organic agriculture, nor that Agroecology views organic farming as the 'right' way of
farming. Also, it is important to point out that there are large differences in organic standards
among countries and certifying agencies. Three of the main areas that agroecologists would look
at in farms, would be: the environmental impacts, animal welfare issues, and the social aspects.

Environmental impacts caused by organic and non-organic milk production can vary
significantly. For both cases, there are positive and negative environmental consequences.
Compared to conventional milk production, organic milk production tends to have lower
eutrophication potential per ton of milk or per hectare of farmland, because it potentially reduces
leaching of nitrates (NO3−) and phosphates (PO4−) due to lower fertilizer application rates.
Because organic milk production reduces pesticides utilization, it increases land use per ton of
milk due to decreased crop yields per hectare. Mainly due to the lower level of concentrates
given to cows in organic herds, organic dairy farms generally produce less milk per cow than
conventional dairy farms. Because of the increased use of roughage and the, on-average, lower
milk production level per cow, some research has connected organic milk production with
increases in the emission of methane.

A key component of animal welfare is freedom to perform their innate (natural) behavior, and
this is stated in one of the basic principles of organic agriculture. Also, there are other aspects of
animal welfare to be considered – such as freedom from hunger, thirst, discomfort, injury, fear,
distress, disease and pain. Because organic standards require loose housing systems, adequate
bedding, restrictions on the area of slatted floors, a minimum forage proportion in the ruminant
diets, and tend to limit stocking densities both on pasture and in housing for dairy cows, they
potentially promote good foot and hoof health. Some studies show lower incidence of placenta
retention, milk fever, abomasums displacement and other diseases in organic than in
conventional dairy herds. However, the level of infections by parasites in organically managed
herds is generally higher than in conventional herds.

No-tillage is one of the components of conservation agriculture practices and is considered more
environmental friendly than complete tillage. There is a general consensus that no-till can
increase soils capacity of acting as a carbon sink, especially when combined with cover crops.
No-till can contribute to higher soil organic matter and organic carbon content in soils, though
reports of no-effects of no-tillage in organic matter and organic carbon soil contents also exist,

Pscnotes.com Page 47
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
depending on environmental and crop conditions. In addition, no-till can indirectly reduce CO2
emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels. Most crops can benefit from the practice of no-
till, but not all crops are suitable for complete no-till agriculture. Crops that do not perform well
when competing with other plants that grow in untilled soil in their early stages can be best
grown by using other conservation tillage practices, like a combination of strip-till with no-till
areas. Also, crops which harvestable portion grows underground can have better results with
strip-tillage,[citation needed] mainly in soils which are hard for plant roots to penetrate into
deeper layers to access water and nutrients.

The benefits provided by no-tillage to predators may lead to larger predator populations, which is
a good way to control pests (biological control), but also can facilitate predation of the crop
itself. In corn crops, for instance, predation by caterpillars can be higher in no-till than in
conventional tillage fields.

In places with rigorous winter, untilled soil can take longer to warm and dry in spring, which
may delay planting to less ideal dates. Another factor to be considered is that organic residue
from the prior year's crops lying on the surface of untilled fields can provide a favorable
environment to pathogens, helping to increase the risk of transmitting diseases to the future crop.
And because no-till farming provides good environment for pathogens, insects and weeds, it can
lead farmers to a more intensive use of chemicals for pest control. Other disadvantages of no-till
include underground rot, low soil temperatures and high moisture.

Sustainable management and conservation

 Bruntland Report (1983) was the first publication and recognition of the term ‘Sustainable
Development’
o “meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the
future generation”
 Three pillars of sustainable development (Bruntland)
o Care and respect for People, Planet and Prosperity (Commercial Activities) <hence
poverty alleviation, conservation and business development>
o These three pillars are of equal importance
 SD is about a value system. It is not a scientific formula.
 Thinking beyond pure self-gratification to awareness that harm to one will eventually be harm
to all.
 Interconnectedness and interdependence of all things

Pscnotes.com Page 48
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 All three pillars have equal importance. Focus on only one of them will unbalance the whole
 SD is a necessity, not a luxury that we can afford to miss.

Questioning Development <too detailed; at times peripheral. Be choosy>

 Current practices must change

 Should shatter the ‘development’ myth. Simply economic growth will not create more jobs and
more wealth for all.
 Steady-state economics. Economic growth is measured in terms of how much we produce and
consume, and what we destroy in the process need not be included in the calculations.
 20% of the world consumes 80% of its resources
 According to UNDP, consumption of goods and services in 1997 was twice that in 1975 and six
times more than in 1950.
 An estimated 1 billion people still do not have the means to meet their basic needs.
 Inequalities are increasing. The assets of world’s three richest men are greater than the
combined national product of 48 poorest countries.
 Higher crime rates are associated with wider income gaps
 Jobless growth.
 Under-nutrition is still a huge problem among children

Economic Growth and Sustainability

 Over-consumption has led to depletion of resources

 Main environmental threats
o Depletion of resources
o Global warming
o Expansion of waste arising from production and consumption
o Population pressure
o Pollution
o Loss of biodiversity and extinction of species.
 Green National Income Account
o Conventional national income accounting does not capture the environmental
degradation due to production and consumption
o This omission leads to misrepresentation of improvements in social welfare
o Since there is no market for many environmental resources, it is difficult to place
monetary values on them
o Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare: adjusts the national income to make an
allowance for defensive spending (i.e. that incurred in cleaning up for pollution and
other forms of environmental damage)
 Economic Sustainability
o Calls for reforms in the manner that we conduct our economic activity
o Removing unfair trade barriers and subsidies that harm the environment
o Upholding the polluter pays principle
o Tax not on labour but on consumption <already there in the form of indirect taxes>
o Pricing products in terms of value they have deducted from the common natural base
o Increase resource productivity
 Sustainable agriculture

Pscnotes.com Page 49
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
o Use of practices and methods to maintain/enhance the economic viability of agricultural
production, natural resource base, and other ecosystems which are influenced by
agricultural activities
o Minimizing the adverse impact on the natural resources base
o Flexible farming systems to manage the risks associated with climate and markets

Ecological Sustainability

 Sustainable forest management

o ‘Forest Principle’ adopted at the 1992 Rio Summit
o In 2007, GA adopted the Non Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The
instrument is the first of its kind and is committed to promote SFM by bringing all
stakeholders together
o Ministerial Conference on Protection of Forests in Europe defined SFM as the
attainment of balance between society’s increasing demands for forest products and
benefits, and the preservation of forest health and diversity.
o Forest managers must assess and integrate a wide array of sometimes conflicting factors
to produce sound forest plans
o Ecosystems approach has been adopted by the CBD. The CBD definition of Ecosystems
Approach is known as the Malawi Principles.
o Ecosystems Approach is a strategy of management of land, water and living resources in
a way that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Focused on
use of scientific methodologies for each level of biological organisation and their
interaction.
o SFM was recognised by the parties to CBD in 2004 to be a concrete means of applying
the Ecosystems Approach to forest ecosystems
 Objectives of SFM
o Maintain environmental stability through preservation of ecological balance that has
been adversely affected due to the depletion of forest cover
o Preserve the natural heritage of the country
o Improve productivity of forests
o Protecting through cooperation with local communities on the principle of Joint Forest
Management
 India
o One of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world
o National Forest Policy 1988 emphasizes environmental stability and maintenance of
ecological balance
o Existing infrastructure for forest protection is inadequate
o Surveys not carried out in many areas. Question of tribal rights
o Protect from forest fires
 Integrated Forest Protection Scheme
th
o 10 FYP. In all States and UTs
th
o Formed by merger of two 9 FYP schemes: ‘Forest Fire Control and Management’ and
‘Bridging of Infrastructure Gaps in the Forestry Sector in the North Eastern Region and
Sikkim’
o Components
 Infrastructure development: survey and demarcation, strengthening the
infrastructure for Forest Protection Division

Pscnotes.com Page 50
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Forest fire control and management
o Implementing agencies
 Central Component: Forest Protection Division, MoEF; Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun; Central institutions like Indian Council of Forestry Research and
Education (Dehradun), IIFM (Bhopal) etc shall be involved
 State Component: Forest dept of the concerned state/UT

Social Sustainability

 Fairness in the access to and benefits from the Earth’s resources

 Impact of poverty on environment/Environment and poverty are related issues
 Diverting resources to non-productive areas
 Health and SD
o Environment and public health are inter-related
 Agenda 21 was adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
[Earth Summit] in 1992
o It also places particular emphasis on the need to take health considerations into account
in planning for SD
 Urbanisation
 Need for holistic approach

Water and SD

 Agriculture consumes nearly 70 pc of water consumption worldwide, industry -22 pc and

household activities – 8 pc [WDR, 2010]
 Geographical distribution of water: just nine countries account for 60 pc of all available
freshwater supplies
 Industrial use takes about 60 pc of water in rich countries and 10 pc in the rest.
 Suggestions
o Use of sea water
o Judicial use of freshwater
o Development of salt-resistant crops

SD in a globalising world

 Globalisation is increasing the gap between the rich and the poor
 It has to be steered so that it serves not only the commercial interests but social needs of
development
 Mechanisms to safeguard trade and livelihoods, especially in developing countries, must be
evolved and negotiated to make globalisation an effective vehicle of SD
 Industrialised countries must continue to assist the developing countries as well as promote
trade
 Environment and social causes must not be used selectively to erect trade barriers against
developing countries

Pscnotes.com Page 51
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Major crops of the state, holdings and cropping

patterns, physical and social environment of crop
distribution and production

Rice

The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety
of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e.
north-eastern India).Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most
important component is carbohydrate (starch). Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The
main rice producing states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It
is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley. The rice
growing areas in the country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below :

1. North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In

Assam rice is grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy
rainfall and rice is grown under rain fed condition.
2. Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in
the basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation
in the country. This region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain fed
conditions.

iii. Northern Region: This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh,
Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low winter
temperature and single crop of rice from May-July to September-December is grown.

1. Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is
largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October - December.
2. Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. Rice is mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery
rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown
under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It
is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north
India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in
the month of March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the

Pscnotes.com Page 52
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
northern and north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or
winter crop.

The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce more than 66% of the
total wheat of the country.

Cotton

Cotton requires a daily minimum temperature of 16ºC for germination and 21ºC to 27ºC for
proper crop growth. During the fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27ºC to 32ºC
and cool nights are needed. The sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract
and is generally early (April-May) in northern India where it is mostly irrigated. It is delayed on
proceeding to down south. It is cultivated largely under rainfed or dryland conditions. An annual
rainfall of atleast 50 centimetre distributed through-out the growing season is required for good
yield. It is mainly raised during tropical monsoon season, although in southern India it is
cultivated during late-monsoon season in winter. The cotton-picking period from mid September
to November must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quality.

India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next only to
China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production is shared by four
states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

Jute

Jute is a crop of humid tropical climates. It thrives well in areas with well distributed rainfall of
2,500 mm spread over vegetative growth period of the crop with no cloudiness. Locations with a
mean rainfall of <1,000 mm, incessant rainfall and waterlogging are not suitable for its
cultivation.

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam grow jute extensively.

Sugercane

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It has a thick jointed stem, Which contains the cane sugar,
The juice can be taken as a drink or made into sugar, jaggery or khandsari. . The by-products of
sugar are very useful. Bagasse is used to make paper, cattle feed, fuel for mills-and cardboard;
molasses for power alcohol. Fertilizers, yeast and rum; and press mud of wax. and shoe polish. It
supports the pesticide and fertilizer industries. Sugar factories provide employment to over a
million 'workers. India is the second largest sugarcane producer in the world.

Climatic and soil conditions which favour the cultivation of sugarcane are:-

Pscnotes.com Page 53
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Temperature: 20°C-30°C. Temperature above 50°C arrests its growth and temperature
below 20°C slows down its growth.
 Rain: 75-120cms. It cannot withstand frost. For ripening it needs a cool dry season.
 Soil: A medium heavy loam is ideal-In northern India it is cultivated on clay loams and
alluvial soil while in south India it is cultivated on brown or reddish loams, black cotton
soil and laterites.

Leading sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab.Haryana, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Rubber

Rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall. It grows on many types of soil provided the soil is
deep and well drained. A warm humid equitable climate (2 1' to 35') and a fairly distributed
rainfall of not less than 200 c m are necessary for the cultivation of rubber crop.

Kerala (accounts for 90% of the total area under rubber), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andamanand
Nicobar Islands. Parts of West Bengal. Orrisa., Maharashtra, Karnataka and'N.E parts of India
are potential regions for rubber-cultivation.

Tea

Commercial Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea plants
were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.

Climatic conditions required for the growing of tea are

 Temp: 13-35°C. Average of 25°C is suitable.

 Humidity: - High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog promote growth if healthy
leaves.
 Rainfall: Annual rainfalI (range) 150-350cm (well distributed)
 Soil- Well drained mountain soil, light, loamy, porous rich in nitrogen and iron/ laterite
like the soil found in Assam

Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea production of India. Tea
producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West
Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts of
Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest
producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

Coffee

Commercial cultivation of coffee was started by British entrepreneurs in South India during
1820's.

Pscnotes.com Page 54
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Most of India‘s coffee is grown in three Southern states: Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the
first two account for nearly 90 percent of total production. Much of the coffee in Kerala and
Karnataka is grown in the Western Ghats, a mountain chain that runs parallel to the coast line
and about 100 miles inland from the Arabian Sea. India exports nearly 70 percent of the coffee it
produces. These exports consist mainly of high grade beans from both the Arabica and the
Robusta growing regions.

Geographical Requirement for Coffee cultivation are as follows:-

 Temperatute:- should be ranging between 15 to 28°C throughout the year. Frost free
environment. Direct raysof the sun are harmfui as it.is grown in the shade of trees. In its
early stages of growth it needs to be protected from hot.dry winds.
 Rainfall:- 125cm- 250 cms throughout the year.
 Soil:-. Well drained, weathered volcanic soil, red and laterite soil. The presence of humus
is essential. .
 Topography:- grows on hill slopes at elevation ranging from 500mts to 1800mts.

Issues and challenges related with quality and

supply of seed, manure
Seed is the true carrier of technology. In India, three sets of institutions produce seeds:research
institutions and agricultural universities; public sector seed producing corporations; andprivate
sector firms including multinationals. The last decade has seen two main developmentsin seed
market. One, production of quality seed has risen at a rapid rate after 2005-06. And two,public
sector has begun to effectively compete with the private sector.

Beginning with 2001-02, there has been a distinct change in the role of public sector inthe
development of hybrid in all crops.While these changes have led to better availability of quality
seed, seed replacement rate(percentage of area sown using certified quality seeds other than the
farm saved seeds from theprevious crop) remains low in the country. On average, it is below 20
per cent in pulses and
below 30 per cent in paddy and wheat. Even now many farmers do not distinguish
betweencommon grain and seed and use common grain as seed.3 Recent data on breeder seed
productionindicated a drastic reduction of about 40% compared 2010-11. This is likely to impact
thecertified seed availability in coming years. Another serious factor responsible for low use
ofquality seed is sale of spurious seed in the market. In order to raise productivity there is a need
tosupply and promote use of quality seed and also assure quality.

Some important initiatives have been taken under the recently amended New Policy onSeed
Development. The policy permits 100 per cent foreign direct investment under theautomatic
route and simplifies the procedure for inclusion of new varieties in the Organisationfor
Economic Cooperation and Development Seeds Scheme. The thrust is also on creating a

Pscnotes.com Page 55
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
seedbank. Since 2013-14, a Seed Rolling Plan has been in place for all the States for
identification ofgood seed varieties and agencies responsible for production of seeds.

Several steps need to be taken to improve the quality of seeds used by farmers:
Sometimes prices of good quality seeds, especially hybrids, are high and farmersare unable to
afford them. Creating community Seed Banks in producing areascan reduce dependence on
market for seeds. The seed banks not only protect theexisting crop varieties but also ensure
supply of seeds to the farmer to meetcontingency.
Proper storage of seeds is essential to get satisfactory germination. This factorassumes particular
significance in the eastern region due to humid climaticconditions. Adequate-quality storage
infrastructure according to agro-climateconditions and specific seeds to be stored, needs to be

created to save the seedsfrom damage.

Huge demand supply gap exists in forage seed. The seed companies are notcoming forward for
production of forage seeds. This is a major cause of concernfor development of dairy sector in
the country. The seed companies and StateAgricultural Universities have to take-up forage seed
production on a prioritybasis. In parallel, the dairy cooperatives should be encouraged to grow
forage seeds.
Regulatory measures for quality seed production have to be tightened so as todiscourage the
sales of spurious seeds to farmers. The seed companies should bemade responsible for poor
performance of seed supplied by them. The details ofseed traits should be displayed on seed
packages and agency website. The seed companies should provide adequate compensation
package for farmers in case ofgeneral failure of their seeds. Our research institutions must
develop rapid testingkits for seed hybridity to allow quick seed testing, thus, enabling the
detection ofspurious seeds at the time of sale.

Manure is organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. Manures improve the fertility of the
soil by adding organic matter and lots of nutrients, such as nitrogen that is trapped by bacteria in
the soil. Higher organisms then feed on the fungi and bacteria in a chain of life.

The use of organic manures (farmyard manure, compost, green manure, etc.) is the oldest and
most widely practised means of nutrient replenishment in India. Prior to the 1950s, organic
manures were almost the only sources of soil and plant nutrition. Owing to a high animal
population, farmyard manure is the most common of the organic manures. Cattle account for 90
percent of total manure production. The proportion of cattle manure available for fertilizing

Pscnotes.com Page 56
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
purposes decreased from 70 percent in the early 1970s to 30 percent in the early 1990s. The use
of farmyard manure is about 2 tonnes/ha, which is much below the desired rate of 10 tonnes/ha.

At the present production level, the estimated annual production of crop residues is about 300
million tonnes. As two-thirds of all crop residues are used as animal feed, only one-third is
available for direct recycling (compost making), which can add 2.5 million tonnes/year. The
production of urban compost has been fluctuating around 6–7 million tonnes and the area under
green manuring is about 7 million/ha.

The Government is promoting the concept of the integrated nutrient supply system (INSS), i.e.
the combined use of mineral fertilizers, organic manures and biofertilizers. Farmers are also
aware of the advantage of INSS in improving soil health and crop productivity. However, the
adoption of INSS is limited by the following constraints:

 increasing trend to use cow manure as a source of fuel in rural areas;

 increasing use of crop residues as animal feed;
 extra cost and time required to grow green-manure crops;
 handling problems with bulky organic manures;
 problems in timely preparation of the field when agricultural waste and green manure
have to be incorporated and their decomposition awaited;
 poor and inconsistent crop response to biofertilizers.

Farming practices
Crop Science in India

 In India around 70% of the population earns its livelihood from agriculture.
 It fulfills the basic need of human beings and animals.
 It is an important source of raw material for many agro based industries.
 India‘s geographical condition is unique for agriculture because it provides many
favorable conditions.
 There are plain areas, fertile soil, long growing seasons and wide variation in climatic
condition etc.
 Apart from unique geographical conditions, India has been consistently making
innovative efforts by using science and technology to increase production.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

1. Mostly Subsistence Agriculture.

2. Pressure of population on Agriculture for employment and sustenance.
3. Limited Mechanization of farming.
4. Dependence upon monsoon mostly and irrigation in lesser percentage.

Pscnotes.com Page 57
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
5. Variety of crops found due to diversity of topography, climate and soil.
6. Predominance of food crops cultivation.
7. Three distinct agricultural/cropping seasons- kharif, rabi and zaid

MAJOR CROPS OF INDIA

 India grows almost each and every crop. If we consider the varieties of crop grown from
Kashmir to Kanyakumari and western coast of Gujarat to extreme north eastern states of
Arunachal Pradesh, then there would be hundreds of crops.

CROPS
COMMERCIAL/PLANTATION
FOOD GRAINS HORTICULTURE
CROPS
CEREALS PULSES OILSEEDS OTHERS VEGETABLES FRUITS
Coarse Groundnut,
Cereals/ Caster seed, Sugarcane,
Banana,
Millets Niger seed, Cotton, Jute, Potato, Sweet
Mango,
Tur, Gram, Sesamum, Mesta, Coconut, potato, Onion,
Apple,
Rice, Moong, Rapeseed, Tapioca, Chillies,
Apricot,
Wheat Urad, Mustard, Tobacco, Tomato,
Grapes,
Lentil Linseed, Rubber, Coffee, Cauliflower,
Pineapple,
Safflower, Tea, Arecanut, Brinjal
Walnut
Sunflower, Spices
Soybean

Pscnotes.com Page 58
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
FOODGRAINS

 The importance of foodgrains in Indian agricultural economy may be gauged from the
fact these crops occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the country.
 Foograins are dominant crops in all parts of the country whether they have subsistence or
commercial agricultural economy.
 On the basis of the structure of grainthe food grainsare classified as cereals and
pulses.

CEREALS

 Cereals occupy about 54 percent of total cropped area in India.

 India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice,
wheat) andcoarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi).

RICE:

 It is the most important food crop of India. It is predominantly a Kharif crop. It covers
about one third of total cultivated area of the country and is staple foodof more than half
of the Indian population.
 Maximum population of India is of rice consumers. Hence many farmers in India
cultivate rice round the year that is, it is also cultivated in rabi season with the use of
irrigation. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions.

The temperature should be fairly high i.e. 240C mean monthly temperature with average
temperature of 220C to 320C.

2. Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150 and 300 cmis suitable for its growth. In areas of
Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh where rainfall is less than 100cm; rice is
cultivated with the help of irrigation.
3. Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy soilprovides the
ideal conditions.

Rice is primarily grown in plain areas like Gangetic plain, it is also grown below sea level at
Kuttanad (Kerala), hill terraces of north eastern part of India and valleys of Kashmir.

4. Labor: Rice cultivation requires easily available labourbecause, most of the activities
associated with it are labor oriented and are not very well suited for mechanization.
5. Distribution:

 Rice is grown in almost all the states of India.

o The three largest rice producing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh.

Pscnotes.com Page 59
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
o The other major rice producing states are Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Orissa, Karnataka, Assam and
Maharashtra.
o It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat and Kashmir
Valley.

WHEAT:

 Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice.
 It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the
beginning of summer.
 Normally (in north India) the sowingof wheat begins in the month of October-
November and harvesting is done in the month ofMarch-April.
 This is the staple foodof millions of people particularly in the northern and north-
western regions of India. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Temperature: It is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grassland. It requires cool climate.

The ideal temperature is between 100C to 150Cat the time of sowingand 210C to 260C at
the time of ripening and harvesting.
2. Rainfall: Wheat thrives well in areas receiving annual rainfall of about 75cm. Annual
rainfall of about 100 cmis the upper limit for wheat cultivation. Like rice, wheat can also
be grown by irrigation method in areas where rainfall is less than 75cm. Light drizzles at
the time of ripening help in increasing the yield. But on the other hand, frost at the time
of flowering and hailstorm at the time of ripening can cause heavy damage to the wheat
crop.
3. Soil:Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils but well drained fertile loamy
and clayey loamy soil is best suited for wheat cultivation. Plain areasare very well
suited for wheat production.
4. Labour: Wheat is extensive and highly mechanizedand requires less labour.
5. Distribution: The largest wheat producing states are P,Punjab and Madhya Pradesh.
Other than that the main regions of wheat production in India areHaryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

MILLETS:

 Millets are short duration warm weather crops. These are coarse graincrops and are
used for both food and fodder.
 These are Kharifcropsthough sometimes grown in rabi seasons too. These are sown in
May-August and harvested in October-November. Today millets are mostly consumed by
poor people as their staple food.
 In India, lots of millet is grown and these are known by various local names.
 Some of these are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, Korra, Kodon, Kutki, Hraka, Bauti and Rajgira.
 In India, Jowar, Bajra and Ragiare grown on large areas but unfortunately area under
these crops has drastically reduced over the years.
 Some of the geographical conditions for growing these crops are as follows:

Pscnotes.com Page 60
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
1. Temperature: These crops are grown where the temperature is highwhich ranges
between 270C to 320
2. Rainfall: As mentioned earlier that millets are ‘dry land crop’, therefore, rainfall
ranging from 50 to 100 cmis ideal for their cultivation. These crops are rain-fed.
3. Soil: Millets are less sensitive to soil deficiencies. They can be grown in inferior
alluvial or loamy soil.
4. Distribution: Jowar and Bajra are grown both in north and south Indiawhereas ragi is
generally concentrated in the southern India. Jowar and Bajra are grown in Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karanataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana and Punjab. Ragi is mostly concentrated in the southern India i.e. Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In total, coarse cereals can be found in Rajasthan,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

 Jowar(sorghum), Bajra (Pearl millet/Bull Rush millet)Ragi (Finger millet/Buck

wheat) are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known as coarse
grains, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron,
calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.
 Maizeis a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires
temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some states
like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of modern inputs such as HYV
seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed to the increasing production of maize.
Major maize-producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Telangana and Madhya Pradesh.

PULSES

 India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These are
the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
 Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions. Being leguminous crops, all
these crops except arhar(pigeon pea)helps in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen
from the air.
 Therefore, these are mostlygrown in rotation with other crops. Most of these are green
manure crops Major pulse producing statesin India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
 Though gram and tur (arhar or pigeon pea/red gram) are the more important pulses,
several other pulses such as urd (black gram), mung (green gram), masur (lentil), kulthi
(horse gram), matar(peas), khersi, cow pea(black-eyed gram) and moth are also grown.
Pulses are generally fodder crops

Gram

 It is the most important of all the pulses. It accounts for about 37% of the production and
about 30% of the total area of pulses in India. It is a Rabi cropwhich is sown between
September and November and is harvested between February and April. It is
either cultivated as a single crop or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

Pscnotes.com Page 61
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
1. Temperature: It is grown in a wide range of climatic condition. Mild cool and
comparatively dry climatewith 200C -250C
2. Rainfall:40-45 cm rainfall is favorable for gram cultivation.
3. Soil: It grows well on loamy soils.
4. Distribution:Although gram is cultivated in several parts of the country,
however, 90% of the total production comes from 5 states. These states are Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana

Green Manure Crops:

 Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic mattercontent in the
soil are called Green manure crops.
 Use of Green manure crops in cropping system is called 'Green Manuring'where the crop
is grown in situ or brought from outside and incorporated when it is purposely grown.
 Green manuring are low cost andeffective technology in minimising cost of
fertilizers and safeguarding productivity.
 Green Leaf Manuring consists of gathering green biomass from nearby location and
adding to the soil. Objectives of green manuringare to add Nitrogen to the companion or
succeeding crop and add or sustain organic matter in the soil.
 Examples of leguminous Green Manures are as follows: Local name- Cowpea, Cluster
bean (Guar), Green gram (Mung bean), Sesbania, Dhaincha, Sunhemp, Wild Indigo,
Pillipesara, Berseem, Madras Indigo etc.

COMMERCIAL/CASH CROPS

Cash crops are those crops which are grown for sale either in raw form or semi processed form.
Major of them are as follows:

SUGARCANE:

 Sugarcane is a Kharif crop. It is the main source of sugar, gur and khandsari.
 It also provides raw material for the manufacturing of alcohol.
 Bagasse, the crushed cane residue,has also multiple uses. It is used for manufacturing of
paper. It is also an efficient substitute for petroleum products and a host of other chemical
products.
 A part of it is also used as fodder. Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of
sugarcane are as follows:

1. Temperature: It requires hot and humid climatewith an average temperature of 210C to

270C.
2. Rainfall: 75-150 cmrainfall is favorable for sugarcane cultivation. Irrigation is required
in those areas where rainfall is less than the prescribed limit.
3. Soil: It can grow in a variety of soils. In fact sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that
can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soilis ideal for its growth. The soil should

Pscnotes.com Page 62
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
be rich in nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous but neither it should be too acidic nor
alkaline. Flat, plain and level pleatue is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation
because it facilitates irrigation and transportation of cane to the sugar mills. Sugarcane
cultivation requires heavy manures and fertilizers because it exhausts the fertility of soils
quickly and extensively.
4. Labour: It is a labour oriented cultivationand required cheap labour. Ample human
hands are required at every stage, i.e. sowing, hoeing, weeding, irrigation, cutting and
carrying sugarcanes to the factories.
5. Distribution: India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world and
the second largest producernext to Brazil. As far as distribution of sugarcane
cultivation in India is concerned, there are three distinct geographical regions in the
country. These regions are:
1. The Sutlej-Ganga plainfrom Punjab to Bihar containing 51% of the total area and
60% of the country‘s total production. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of
sugar in India.
2. The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadualong the eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats.
3. Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley.

COTTON:

 Cotton is the most important fibre cropnot only of India but also of the entire world. It not
only provides raw material for cotton textile industry but also its seed is used in
Vanaspati oil industry.
 The cotton seed is also used as part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk production.
Cotton is basically a kharif crop.Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Distribution: India has the largest area under cultivationand is the largest producer of
cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and
production is shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Andhra
Pradesh, Telegana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.
2. Labour: As picking of cotton has not been made mechanized till now, therefore a lot
of cheap and efficient labouris required at the time of picking.
3. Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils of Deccan and Malwa
plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej plain and red and
laterite soils of the peninsular region.
4. Rainfall: It grows mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free daysin a year. It
requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100 cm. However, cotton is successfully
grown with the help of irrigation in the areas where rainfall is less than 50
cm. High amount of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and dry weather at the time
of ripening are very useful for a good crop.
5. Temperature: Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areasand
requires uniformly high temperature varying between 210C and 300C.

Pscnotes.com Page 63
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
JUTE

 It is an important natural fibre crop in India next to cotton.

 It is a kharif crop.
 It requires hot and humid climate with 120-150cm rainfallfor its growth. Light sandy or
clayey soils is best for its cultivation.
 It is labour intensive. In trade and industry, jute and mesta croptogether known as raw
jute as their uses are almost same.
 Raw jute plays an important role in the country‘s economy.
 Raw jute was originallyconsidered as a source of raw material for packaging industries
 But it has now emerged as a versatile raw material for diverse applications, such
as, textile industries, paper industries, building and automotive industries, use as soil
saver, use as decorative and furnishing materials, etc.
 Raw jute being bio-degradable and annually renewable source, it is considered as
an environment-friendly cropand it helps in the maintenance of the environment and
ecological balance.
 Further attraction of Jute lies in its easy availability, inexhaustible quantity at a
comparatively cheaper rate. Moreover, it can easily be blended with other natural and
manmade fibres.
 With its insignificant coverage of total cultivated area, it plays a predominant role in the
country‘s economyby generating employment, earning foreign exchange, solving many
of the socio-economic problems, etc.
 In earlier years, Jute was considered as a Golden Fibrebut there after it had to pass
through different critical situation.
 The main problemcame in the way with the introduction of synthetic fibre by the end of
sixties/early seventies. After the development of diversified product of jute fibre and due
to growing concern about the environment pollution, the importance of jute has again
revived.
 The crop can be grown in low, medium and high land situation, both moisture stress and
water stagnating condition. WhiteJute (Corchorus capsularis) can be grown
comparatively in low land situationwhile that of Tossa Jute prefers medium and high land
situation.
 Mesta is grown in almost all over the country. It being a hardy crop and can
tolerate moisture stress; its cultivation is spread in different agro-climatic situations
unlike jute which is concentrated only in eastern and north eastern States.
 Major jute and mesta producing states are West Bengal, Bihar and Assam.In a major part
of Jute area, particularly in North Bengal, Bihar and North-Eastern States, the soil is
acidic in nature.
 However, the Jute crop is growing in these areas in existing situation adjusting the crop
sequence. It is a water intensive crop-not only for growth but for processing as well.

OILSEEDS

 It is one of the important groups of commercial cropsin India.

Pscnotes.com Page 64
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Oil extracted from oilseeds not only forms an important item of our diet but also serves
as raw material for the manufacturing of hydrogenated oils, paints, varnishes, soaps,
lubricants
 Oil-cake(the residue after the oil is extracted from the oilseeds) form an important cattle
feed and manure.
 Drylands of Malwa plateau (Madhya Pradesh), Marathwada (Maharashtra), Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
plateau areoilseeds growing regions of India.
 These crops together occupy about 14 percentof total cropped area in the country.
Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, sesamum, linseed, castor seed, soyabean and
sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown in India.

Groundnut

It is the most important oilseed of India. Groundnut is grown both as kharif and Rabi
crop but 90-95% of the total area is devoted to kharif crop. It is a rainfed crop. Some of the
geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Temperature: It thrives best in the tropical climateand requires 200C to 300C

2. Rainfall: 50-75 cm rainfallis favorable for groundnut cultivation. It is highly
susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant water.
Therefore, dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
3. Soil: Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black soilsare well suited for its
cultivation.
4. Distribution: It is the most important oilseed of India and accounts for about half of the
major oilseeds producedin the country. India is the largest producer of groundnut in
the world. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Gujarat are the main
producer of groundnut in India and account for about 60% of the total production.
Another 30% of the total production comes from Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa.

Soybean

 Soybean is known as the―Golden Bean‖ of the 20th Century.

 Though, Soybean is a legume crop, yet it is widely used as oilseed.
 Due to very poor cookability on account of inherent presence of trypsin inhibitor, it
cannot be utilized as a pulse.
 It is now the second largest oilseed in Indiaafter groundnut.
 It grows in varied agro-climatic conditionsbut it is best crop in Kharif
 It has emerged as one of the important commercial cropin many countries.
 Due to its worldwide popularity, the international trade of Soybeanis spread globally.
 Several countries such as Japan, China, Indonesia, Philippines, and European countries
are importing Soybean to supplement their domestic requirement for human consumption
and cattle feed.
 Soybean has great potentialas an exceptionally nutritive and very rich protein food.
 It can supply the much needed protein to human diets, because it contains above 40 per
cent protein of superior qualityand all the essential amino acids particularly glycine,

Pscnotes.com Page 65
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
tryptophan and lysine, similar to cow‘s milk and animal proteins. Soybean also contains
about 20 per cent oil with an important fatty acid, lecithin and Vitamin A and D.
 The 4 percent mineral salts of soybeans are fairly rich in phosphorous and calcium. Major
soyabean producing states areMadhya Pradesh, Maharshtra and Rajasthan

Sunflower:

 Sunflower as an oilseed is a newly introduced cropin the country. Due to source of high
quality edible oil, sunflower oil is used as cooking oil in different recipes. Its importance
increases as sunflower oil is considered as a heart friendly oil.
 Besides oil, almost every part of sunflower has commercial value. This crop has
gained importance due to its short duration of maturity, containing of excellent
quality of oil, photo-insensitivity, wide adaptability into different kinds of cropping
pattern, high-energy hull anddrought tolerance. It is a short duration crop and
completes its life cycle in about three months.
 Hence can be incorporated in different type of cropping pattern. Since it is a photo-
insensitive crop, it can be grown throughout the year. Sunflower is cultivated as both
kharif and rabiseasons but, two-thirds of production comes from rabi season In
addition, sunflower is also cultivated as summer crop in Punjab and West Bengal.
 Oil cakeis rich in high quality protein (40 – 44 percent) and used as cattle and poultry
feed. This crop is considered valuable from economic as well as ornamental point of
view. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are the major sunflower producing
states.

Sesamum (Til):

 Sesamum is a rainfed cropand requires 45-50 cm rainfall. It thrives well in areas having
21o-23oC temperature.
 Frost, prolonged drought and heavy rains for a longer duration are harmful to this crop.
 Well-drained light loamysoils are best suited to sesamum. It is cultivated in plains as
well as on elevations upto 1,300 metres. It is grown as a kharif crop in the north and as
a rabi crop in the south.

Rapeseed and Mustard:

 Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climateof the Satluj-Ganga plain and
very small quantity is grown in the peninsular India.
 They are mainly grown as rabi cropin pure or mixed form with wheat, gram and barley.

Linseed:

 Although this crop can be grown under varied geographical conditions, it prefers cool,
moist climatewith about 20oC temperature and 75 cm rainfall.
 Clay loams, deep black soils and alluvial soils are best suited for its cultivation. It
can be cultivated upto a height of 800 metres above sea level.
 It is a rabi-cropwhich is sown in October-November and harvested in March-April.

Pscnotes.com Page 66
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Castor Seed:

 Castor seed plant grows into a small tree and is generally raised as a mixed crop in
tropical and sub-tropical climates.
 It thrives well in areas of 200C-250C temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall.
 It is grown on red sandy loams in the peninsular India and on light alluvial soils of the
Satluj-Ganga plain.
 Almost the whole area of castor seed production is rainfed. It is a Kharif crop in the
north and a rabi crop in the south.

PLANTATION CROP

TEA:

 India is famous for its tea gardens.

 Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea
plantswere discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.
 Tea is made from tender sprouts of tea plantsby drying them.
 India is one of the leading tea producing country in the world. China and Sri Lanka are
other leading producers of tea. Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of tea
are as follows:

1. Temperature: It requires hot and wet climate. The ideal temperature for the growth of
tea bushes and leaf varies between 200C to 300C. If temperature eitherrises above 350C
or goes below 100C, it would be harmful for the growth of tea bushesand leaves.
2. Rainfall:As mentioned above tea requires a good amount of rainfall ranging
between 150-300 cm and the annual rainfall should be well distributed throughout the
year. Long dry spell is harmful for tea.
3. Soil: Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loamy soil. However, virgin
forest soil rich in humus and iron contentare considered to be the best soils for the tea
plantation. Tea is a shade loving plant and grows better when planted along with
shady trees.
4. Labour: Cheap and efficient labouris required for tea production.
5. Distribution: Assam is the leading producerthat accounts for more than 50% of tea
production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the
Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea
where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and cooch
Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are
mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

COFFEE:

 It is the indigenous crop of Ethiopia(Abysinia Plateau). From Ethiopia, it was taken to

Arabia in 11th
 From Arabia, the seeds were brought by Baba Budan in 17thCentury and were raised
in Baba Budan hills of Karnataka.

Pscnotes.com Page 67
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 But it was British planters who took keen interest and large coffee estates were
established in the hills of Western Ghats. Some of the geographical conditions for the
growth of coffee are as follows:

1. Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying

between 150C and 280C. it is generally grown under shady trees. Therefore,strong sun
shine, high temperature above 300C,frost and snowfall are harmful for coffee
cultivation. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of berried.
2. Rainfall: Rainfall between 150 and 250 cmis favorable for coffee cultivation.
3. Soil: Well drained, rich friable loamy soilcontaining good deal of humus and
minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee to increase productivity.
4. Labour: Like tea, coffee cultivation also requires plenty ofcheap and skilled labour for
various purposes like sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, drying, grading and
packaging of coffee.
5. Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Naduare the main states of coffee
production in India.

HORTICULTURE CROPS

 In simple terms, horticulturecan be defined as the science of growing fruits, vegetables,

and flowers.
 Indiais a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
 Mangoesof Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand
the world over.
 Major flower growing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in South,
West Bengal in East, Maharashtra in West and Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana in North.
 Major exporting flower like orchidcovers the entire region of North-Eastern
region especially in the state of Arunanchal Pradesh which is also known as Orchid
State of India. India produces about 13 per cent of the world‘s vegetables.
 It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and
potato.

Pscnotes.com Page 68
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Horticulture
Special Promotional Programme for Horticulture Development

Definition of Horticulture:

 Horticulture may be broadly defined as the Science and art of growing fruits, vegetables
and flowers and crops like spices condiments and other plantation crops.
 It is a science of cultivation of Garden plants.
 The word Horticulture in derived from the Latin word Hortus meaning enclosure (garden)
and culture - meaning, cultivation,. Thus Horticulture mans culture or cultivation of
garden crops.

Branches of Horticulture:

Horticultural Science is the most distinct branch of Agricultural Sciences and call be divided into
four different branches as follow.

Main Branches:

1. Pamology-- It deals with cultivation of fruit crops.

2. Olericulture- It deals with cultivation of vegetable crops
3. Floriculture- It deals with cultivation of ornamental flowers and land scaping.
4. Fruit and
vegetable preservation- It deals with the principles of fruit and vegetable preservation

Sub Branches:

1. Plantation and Medicinal plants.

2. Ornamental Gardening
3. Landscape gardening and
4. Nursery plant production

Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

 Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) is a Centrally Sponsored

Scheme for the holistic growth of the horticulture sector covering fruits, vegetables, root
& tuber crops, mushrooms, spices, flowers, aromatic plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and
bamboo.

Pscnotes.com Page 69
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 While Government of India (GOI) contributes 85% of total outlay for developmental
programmes in all the states except the states in North East and Himalayas, 15% share is

contributed by State Governments.

 In the case of North Eastern States and Himalayan States, GOI contribution is 100%.
Similarly, for development of bamboo and programmes of National Horticulture Board
(NHB), Coconut Development Board (CDB), Central Institute for Horticulture (CIH),
Nagaland and the National Level Agencies (NLA), GOI contribution will be 100%.

MISSION OBJECTIVES

Main objectives of the Mission are:

1. Promote holistic growth of horticulture sector, including bamboo and coconut through
area based regionally differentiated strategies, which includes research, technology
promotion, extension, post harvest management, processing and marketing, in
consonance with comparative advantage of each State/region and its diverse agro-
climatic features;
2. Encourage aggregation of farmers into farmer groups like FIGs/FPOs and FPCs to bring
economy of scale and scope.
3. Enhance horticulture production, augment farmers, income and strengthen nutritional
security;
4. Improve productivity by way of quality germplasm, planting material and water use
efficiency through Micro Irrigation.
5. Support skill development and create employment generation opportunities for rural
youth in horticulture and post harvest management, especially in the cold chain sector.

National Horticulture Board (NHB)

 National Horticulture Board (NHB) was set up by Government of India in April 1984 on
the basis of recommendations of the "Group on Perishable Agricultural Commodities",
headed by Dr M. S. Swaminathan, the then Member (Agriculture), Planning Commission,
Government of India.
 The NHB is registered as a Society under the Societies Registration Act 1860, with its
headquarters at Gurgaon.

Aims & Objectives of NHB Schemes

Pscnotes.com Page 70
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
The main objectives of the NHB are to improve integrated development of Horticulture industry
and to help in coordinating, sustaining the production and processing of fruits and vegetables.
Detailed objectives of the Board are as under:-

 Development of hi-tech commercial horticulture in identified belts and make such areas
vibrant with horticultural activity, which in turn will act as hubs for development of
horticulture.
 Development of modern post-harvest management infrastructure as an integral part of
area expansion projects or as common facility for cluster of projects.
 Development of integrated, energy efficient cold chain infrastructure for fresh
horticulture produce.
 Popularization of identified new technologies / tools / techniques for commercialization /
adoption, after carrying out technology and need assessment.
 Assistance in securing availability of quality planting material by promoting setting up of
scion and root stock banks / mother plant nurseries and carrying out accreditation / rating
of horticulture nurseries and need based imports of planting material.
 Promotion and market development of fresh horticulture produce.
 Promotion of field trials of newly developed/imported planting materials and other farm
inputs; production technology; PHM protocols, INM and IPM protocols and promotion of
applied R&D programmes for commercialization of proven technology.
 Promotion of Farm Mechanization in Horticulture through demonstration and its uses at
farmers field level to reduce labour cost and increase the productivity of Horticulture
crops.
 Promotion of applied R & D for standardizing PHM protocols, prescribing critical
storage conditions for fresh horticulture produce, bench marking of technical standards
for cold chain infrastructure etc.
 Transfer of technology to producers/farmers and service providers such as gardeners,
nurserymen, farm level skilled workers, operators in cold storages, work force carrying
out post harvest management including processing of fresh horticulture produce and to
the master trainers.
 Promotion of consumption of horticulture produce and products.
 Promoting long distance transport solution for bulk movement of horticulture produce
through rail etc.
 Carrying out studies and surveys to identify constraints and develop short and long term
strategies for systematic development of horticulture and providing technical services
including advisory and consultancy services.

Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture in North East and Himalayan States

 Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Technology Mission for Integrated Development of

Horticulture in North East and Himalayan States has been renamed as Horticulture
Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) during 2010-11.
 The scheme is being implemented in a mission mode with an end-to-end approach which
includes development and introduction of high yielding varieties and technologies,
expansvion of area, post harvest handling and management, marketing, value addition
and processing of horticulture produce with following four Mini Missions, namely:

Pscnotes.com Page 71
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Mini Mission I - Research: Coordinated and implemented by Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. This Mini Mission concentrates on technology generation
appropriate to the region. Major components under MM-I are supply of basic seed and
planting material, technology standardization, refinement, on farm demonstration and
training.
 Mini Mission ii - Production and Productivity : Coordinated by Department of
Agriculture & Cooperation and implemented by State Departments of Horticulture/
Agriculture. This mini mission aims at increasing production and productivity of
Horticulture crops by adoption of improved production Technologies.
 Mini Mission iii - Post-Harvest Management and Marketing : Coordinated by
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, implemented by Directorate of Marketing &
Inspection and National Horticulture Board. This Mini Mission aims for efficient post-
harvest management, techniques, which include development of cold storage facilities,
efficient transport and marketing facilities.
 Mini Mission IV - Processing: Coordinated and implemented by Ministry of Food
Processing Industries, Government of India. This Mini Mission aims at promoting
processing industry for value addition to Horticultural produce by promoting new
processing units and up gradation of existing units.

Coconut Development Board (CDB)

 Coconut Development Board (CDB) is a statutory body established under the Ministry of
Agriculture of the Government of India for the integrated development of coconut and
coconut-related products.
 Coconut Development Board is a statutory body established by the Government of India
for the integrated development of coconut production and utilization in the country with
focus on productivity increase and product diversification.
 The Board which came into existence on 12 January 1981, functions under the
administrative control of the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, with its
Headquarters at Kochi in Kerala and Regional Offices at Bangalore in Karnataka,
Chennai in Tamil Nadu and Guwahati in Assam.
 There are six State Centres situated at Bhubaneswar in Orissa, Calcutta in West Bengal,
Patna in Bihar, Thane in Maharashtra, Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh and Port Blair in the
Union Territory of Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
 The Board has 9 Demonstration cum Seed Production (DSP) Farms in different locations
of the country and now 7 farms are maintained.
 A Market Development cum Information Centre has established in Delhi. The Board has
set up a Technology Development Centre at Vazhakulam near Aluva in Kerala.

CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF HORTICULTURE

 Recognizing the importance for institutional support for development of horticulture in

NE Region, Government of India has sanctioned a Central Sector Scheme for setting up
of Central Institute of Horticulture in Nagaland during January, 2006. The financial
outlay for the setting up of Institute over a period of 5 years is Rs.20 crores.

Pscnotes.com Page 72
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The Institute is being set up at Medziphema in an area of 43.50 ha, which is situated at 35
kms. from Dimapur and 45 kms. from Kohima city on National Highway 39.
 It has an elevation ranging from 250 to 300 metres having temperature between 12 to 35
degree centigrade and average rainfall of 2500 mm.
 The area has low hilly terrains with good soil suitable for growing most of the sub
tropical horticultural crops. The objectives and the identified programmes of the Institute
are as given below:

Objectives of the Institute

The main objective of the Institute is to support horticulture development in the N.E. region
through:

1. Capacity building by training of trainers, extension officers, farmers, entrepreneurs,

processors and exporters,
2. Demonstration of improved technologies such as use of improved varieties / hybrids,
adoption of INM / IPM practices, Hi-tech farming, precision farming, protected
cultivation, post harvest technology, etc, and
3. Follow-on extension support in the field of horticulture.
4. Promotion of organic cultivation of horticultural crops.
5. Establishing convergence and synergy among programmes in the field of horticultural
research and development.
6. monitoring of Centrally sponsored programmes in the area of horticulture

National Horticulture Mission

Structure of the National Horticulture Mission

 Minister of agriculture is the chairman of this mission and Ministers of Commerce,

Health, Finance, Food Processing Industries, Panchayati Raj, Science & Technology,
Rural Development, Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises are its members.

Covered Components

 It works on ―Cluster Basis‘. This means that the designated authority at the district level
would choose a cluster of minimum 100 hectares, seek necessary approval & sanction
and utilize the money under the programme -with the aim of achieving the desired goals.
 These goals are achieved by deploying modern and hi-tech interventions and duly
ensuring backward and forward linkages. A Cluster, as contemplated in the NHM,
comprises area of not less than 100 hectares under a horticulture crop.
 The intervention is done in the following components

Plantation Infrastructure and Development-Nurseries, Tissue Culture labs

 The support is available for setting up a nursery for producing quality plant material.
However, nursery should be minimum with 1 hectare in area.

Pscnotes.com Page 73
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The mission does not support establish the new Tissue Culture (TC) units.
 However, assistance is provided for rehabilitation/ strengthening of existing TC Units
subject to a maximum ceiling of Rs.8.00 lakhs in Public sector and Rs.4.00 lakhs for
Private sector

Establishment of New Gardens

The farmers can get assistance for 3 years for development of a new garden of a horticulture
crop.

Rejuvenation of Old and Senile Orchards

NHM provides support for rejuvenating senile plantations @ 50% of the cost subject to a
maximum ceiling of Rs.15, 000/- per ha limited to 2 ha per beneficiary.

Other Support Areas

1. Integrated Pest Management/Integrated Nutrient Management

2. Protected Cultivation
3. Organic Farming
4. Pollination Support through Bee keeping
5. Creation of Water Sources
6. Mechanization
7. HRD ( such as at Krishi Vigyan Kendra)
8. Post Harvest Management
9. Marketing
10. Primary Processing
11. Contract Farming
12. Mushroom Cultivation
13. Precision Farming

Role of Agencies in the National Horticulture Mission

 National Horticulture Board (NHB), Gurgaon: NHB at Gurgaon houses the national
level Technology Support Group or TSG.
 Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development (DCCD), Kochi: Responsible for
plantation crops, other than coconut and areca nut.
 Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development (DASD), Calicut: Responsible for
areca nut, spices, and aromatic plants.
 National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH), New
Delhi: Responsible for precision farming and hitech horticulture through Precision
Farming Development Centres (PFDCs).
 Coconut Development Board (CDB), Kochi: Coconut based intercropping of
vegetables etc.
 Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
(APEDA), New Delhi: Development of AgriExport Zones (AEZ) for horticultural crops.

Pscnotes.com Page 74
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Directorate of Marketing & Inspection (DMI), New Delhi: Providing market
intelligence and monitoring of programmes relating to marketing of horticulture crops.
 Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MFPI), New Delhi: Processing of
horticultural produce, out of their own budget provision. MFPI will ensure convergence
of their schemes with NHM cluster.
 National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), New Delhi: Development of medicinal
plants in coordination with NHM.
 National Horticulture Research & Development Foundation (NHRDF), Nasik:
Vegetables and vegetable seeds.

Poultry
POULTRY FARMING (SILVER REVOLUTION) IN INDIA

 practice of raising poultry, such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, as a subcategory of

animal husbandry, for the purpose of farming meat or eggs for food.
 requires small capital and provides additional income and job opportunities to a large
number of rural population in the shortest possible time.
 The vast majority of poultry are farmed using factory farming techniques.
 The contrasting method of poultry farming in free range and friction between the two
main methods, has led to long term issues of ethical consumerism.
 Opponents of the factory farming argue that it harms the environment and creates health
risks, as well as abuses animals.
 In contrast, proponents of factory farming highlight its increased productivity, stating that
the animals are looked after in state-of-the art confinement facilities and are happy; that it
is needed to feed the growing global human population; and that it protects the
environment.

Poultry Farming in India

 Poultry farming in India is quite old.

 At present, more than three million people are directly or indirectly employed in poultry
farming.
 Further, landless labourers derive more than 50 per cent of their income from livestock,
especially poultry.
 Uninterrupted supplies of feed as well as avian influenza are critical for the continued
robust growth of the poultry sector.
 The first outbreak of avian influenza occurred in India in the state of Maharashtra in the
Nandurbar district on 18th Feb. 2006.

Pscnotes.com Page 75
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The Central Poultry Development Organisation has been playing a pivotal role in the
implementation of the policies of the Government with respect to poultry as a tool for
alleviating nutritional hunger and palliating the impecuniosity‘s of the resource-poor
farmers, especially the women.
 The mandate of the Central Poultry Development Organisation has been specifically
revised, by restructuring all poultry units of this Department to focus on improved
indigenous birds, which lay on an average 180-200 eggs per annum and have a vastly
improved FCR ratio in terms of feed consumption and weight gain.
 The Central Poultry Development Organisations have been entrusted with the
responsibility of producing excellent germplasm in the form of day-old chicks and
hatching eggs of these varieties like Nierbheek, Hitkari, Vanaraja, Shyama, Cari, Chabro,
etc.
 Besides, these organisations are also playing a crucial role in analysing feed samples.
 A new Centrally-sponsored scheme called Assistance to State Poultry, is being
implemented during the Tenth Plan where one time assistance is provided to suitably
strengthen the farms in terms of hatching, brooding, and rearing of birds with provision
for feed mill and their quality monitoring and in-house disease diagnostic facilities.
 A new scheme, Dairy/Poultry Venture Capital Fund, has been launched during the 2004-
05, wherein there is a provision to grant subsidy on interest payment.
 The nodal agency for the implementation of this scheme is NABARD through
nationalized commercial bank.

Fisheries
Fishing of Madhya Pradesh

 Madhya Pradesh is the largest geographic unit of the country. Except for the valleys of
the Narmada and Tapti, Madhya Pradesh is mainly plateau land, with a mean elevation of
488 m above sea level, interspersed with mountains of the Vindhya and the Satpura
ranges.
 With an average rainfall of 76 to 150 cm, the State gives birth to four great rivers of the
country, viz., Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, and Mahi and it also contains sub-catchments of
the Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari and Brahmani rivers.

Pscnotes.com Page 76
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Rivers originating from the highlands of Madhya Pradesh drain out in three different

directions.
 The great Narmada basin with its mainstream runs across the State from east to west,
receiving tributaries on either side.
 The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Son descend from the northern slopes of the Vindhyas,
feeding the Ganga river system.
 The Mahanadi flows eastwards and the Tapti cuts across the State diagonally in a
southwesterly direction to enter the Bay of Bengal.
 The rivers, tributaries, rivulets and streams in the State have a combined legth of 12 000
km.
 During the monsoons, all the rivers in Madhya Pradesh turn into raging torrents, carrying
enormous quantities of water.
 During the dry season, they shrink to rivulets.
 Thus, harnessing of water for irrigation and power generation is more relevant in the
State, than anywhere else in India and its track record in tapping the water resources has
been impressive.

RESERVOIR FISHERIES RESOURCES OF MADHYA PRADESH

 Madhya Pradesh, with its 0.46 million ha of reservoirs, has the maximum waterspread
under man-made lakes of all Indian States.
 Gandhisagar reservoir is the second largest reservoir (in area) in the country, next only to
the Hirakud of Orissa.
 However, the State is all set to top the table when the proposed Narmadasagar reservoir
(91 348 ha) becomes a reality.
 The State Fisheries Department of Madhya Pradesh does not have an account of all man-
made water bodies.
 The enumeration is especially poor in respect of the small reservoirs.
 However, the Statistics Wing of the State Fisheries Department maintains records on total
area under different categories of inland water bodies by districts.
 The Department has classified the inland water bodies into four size groups, ,

1. <10 ha,
2. 10 to 500 ha,
3. 501 to 1 000 ha
4. > 1 000 ha.

 The water bodies less than 10 ha in size are ponds and small tanks which are excluded
from the purview of this study.

Pscnotes.com Page 77
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The remaining three categories, by and large, comprise man-made impoundments, with
very few exceptions.
 Among them, the second and third groups together represent small reservoirs (<1 000
ha), as defined in this study.
 Reservoirs of the fourth group include both medium and large reservoirs.
 Within limitations of the available data, an attempt has been made to separate various
categories of impoundments and place them under the present classification.
 The small, medium and large reservoirs in the State are estimated at 172 575, 169 502
and 118 307 ha respectively with a total of 460 384 ha.
 Raipur district with 11 327 ha and Guna with 7 310 ha have the largest areas under small
reservoirs, while Narasingpur, (552 ha), Hoshangabad (861 ha) and Khandwa (814 ha)
have the least. The five large reservoirs of the State are in Raisen, Mandsaur, Jabalpur,
Chindwara and Raipur districts, while 19 districts have medium reservoirs.
 Description of 32 reservoirs comprising 6 small, 21 medium and 5 large, covering a total
area of 173 901 ha, is available. The average size of these small, medium and large
reservoirs is 350, 2 527 and 23 661 ha respectively.
 Fish production trends are available for 25 reservoirs, 20 of which belong to the medium
category.
 The Sarni reservoir (1 012 ha) in the district of Betul, producing 61.95 t of fish (61.21 kg
ha-1) is the most productive medium reservoir, followed by Kolar (40.0 kg ha-1) and
Maniyari (25.75 kg ha-1). Bhimgarh (0.51 kg ha-1) and Manoharsagar (1.13 kg ha-1) have
the poorest yield.
 The three large reservoirs, , the Gandhisagar, Barna and Totladoh for which catch data
are available, produce 9.21, 13.40 and 60.80 kg ha-1respectively.
 Yields of only two small reservoirs, , the Govindgarh (59.64 kg ha-1) and Loni (28.99 kg
ha-1) are known.
 Commensurate with the size of the resource and its pivotal role in inland fisheries
development, reservoirs of Madhya Pradesh received considerable research attention,
compared to other States. Excepting Tamil Nadu, no other State has subjected as many
reservoirs to scientific research as Madhya Pradesh did.
 At least 16 reservoirs find a place in the literature dealing with some aspects or another,
be it ecology or fisheries management.
 Some reservoirs like Gandhisagar, and Ravishankarsagar are well researched. Efforts
have been made in the State to develop the reservoir fisheries on scientific lines.

Govt. of Madhya Pradesh - Fisheries Sector

 Inland fishery is an integral component of rural development programme in Madhya

Pradesh. It is gaining increasing importance for its potential for employment and income
generation.
 It caters primarily to the needs of socio-economically weaker and backward communities
of fishermen, scheduled tribes and scheduled castes, which constitute the poorest section
of the society. Fish is an important source of protein rich food.

Resources:

Pscnotes.com Page 78
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Madhya Pradesh possesses 3.43 lakh hectare of water area in the form of large, medium
and small irrigation reservoirs, village's ponds and private ponds.
 The river and their tributaries form a network of 17088 Kms.
 The tributaries of Ganges, Yamuna like Chambal, Betwa, Ken Sone and Sindh have their
origin in the state.
 Under NVDA some newly constructed reservoir having about 0.83813 lac ha.water area
are also available for development of fishery activities.
 For management of fisheries in the state, there are two main agencies who looks after the
area under their control-

1. Department of Fisheries along with FFDA's caters needs of fishermen in NeGP-

Agriculture Mission Mode Project Software Requirement Specifications Madhya Pradesh
State Agricultural Portal form of their co-operative development, extension of fisheries
activity management and development of fisheries activity in small water bodies up to
1000 ha.
2. P Matsya Mahasangh controls big reservoirs having more than 1000 ha. average water
area.

 Fish culture activity in the state is culture-cum-capture technique, which required more
consideration on stocking of fish seed, technology transfer to the ground level and
assistance in creation of infrastructure for fishery developmental activities.
 The irrigation reservoir, up to 2000 ha. were leased out for fish culture through 3 tire
panchayat system as per the Government policy.
 Presently, most of the reservoir with water area up to 2000 ha. are being developed by
primary fishermen cooperatives societies.
 But due to lack of adequate financial support, the leasees are not able to obtain optimum
production of these reservoirs.
 Fish production from village‘s ponds is 1,500 Kg/ha/yr as compared to the national
average of 2,180 Kg/ha/yr.
 Per hectare production from irrigation reservoirs is 54 Kg / ha/yr is slightly higher in
comparison to the national fish production of 49 Kg/ha/yr.

Information on fishery inputs by MP Govt.

This service aims at providing information on good practices for fish farming, efficient use of
feed material etc, dealer network, quality control, fishermen safety, fish diseases, schemes for
fishermen and fish production statistics, automation of fish seed grower registration, vessel
registration, expert advice and mechanism for grievance management.

Pscnotes.com Page 79
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Dairy and animal husbandry

Animal Husbandry of Madhya Pradesh

Animal husbandry plays a vital role and provides additional source of income to the farmers of
the country. Animal products, for long, have also played an important role in the socio-economic
life of the country. It has been a rich source of high quality animal products that have added
greater nutritional value to the diet of both the farmers and other consumers as well. Products
derived from animal husbandry mainly include milk, meat and eggs.

India is the largest milk producer of the world, accounting for 16.43 percent of the global milk
production. It also accounts for 4.95 percent of the world's egg production. Total Livestock
population in the Country is 512.05 million numbers. India, has the largest population of milch
animals in the world, comprising of 190.9 million cows, 108.7 million buffaloes, 135 million
goats and 65 million sheep in 2012. The major items of export include sheep/goat meat, buffalo
meat, poultry products, dairy products, animal casing, natural honey, processed and other kinds
of meat.

Animal Husbandry also plays an important role in Madhya Pradesh also as it provides additional
source of income to the farmers. The number of livestock as well as the production of animal
products has seen an increase over the years in the state. In 2003, the total livestock (which
includes cattle, buffaloes, horses, ponies, donkeys, sheep, goat, camel, pigs and mules) was

nearly 3.56 crores. By 2012, the number grew to

3.63 crores.

Livestock products

Animals provide twin benefits as they played an important role in agriculture as well as provides
various products, which is the additional source of the farmers. Not only do they provide us with
food and fibre, but they also help to recycle nutrients and add to soil fertility. They are also the
prime source of animal proteins for the rural masses. Livestock products are important
contributors to total food production.

Milk Production

Even the production of milk increased from 63.75 lakh MT in 2006-07 to 107.79 lakh MT in
2014-15. Madhya Pradesh stood at seventh position in milk production in India during the period
from 2004-05 to 2011-12. However, it surpasses Maharashtra in 2012-13 and became sixth milk
producer state in the country. In 2014-15, the state has now achieved fourth rank by leaving
behind Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

Pscnotes.com Page 80
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
In spite of population growth in the State, Madhya Pradesh has performed well in terms of per
capita per day. Milk availability in Madhya Pradesh was 233 gram per capita per day, during
year 2005 which has increased to 383 gram per capita per day in year 2015. At present, per
capita per day milk availability in Madhya Pradesh is more than the recommendation of Indian
Medical Research Council of 280gm per capita per day and also the national average of 315 gms.

Milk Marketing

The Cooperative Dairy structure has played the role in the development of the sector in Madhya
Pradesh. It has been an important participant in the rural development programme initiated by
the Government. The apex federation (MPCDF) with its 5 regional Milk Unions located in
Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore, Jabalpur and Ujjain is procuring 9.3 lakh kgs of milk per day from its
2.4 lakh members. These members are associated with 6219 dairy cooperatives and were paid Rs
637.54 crores in 2015-16 (till November 2015).

Eggs and Meat production

Meat production increased from 20 thousand tonnes in 2006-07 to 60 thousand tonnes in 2014-
15.

Egg production rose from 9518 lakhs in 2006-07 to 11776 lakhs in 2014-15. Such a phenomenal
rise also requires an enlargement of the storage capacity for such products, so as to minimize
wastage and damage.

Poultry Sector

After milk production, poultry sector is vital in animal husbandry. Self-help groups plays an
important role in seeded poultry development in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh, for the
purpose of livelihood promotion, to combat the problems of growing migration, food insecurity
and poor cultivation. One such cooperative is Kesla Poultry Cooperative Society (KPCS). It is a
cooperative consisting of Dalit and Adivasi families in Sukhtawa. By 1999-00, 50-60 women
had become a part of it. The number of registered cooperatives has increased to nearly 300 by
2001. The number of women in KPCS also increased to nearly 1030 women.

The number of birds reared by them went up to approximately 1000, leading to an income
anywhere between Rs 30,000 to Rs. 1 lakh per family. KCPS provides these families with basic
training, inputs, medicines, feed, etc. Nearly 5-6 batches of poultry birds are reared per year.
Under the Integrated Tribal Development Plan, grant is provided to rural families for poultry,
under various schemes. Attempts have also been made to attract foreign funding for the purpose
of loans.

In 2014-15, KPCS produced 2.50 lakh birds per month. KPCS sells its produce under the brand
name Sukhtawa Chicken. Sukhtawa Chicken has 10-15 outlets across Madhya Pradesh. 10-12
wholesalers collect the produce form the villages and supply it to Itarsi, Bhopal, Nagpur,
Vidisha, Sarani and Betul.

Pscnotes.com Page 81
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
The cooperative has managed to provide 200 man-days of work per year to the rural families. A
significant feature of KPCS is that it produces its own feed through its semi-automatic feed plant.
Maize, Soya DOC, concentrate, medicines etc. are required as inputs. Nearly 300 tonnes of
maize and 100 tonnes of Soya DOC are required every month. The plant has a production
capacity of 6-7 tonnes/hour. Many of the other cooperative societies have their own feed plants
as well. Nearly 10 such cooperatives are operational across Madhya Pradesh, involving
approximately 5,000 women and with a production of nearly 12 lakh birds per month. Some of
the cooperatives are operating in the districts of Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur, Sagar, Hoshangabad,
etc.

Poultry production in Madhya Pradesh got an impetus with the establishment of the Madhya
Pradesh Women Poultry Producer Company. It is a federation of 10 cooperative societies,
headquartered in Bhopal. Its activities include the procurement of raw materials, rate negotiation,
quarterly audits, training and capacity building of the women and support staff and dealing with
matters of concentrate preparation.

Various key challenges in the poultry sector are:

Investments :Poultry is a capital-intensive enterprise and requires an initial investment of Rs. 1 to

1.5 lakhs per family. Additionally, setting up of cooperatives is even more challenging because
every cooperative has approximately 300 members. Thus, the issue of huge investments needs
attention.

Poultry marketing is highly competitive and volatile.

Linkages :Strong backward linkages (in the form of feed plants, hatcheries, etc.) need to be
focused on, in order to bring down the costs.

Forward linkages are extremely limited and need to be explored, for better marketing and
promotion.

Once formed, the cooperatives do not receive adequate attention from the government. Thus, a
more proactive role on the part of the government is essential for poultry cooperatives to thrive.

At present, the involvement of private companies in the poultry industry leads to greater
exploitation of rural families. Therefore, a regulatory framework needs to be put in place. Poultry
sheds are often at the mercy of nature and natural calamities (like the storm in 2013) can play
havoc with poultry sheds. Thus, adequate insurance cover needs to be made available.

Animal Health

Animal health is a crucial element in determining productivity of the livestock and production of
livestock products. Supporting role of veterinary institutions and farm infrastructure is vital in
this regard. The treatment of animals has increased by 92 percent between 2010-11 and 2014-14,
while medicine distribution has increased by 81 percent and immunization by 62 percent.

Pscnotes.com Page 82
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Artificial inseminations in the state have increased 2.6 times between 2010-11 and 2014-15, calf
production by artificial insemination has increased 1.8 times, natural insemination has doubled,
calf production by natural insemination has almost tripled and sterilization has increased 1.8
times.

Proportion of animal health services coverage through establishment of new Medical Institutions,
up gradation of old institutions, using new technology i.e. E-Vet project has increased from 42%
in 2005 to 63% in 2015. This has resulted in increase in animals that are treated from 38.53 lakhs
in 2005 to 96.88 lakhs in 2015. Similarly, vaccination of animals increases from 70.79 lakhs in
2005 to 207.08 lakhs in 2015.

The State is strengthening and expanding breed improvement and animal breeding programme.
The artificial insemination coverage has increased from 24% in 2005 to 52.37% in 2015. It was
achieved through additional veterinary institutes, private AI workers, Integrated Livestock
Development Centres in the state. Increase in artificial insemination services has resulted in
increase of AI from 4.73 lakh in 2005 to 23.87 lakh in 2015.

Animal husbandry has played an important role in the socio-economic development of Madhya
Pradesh. During the last four years, the state government has taken steps to augment both animal
wealth and production. Economic vistas have been opened for beneficiaries through introduction
of job-oriented programmes based on animal wealth. This has been possible due to the fact that
the state government has launched innovative programmes to ensure health of animals, their
augmentation, hybrid procreation and improvement in animal breeds.

For ensuring animals' heath, improvement in breeds and increase in animal production, 565
veterinary hospitals, 1742 veterinary dispensaries, 27 ambulatory clinics, 38 mobile units, 22
veterinary research labs and Bio-product Institute, Mhow are doing the work of treatment,
medicine distribution, collection of specimen and vaccination. Veterinary treatment is not
confined only to hospitals and dispensaries, but for this purpose cams are also organized on
regular basis.

The number of deliveries resulting from artificial conception during 10th five year plan and 11th
five year plan has increased to unprecedented levels and thus increased the growth of the sector.
Ambitious Nandishala Yojana was launched with a view to conserving and augmenting
categorized/non-categorized animals of bovine species. Contract Service Regulation-2007 was
framed to fill the vacant posts of assistant veterinary surgeons . During the last decade Gaupalan
Evam Pashu Samvardhan Board (Cow-rearing and Animal Augmentation Board) registered 473
Gaushalas. The Board organized regular seminars on cow-science, bio-farming and Panchgavya
where country's top scientists, researchers and experts presented latest information about
methods of conserving bovine species and their conservation, bio-farming and Panchgavya.

New strategy

The present government came with an important strategy for the next year for animal
conservation, augmentation and production. After 1955-56 it was for the first time that a
veterinary college was opened at Rewa. Under the new strategy, 13 new veterinary dispensaries

Pscnotes.com Page 83
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
are being established and 24 existing ones are being improved while 45 veterinary institutions
are being strengthened in the state during 2007-08. Bio-products Institute, Mhow would be
modernized and improved according to norms set by GMP and GLP.

Installation of Electronic FAT Testing Appliances at the milk collection cooperatives ihas been
done whose daily collection is more than 100 litres. Bulk Milk Coolers would be established in
large numbers at Tehsil level for providing milk refrigeration facility to milk producers and
collectors. Fair price would be ensured to milk producers and collectors. Purchase rate would be
increased by 10 percent in comparison to last year and Animal Feed Plant would be established
to ensure easy supply of fodder to milk producers.

The state government has implemented all these schemes keeping milk producers' interest in
mind. Top priority is being given to payments to them. Due to good milk collection during
summer, the state did not import milk from other states. This is very significant due to the fact
that milk was being imported to the state in summer season for the past many years.

Agriculture produce transport, storage and

marketing in the state

Food Processing, and Food Packaging & Marketing

 Food Processing Industry (FPI) in India is a sunrise sector that has gained prominence in
the recent years. Easy availability of raw materials, changing lifestyles and favourable
fiscal policies has given a considerable push to the industry‘s growth.
 FPI serves as a vital link between the agriculture and manufacturing sectors of the
economy.
 Strengthening this link is critical to reduce wastage of agricultural raw materials, improve
the value of agricultural produce by increasing shelf-life as well as by fortifying the
nutritive value of the food products and ensure remunerative prices to farmers as well as
affordable prices to consumers.
 India has a population of one hundred crore plus and feeding this large a population calls
for a strong FPI.
 The industry also assumes importance in the national economy due to the immense
employment generation opportunities it offers and the export revenue it earns. India is
one of the leading exporters of the processed food products.
 It has a competitive edge over other countries due to the wide variety of crops cultivated
as a result of geographical and climatic diversity.
 Government too is trying to support the industry by formulating favourable policies. With
adequate government focus on the infrastructural support, research and development and
technological innovation in this sector, India could alleviate its domestic concerns on
food security, malnutrition and food inflation.

Pscnotes.com Page 84
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Introduction

 As per Ministry of Food Processing of India (MOFPI), the term 'food processing' is
mainly defined as a process of value addition to the agricultural or horticultural produce
by various methods like grading, sorting and packaging.
 In other words, it is a technique of manufacturing and preserving food substances in an
effective manner with a view to enhance their shelf life; improve quality as well as make
them functionally more useful.
 It covers a wide spectrum of products from sub- sectors comprising agriculture,
horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries. It also includes other industries
that use agricultural inputs for manufacturing of edible products.

SEGMENTS IN THE FPI

 The food processing sector comprises of three segments based on the levels of processing

Primary processing of food

Pscnotes.com Page 85
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Primary processing of food comprises of sorting, grading and packaging of fruits and
vegetables, milk, rice, spices, etc.

Secondary Processing of Food

 Secondary processing of food comprises of re-shaping of food for ease of consumption. It

includes flour, oil cakes, tea leaf and beverages powder etc.
 Together with primary processing, the two segments constitute around 62% of the
processed foods in value terms.

Tertiary Processing of Food (or) Value Added Food Segment

 Value added food segment includes processed fruits and vegetables, juices, jam & jelly
etc and holds around 38 % share in the total processed food market.
 MOFPI indicates the following segments within the food processing industry on the basis
of the raw material used:

1. Fruits& Vegetables -Beverages, Juices, Concentrates, Pulps, Slices, Frozen &

Dehydrated products, Wine, Potato wafers/Chips etc.
2. Fisheries -Frozen & Canned products mainly in fresh form
3. Meat & Poultry -Frozen and packed food mainly in fresh form, Egg powder
4. Milk & Dairy -Whole milk powder, Skimmed milk powder, Condensed milk, Ice cream,
Butter and Ghee
5. Grain and Cereals-Flour, Bakeries, Biscuits, Starch, Glucose, Cornflakes, Malted foods,
Vermicelli, Pasta foods, Beer and Malt extracts, Grain based alcohol
6. Consumer Foods- Chocolates, Confectionery, Soft/Aerated beverages

Advantage India in Food Processing

Pscnotes.com Page 86
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
1. India is one of the largest food producers in the world.
2. India has diverse agro-climatic conditions and has a large and diverse raw material base
suitable for food processing companies.
3. India is looking for investment in infrastructure, packaging and marketing.
4. India has huge scientific and research talent pool.
5. Well developed infrastructure and distribution network.
6. Rapid urbanization, increased literacy, changing life style, increased number of women in
workforce, rising per capita income leading to rapid growth and new opportunities in
food and beverages sector.
7. 50 per cent of household expenditure by Indians is on food items.
8. Strategic geographic location (proximity of India to markets in Europe and Far East,
South East and West Asia).

Key growth drivers of Food Processing Sector in India

1. Increasing spending on health and nutritional foods.

2. Increasing number of nuclear families and working women
3. Changing lifestyle
4. Functional foods, fresh or processed foods
5. Organized retail and private label penetration
6. Changing demographics and rising disposable incomes

Key opportunities in Food Processing Sector

1. Processable varieties of crop

2. Contract farming
3. Investments in infrastructure through Public Private partnership (PPP)
4. Mega Food parks
5. Logistics and cold chain infrastructure
6. Food safety Management Systems
7. Machinery and packaging

Pscnotes.com Page 87
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Introduction to food Packaging:

 In today's society, packaging is pervasive and essential. It surrounds, enhances and

protects the goods we buy, from processing and manufacturing, through handling and
storage, to the final consumer.
 Without packaging, materials handling would be a messy, inefficient and costly exercise
and modem consumer marketing would be virtually impossible.
 The packaging sector represents about 2% of Gross National Product (GNP) in developed
countries and about half of all packaging is used to package food

Developments in Indian packaging:

1. Metal cans and glass bottles have lost large markets to rigid and flexible plastics and
printed monocartons.
2. Flexible packaging has replaced all forms of rigid packaging. The flexible packaging
segment has seen many new innovations. The concept of the single use unit pack is now
globally acknowledged as a marketing first.
3. Laminate tube has almost entirely replaced the aluminium collapsible tube for toothpaste
packaging, now making inroads into the pharmaceutical sector.
4. PET bottles & Jars have made a spectacular entry into the Indian market, recording
annual growth rates in excess of 20% per annum; in its wake, the demand for a whole
new range of plastic closures has also emerged replacing metal closures.
Pscnotes.com Page 88
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
PET bottles are used for mineral water, edible oil, carbonated soft drinks and a host of other
products.

Definition of packaging

 Packaging has been defined as a socioscientific discipline which operates in society to

ensure delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer of those goods in the best condition
intended for their use.
 The Packaging Institute International (PII) defines packaging as the enclosure of
products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or
other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment,
protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance.
 If the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a
package.
 Other definitions of packaging include a co-ordinated system of preparing goods for
transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end-use, a means of ensuring safe delivery to
the ultimate consumer in sound condition at optimum cost, and a techno-commercial
function aimed at optimizing the costs of delivery while maximizing sales.

Levels of Packaging:

 A primary package is the one which is in direct contact with the contained product. It
provides the initial, and usually the major protective barrier. Example: Metal cans,
paperboard cartons, glass bottles and plastic pouches, aerosal spray can, Beverage can,
cushioning envelopes, plastic bottles, skin pack.
 A secondary package contains a number of primary packages. It is outside the primary
packaging perhaps used to group primary packages together. It is the physical distribution
carrier and is sometimes designed so that it can be used in retail outlets for the display of
primary packages. Ex. Corrugated case, Boxes
 A tertiary package is made up of a number of secondary packages. It is used for bulk
handling. Example being a stretch-wrapped pallet of corrugated cases.
 A quaternary package is frequently used to facilitate the handling of tertiary packages.
This is generally a metal container up to 40 m in length which can be transferred to or
from ships, trains, and flatbed trucks by giant cranes. Certain containers are also able to
have their temperature, humidity and gas atmosphere controlled. This is necessary in
particular situations such as the transportation of frozen foods, chilled meats and fresh
fruits and vegetables.

Shelf life of processed foods

 Shelf life is the length of time that foods, beverages, and many other perishable items are
given before they are considered unsuitable for sale, use, or consumption.
 It is the time between the production and packaging of a product and the point at which
the product first becomes unacceptable under defined environmental conditions.
 It is a function of the product, package and the environment through which the product is
transported, stored and sold.

Pscnotes.com Page 89
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Factors influencing shelf life: These include product, package and the environment.
 Product: Products differ greatly in their susceptibility to various agents.
 These agents cause different charges which affect the shelf life. Examples include:

1. Aroma loss as in freshly ground pepper or roasted coffee which results in loss of
palatability
2. Pick up of a foreign odour. Ex. Absorption of onion odour by butter when these two
items are placed together.
3. Loss of carbonation as in the case of soft drinks or beer
4. Ex. Honey when kept in cold for a long time.
5. Moisture gain as in dry or dehydrated foods such as ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, snack
foods which destroys their crisp texture
6. Rancidity of snack items such as potato chips due to the oxidation of the oils absorbed
during frying
7. Browning reactions as in case of freshly cut fruits

Indian food industry- Facts and Statistics

Introduction

The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth, increasing its contribution to world food
trade every year. In India, the food sector has emerged as a high-growth and high-profit sector
due to its immense potential for value addition, particularly within the food processing industry.

 Accounting for about 32 per cent of the country‘s total food market, The Government of
India has been instrumental in the growth and development of the food processing
industry.
 The government through the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI) is making
all efforts to encourage investments in the business.
 It has approved proposals for joint ventures (JV), foreign collaborations, industrial
licenses, and 100 per cent export oriented units.

Market Size

 The Indian food and grocery market is the world‘s sixth largest, with retail contributing
70 per cent of the sales.
 The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of the country‘s total food
market, one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production,
consumption, export and expected growth.
 It contributes around 8.80 and 8.39 per cent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in
Manufacturing and Agriculture respectively, 13 per cent of India‘s exports and six per
cent of total industrial investment.
 The Indian gourmet food market is currently valued at US$ 1.3 billion and is growing at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 20 per cent. India's organic food market is
expected to increase by three times by 2020#.

Pscnotes.com Page 90
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The online food ordering business in India is in its nascent stage, but witnessing
exponential growth.
 With online food delivery players like FoodPanda, Zomato, TinyOwl and Swiggy
building scale through partnerships, the organised food business has a huge potential and
a promising future.
 The online food delivery industry grew at 150 per cent year-on-year with an estimated
Gross Merchandise Value (GMV) of US$ 300 million in 2016.

Investments

 According to the data provided by the Department of Industrial Policies and Promotion
(DIPP), the food processing sector in India has received around US$ 7.54 billion worth of
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) during the period April 2000-March 2017.
 The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) estimates that the food processing sectors
have the potential to attract as much as US$ 33 billion of investment over the next 10
years and also to generate employment of nine million person-days.

Some of the major investments in this sector in the recent past are:

 Global e-commerce giant, Amazon is planning to enter the Indian food retailing sector
by investing US$ 515 million in the next five years, as per Mr Harsimrat Kaur Badal,
Minister of Food Processing Industries, Government of India.
 Parle Agro Pvt Ltd is launching Frooti Fizz, a succession of the original Mango Frooti,
which will be retailed across 1.2 million outlets in the country as it targets increasing its
annual revenue from Rs 2800 crore (US$ 0.42 billion) to Rs 5000 crore (US$ 0.75
billion) by 2018.
 US-based food company Cargill Inc, aims to double its branded consumer business in
India by 2020, by doubling its retail reach to about 800,000 outlets and increase market
share to become national leader in the sunflower oil category which will help the
company be among the top three leading brands in India.
 Mad Over Donuts (MoD), outlined plans of expanding its operations in India by
opening nine new MOD stores by March 2017.
 Danone SA plans to focus on nutrition business in India, its fastest growing market in
South Asia, by launching 10 new products in 2017, and aiming to double its revenue in
India by 2020.
 Uber Technologies Inc plans to launch UberEATS, its food delivery service to India,
with investments made across multiple cities and regions.

Salient Features of Mega Food Parks

 The Mega Food Parks Scheme aims to provide a mechanism to bring together farmers,
processors and retailers and link agriculture production to the market so as to ensure
maximization of value addition, minimization of wastages and improving farmers‘
income.

Pscnotes.com Page 91
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The primary objective of the Scheme is to provide modern infrastructure facilities for the
food processing along the value chain from the farm to the market with a cluster based
approach based on a hub and spokes model.
 It includes creation of infrastructure for primary processing and storage near the farm in
the form of Primary Processing Centres (PPCs) and Collection Centres (CCs) and
common facilities and enabling infrastructure like roads, electricity, water, ETP facilities
etc. at Central Processing Centre (CPC).
 These PPCs and CCs act as aggregation and storage points to feed raw material to the
food processing units located in the CPC.
 Food Processing being capital incentive activity, common facilities are created at CPC to
be used by the processing units on hire basis.
 This helps in reducing the cost of individual units significantly and makes them more
viable. The minimum land required for a Central Processing Centre in Mega Food Park is
50 acre and implementation period is 30 months.
 The scheme is demand-driven and would facilitate food processing units to meet
environmental, safety and social standards.
 A cluster of 30-35 units is expected to come up in one Mega Food Park with an
investment of about Rs. 250 Crore. It is likely to benefit about 6000 farmers/ producers
directly and 25000-30000 farmers indirectly.
 The financial assistance under the scheme is provided in the form of grant-in-aid @ 50%
of eligible project cost in general areas and @ 75% of eligible project cost in NE Region
and difficult areas (Hilly States and ITDP areas) subject to maximum of Rs. 50 crore per
project.
 Functioning of Mega Food Parks is closely monitored by the Ministry through a well-
established mechanism as per the scheme guidelines.
 This includes detailed scrutiny of the periodical progress reports of the project by the
Programme Management Agency (PMA) and the Ministry, verification of the bills by the
Project Management Consultant (PMC) before release of the funds from the bank account
maintained for the purpose, site visits of the projects by the PMA and Ministry officers,
periodic review meetings of the progress of the projects at the level of the senior officers
and Minister in the Ministry etc.Ministry monitors each project very closely and
regularly.

Pscnotes.com Page 92
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Pscnotes.com Page 93
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Soil: Physical, chemical and biological properties

Soil consists of rock and sediment that has been modified by physical and chemical interaction
with organic material and rainwater, over time, to produce a substrate that can support the
growth of plants.‖ Soils are an important natural resource. They represent the interface between
the lithosphere and the biosphere - as soils provide nutrients for plants. Soils consist of
weathered rock plus organic material that comes from decaying plants and animals. The same
factors that control weathering control soil formation with the exception, that soils also requires
the input of organic material as some form of Carbon.

Pscnotes.com Page 94
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Soils have many different properties, including texture, structure or architecture, water holding
capacity and pH (whether the soils are acid or alkaline). These properties combine to make soils
useful for a wide range of purposes. Soil properties govern what type of plants grow in a soil or
what particular crops grow in a region.

Physical Properties

Soil Texture

Soil Texture indicates the relative content of particles of various sizes, such as sand, silt and clay
in the soil. Texture influences the ease with which soil can be worked, the amount of water and
air it holds, and the rate at which water can enter and move through soil.

Soil texture influences many soil physical properties, such as water-holding capacity and
drainage. Coarse-textured sandy soils generally have high infiltration rates but poor water
holding capacity. Silt particles are much smaller than sand, have a greater surface area, and are
generally quite fertile. Silts do not hold as much moisture as clay soils, however more of the
moisture is plant available. Fine-textured clay soil generally has a lower infiltration rate but a
good water holding capacity.

Pscnotes.com Page 95
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Soil permeability

Soil permeability is a broad term used to define the ability of the soil for transmitting water. It is
important to understand the water dynamics and the water balance of the soil and it must be
known for accurate management of irrigation . It is determined partly by texture, with sandy soils
having high permeability as compared to clay soils and it can be altered by soil management .

Soil structure

Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil separates into units called soil aggregates. An
aggregate possesses solids and pore space. Aggregates are separated by planes of weakness and
are dominated by clay particles. Silt and fine sand particles may also be part of an aggregate

There are 5 basic types of structural units:

1. Platy: Plate-like aggregates that form parallel to the horizons like pages in a book.
o This type of structure may reduce air, water and root movement.
o common structure in an E horizon and usually not seen in other horizons.
2. Blocky: Two types--angular blocky and subangular blocky
o These types of structures are commonly seen in the B horizon.

Pscnotes.com Page 96
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
o Angular is cube-like with sharp corners while subangular blocky has rounded corners.
3. Prismatic: Vertical axis is longer than the horizontal axis. If the top is flat, it is referred to as
prismatic.

If the top is rounded, it is called columnar.

4. Granular: Peds are round and pourous, spheroidal. This is usually the structure of A horizons.
5. Structureless: No observable aggregation or structural units.
o Single grain-sand
o Massive-solid mass without aggregates

Chemical Properties

Nutrient availability and cation exchange capacity

In the soil, a large portion of plant nutrients are bound up in complex compounds that are
unavailable to plants. The smaller portion is in simpler, more soluble forms, which are useable
by plants. The complex compounds are gradually changed into the simpler compounds by
chemical weathering and biological processes. Thus, the chemical fertility of a soil depends in
part on how easily the plants can access the nutrients in a form they require. This is referred to as
the availability of a nutrient. The availability of nutrients within the soil is also dependent on a
range of factors such as soil pH, soil solution, soil type and the plant age, type and root system of
the plant.

The pH value of the soil layers which will later make up the dikes and the bottom of your ponds
will greatly influence their productivity. In acid water, for example, the growth of microscopic
organisms which serve as food for the fish may be greatly reduced. In extreme conditions of
acidity or alkalinity, the health of your fish may even be endangered, and their growth and
reproduction affected.

For good productive conditions, the pH value of pond soil should be neither too acid nor too
alkaline. Preferably, it should be in the range of pH 6.5 to 8.5. Soils with a pH value lower than
5.5 are too acid and soils with a pH value greater than 9.5 are too alkaline. They will both require
special management techniques which will considerably increase the costs of fish production. If
the soil pH is either lower than 4 or higher than 11, it should be considered unsuitable for the
construction of pond dikes or for use as pond bottom.

Biological Properties

Soils host a complex web of organisms which can influence soil evolution and specific soil
physical and chemical properties. For instance earth- worms activity increases infiltration rate, or
microbial activity decreases soil organic matter due to mineralization. Soil biology plays a vital
role in determining many soil characteristics, yet, being a relatively new science, much remains
unknown about soil biology and about how the nature of soil is affected. Soil organisms break
down organic matter and while doing so make nutrients available for uptake by plants. The
nutrients stored in the bodies of soil organisms prevent nutrient loss by leaching. Microbes also
maintain soil structure while earthworms are important in bio-turbation in the soil.

Pscnotes.com Page 97
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Organic matter in the soil improves soil structure and increasing the nutrient and water holding
capacity of the soil. Organic matter also provides a food supply for soil biology. Soils with low
organic matter can have ‗poor‘ structure, hold little water, and erode or leach nutrients easily.
The exception is cracking clay soils where clay minerals have the main effect on structure. Soils
with high organic matter levels have ‗good‘ structure, good water-holding capacity, and reduced
erosion and nutrient leaching.

Soil process and factors of soil formation

Soils develop as a result of the interplay of 5 factors; Parent material, climate, organisms, relief
and time.
Soil formation or soil genesis refers to changes of soil properties with time in one direction: the
content of one component or mineral in a certain horizon decreases or increases‚ sedimentary
layering disappears‚ etc. Mostly‚ such changes are slow and can be seen only after decades to
millennia. So‚ most soil properties that change during soil formation are relatively stable.
Sometimes‚ however‚ effects of soil formation can be seen within weeks or months.

Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation as regulated by the effects of place, environment,
and history. Biogeochemical processes act to both create and destroy order (anisotropy) within
soils. These alterations lead to the development of layers, termed soil horizons, distinguished by
differences in color, structure, texture, and chemistry. These features occur in patterns of soil
type distribution, forming in response to differences in soil forming factors.

Pscnotes.com Page 98
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
The nature of the parent material strongly influences soil properties such as texture, pH, fertility,
and mineralogy. For example, coarse-grained, quartz-rich parent material such as glacial outwash
generates soils that are often gravely and with a coarse (sandy) texture.

Soil parent material may be broadly grouped into the following classes:

1. Residual or sedentary – developed in place (in situ) from the underlying rock. Typically it
experienced long and intense weathering. Residual parent materials can be found
overlying any rock type – provided that the landscape has been stable for a sufficient
period of time for weathering to occur. This situation and type of parent material are
uncommon in Canada.
2. Transported – loose sediments or surficial materials (i.e., weathering products of rocks
that are not cemented or consolidated) that have been transported and deposited by
gravity, water, ice, or wind. These materials are classified on the basis of the agents
responsible for their movement and deposition (see table below).
3. Cumulose – organic deposits that have developed in place from plant residues and have
been preserved by a high water table (or some other factor retarding decomposition).
These deposits are widespread and not restricted to any climatic zone. Examples include
peat (undecomposed or slightly decomposed organic matter) and muck (highly
decomposed organic material).

Climate involves both local (microclimatic) and global (macroclimatic) considerations. The key
components of climate in soil formation are moisture and temperature.

Soil moisture depends on several factors:

 The form and intensity of precipitation (water, snow, sleet)

 Its seasonal variability
 The transpiration and evaporation rate
 Slope
 Aspect
 Depth of soil profile
 Soil texture / permeability of the parent material

Temperature affects the rate of mineral weathering and synthesis, and the biological processes of
growth and decomposition. Weathering is intensified by high temperatures, hence weathering is
stronger in the tropics than in humid regions. Temperature also influences the degree of thawing
and freezing (physical weathering) in cold regions. Biological processes are intensified by rising
temperatures.

Plants, animals and micro-organisms (fungi and bacteria) all affect soil formation by producing
or contributing to humus production. The amount of humus in a soil is a result of how much
plant material has been incorporated into it. If vegetation is sparse a soil will be low in humus
and less fertile.

Pscnotes.com Page 99
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its study is called geomorphology). Relief influences
soil formation in several ways:
• It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of slope increases so does the erosion hazard
• it has an effect on climate which is also a soil forming factor
• gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass movement
• it influences aspect which creates microclimatic conditions

Mineral and organic constituents of soil and their

role in maintaining soil productivity. Essential plant
nutrients and other beneficial elements in soils and
plants
Soil fertility refers to the ability of a soil to sustain agricultural plant growth, i.e. to provide plant
habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality. A fertile soil has the
following properties:-

 It is rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nourishment. This includes nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.
 It consists of adequate minerals such as boron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese,
magnesium, molybdenum, sulphur and zinc. These minerals promote plant nutrition.
 It contains soil organic matter that improves the structure of the soil. This enables the soil
to retain more moisture.
 The soil pH is in the range 6.0 to 6.8.
 It has a good soil structure which results in well-drained soil.
 It consists of a variety of micro-organisms that support plant growth.
 It often contains large amounts of topsoil

There are 16 nutrient elements required to grow crops (Table 1). Three essential nutrients—
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O )—are taken up from atmospheric carbon dioxide and
water. The other 13 nutrients are taken up from the soil and are usually grouped as primary
nutrients, secondary nutrients, and micronutrients.

The primary nutrients—nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)—are commonly found
in blended fertilizers such as 10-10-10, or equivalent grades. Primary nutrients are utilized in the
largest amounts by crops, and therefore, are applied at higher rates than secondary nutrients and
micronutrients.

The secondary nutrients—calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S)—are required in
smaller amounts than the primary nutrients. The major source for supplementing the soil with
calcium and magnesium is dolomitic lime (aglime), although these nutrients are also available
from a variety of fertilizer sources. Sulfur is available in fertilizers such as potassium and
magnesium sulfate, gypsum (calcium sulfate), and elemental sulfur.

Pscnotes.com Page 100

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Micronutrients—iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), and
molybdenum (Mo)—are required in even smaller amounts than secondary nutrients. They are
available in manganese, zinc and copper sulfates, oxides, oxy-sulfates and chelates, as well as in
boric acid and ammonium molybdate.

Problem soils and their reclamation and Soil

conservation planning on watershed basis
Soil erosion is a naturally and continuous process that affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil
erosion refers to the wearing away of a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and
wind or through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage.

Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, involves three distinct actions – soil detachment,
movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, fertility and soil life, is
relocated elsewhere "on-site" where it builds up over time or is carried "off-site" where it fills in
drainage channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity and contributes to the pollution of
adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.

Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming
rate, causing serious loss of topsoil(Such as due to anthropogenic causes) . Soil compaction, low
organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinisation and soil acidity
problems are other serious soil degradation conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion
process.

Weathering is the general term applied to the combined action of all processes that cause rock to
disintegrate physically and decompose chemically because of ex- posure near the Earth‘s surface
through the elements of weather. Among these elements temperature, rainfall, frost, fog and ice
are the important ones. Weathering begins as soon as rocks come in contact with one or more
than one elements of weather on the surface of the earth. In nature, generally both the
disintegration and decomposition act together at the sametime and assist each other. We must
remember that the weathered material (i.e. disintegrated and decomposed) lie in situ (i.e. at its
original position). In this process no transportation or movement of material is involved other
than its falling down under the force of gravity.

Weathering is the response of rocks to a changing environment. For example, plutonic rocks
form under conditions at high pressures and temperatures. At the Earth's surface they are not as
stable as the conditions under which they formed. In response to the environmental change, they
gradually weather (transform to more stable minerals).

Different types of Weathering are:-

1. Physical Weathering :-The mechanical breakup or disintegration of rock doesn't change

mineral makeup. It creates broken fragments or ―detritus.‖ which are classified by size:

 Coarse-grained – Boulders, Cobbles, and Pebbles.

Pscnotes.com Page 101

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Medium-grained – Sand
 Fine-grained – Silt and clay (mud).

Various process of Physical weathering are:-

 Development of Joints - Joints are regularly spaced fractures or cracks in rocks that show
no offset across the fracture (fractures that show an offset are called faults).
 Crystal Growth - As water percolates through fractures and pore spaces it may contain
ions that precipitate to form crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert an outward
force that can expand or weaken rocks.
 Thermal Expansion - Although daily heating and cooling of rocks do not seem to have an
effect, sudden exposure to high temperature, such as in a forest or grass fire may cause
expansion and eventual breakage of rock. Campfire example.
 Root Wedging - Plant roots can extend into fractures and grow, causing expansion of the
fracture. Growth of plants can break rock - look at the sidewalks of New Orleans for
example.
 Animal Activity - Animals burrowing or moving through cracks can break rock.

 Frost Wedging - Upon freezing, there is an increase in the volume of the water (that's
why we use antifreeze in auto engines or why the pipes break in New Orleans during the
rare freeze). As the water freezes it expands and
exerts a force on its surroundings. Frost wedging is more prevalent at high altitudes
where there may be many freeze-thaw cycles.

2. Chemcial weathering :-involves a chemical transformation of rock into one or more new
compounds. A group of weathering processes viz; solution , carnonation, hydration ,
oxidation and reduction acts on the roks to decompose, dissolve orreduce them to a fine
clastic state through chemical reactions by oxygen ,surface /soil water and other acids.
Water and air along with heat must be present to speed up all chemical reactions. Over
and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of plants and animals
increases the quanitity of carbon dioxide underground . Chamical weathering involves
four major processes:

 Oxidation is the process in which atmospheric oxygen reacts with the rock to produce
oxides. The process is called oxidation. Greatest impact of this process is observed on
ferrous minerals. Oxygen present in humid air reacts with iron grains in the rocks to form
a yellow or red oxide of iron. This is called rusting of the iron. Rust decomposes rocks
completely with passage of time.
 Carbonation is the process by which various types of carbonates are formed. Some of
these carbonates are soluble in water. For example, when rain water con- taining carbon

Pscnotes.com Page 102

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
dioxide passes through pervious limestone rocks, the rock joints enlarge due to the action
of carbonic acid. The joints enlarge in size and lime is removed in solution. This type of
breakdown of rocks is called carbonation.
 Hydration is the process by which water is absorbed by the minerals of the rock. Due to
the absorption of water by the rock, its volume increases and the grains lose their shape.
Feldspar, for example, is changed into kaolin through hydration. Kaolin on Vindhyan
Hills near Jabalpur has been formed in this manner.
 Solution is the process in which some of the minerals get dissolved in water. They are
therefore removed in solution. Rock salt and gypsum are removed by this process.

3. Biotic weathering :- is a type of weathering that is caused by living organisms. Most

often the culprit ofbiotic weathering are plant roots. These roots can extend downward,
deep into rock cracks in search of water, and nutrients. In the process they act as a wedge,
widening and extending the cracks.

Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is defined as the down slope movement of rock and regolith near the Earth's
surface mainly due to the force of gravity. Mass movements are an important part of the
erosional process, as it moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where
transporting agents like streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even
lower elevations. Mass movement processes are occurring continuously on all slopes; some act
very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down
slope movement of rock or regolith is often referred to in general terms as a landslide.
Landslides, however, can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms
responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs. Mass wasting can
be classified as:-

 Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris down hill by
sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping.
 Sediment Flows - debris flows down hill mixed with water or air.

Erosion and Deposition

Soil erosion is the deterioration of soil by the physical movement of soil particles from a given
site. Wind, water, ice, animals, and the use of tools by man are usually the main causes of soil
erosion. It is a natural process which usually does not cause any major problems. It becomes a
problem when human activity causes it to occur much faster than under normal conditions.The

Pscnotes.com Page 103

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
removal of soil at a greater rate than its replacement by natural agencies (water, wind etc.) is
known as soil erosion.
Soil erosion is of four types which are as follows:-

 Wind Erosion :-Winds carry away vast quantity of fine soil particles and sand from
deserts and spread it over adjoining cultivated land and thus destroy their fertility. This
type of erosion is known as wind erosion. It takes place in and around all desert regions
of the world. In India, over one lakh kilometers of land is under Thar Desert, spread over
parts of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan states. These areas are subject to intense
wind erosion.
 Sheet Erosion :-Water when moves as a sheet takes away thin layers of soil. This type of
erosion is called sheet erosion. Such type of erosion is most common along the river beds
and areas affected by floods. In the long run, the soil is com- pletely exhausted due to
removal of top soil and becomes infertile.
 Rill Erosion :-The removal of surface material usually soil, by the action of running
water. The processes create numerous tiny channels (rills) a few centimeters in depth,
most of which carry water only during storms.
 Gully Erosion :-When water moves as a channel down the slope, it scoops out the soil
and forms gullies which gradually multiply and in the long run spread over a wide area.
This type of erosion is called gully erosion. The land thus dissected is called bad lands or
ravines. In our country, the two rivers Chambal and Yamuna are famous for their ravines
in U.P. and M.P. states.

Deposition / Sedimentation – occurs when sediment settles out as winds/water current die
down, or as glaciers melt. When sediment is transported and deposited, it leaves clues to the
mode of transport and deposition. For example, if the mode of transport is by sliding down a
slope, the deposits that result are generally chaotic in nature, and show a wide variety of particle
sizes. Grain size and the interrelationship between grains gives the resulting sediment texture.
Thus, we can use the texture of the resulting deposits to give us clues to the mode of transport
and deposition. Sorting - The degree of uniformity of grain size. Particles become sorted on the
basis of density, because of the energy of the transporting medium. High energy currents can
carry larger fragments. As the energy decreases, heavier particles are deposited and lighter
fragments continue to be transported. This results in sorting due to density.

Watershed management

The term watershed refers to a ―contiguous area draining into a single water body or a water
course‖ or ―it is a topographical area having a common drainage‖. This means that the rainwater
falling on an area coming within a ridgeline can be harvested and will flow out of this area
thorough single point. Some refer it as a catchment area or river basin.

Watershed management is an efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater

resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through
various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, in broad sense watershed
management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural (like
land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.

Pscnotes.com Page 104

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Integrated Watershed Management Programme is to restore the ecological balance by
harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover
and water. The outcomes are prevention of soil run-off, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain
water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table. This enables multi-cropping and the
introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the
people residing in the watershed area.

The main benefits of watershed management are:-

1. Supply of water for drinking and irrigation.

2. Increase in bio-diversity.
3. Loss of acidity in the soil and free for standing water.
4. Increase in the agricultural production and productivity.
5. Decrease in the cutting of forests.
6. Increase in the standard of living.
7. Increase in employment.
8. Increase in personal get together by participation of local people.

Various Programs launched for Soil Conservation are:-

A. State Plan Schemes

(1) Soil & Water Conservation in General Areas.

(2) Watershed Management Programme.

B. Centrally Sponsored Schemes

(1) Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP).

(2) Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP).

C. Additional Central Assistance

(1) Watershed Development project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA)

(2) Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)

D. NABARD Loan

Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF)

E. Other Government of India Schemes

(1) Soil Conservation for enhancing the productivity of degraded lands in the catchment of River
Kopili in Jaintia Hills District under Macro-Management Mode of Agriculture Department,
Meghalaya.
(2) Rastriya Krishi Vigyan Yojna (RKVY)

Pscnotes.com Page 105

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

F. Special Plan Assistance

(1) Cherrapunjee Ecological Project- Restoration of Degraded Lands Under Sohra Plateau.

A. State Plan Schemes

1. Soil & Water Conservation in General Areas

This scheme covers the general areas outside those not specifically covered by other packages of
schemes of the Department. Its main objective is to reduce soil erosion hazards and land
degradation and conservation of water, where individuals/groups of farmers are targeted.
Activities taken up under this Scheme include terracing and reclamation, erosion control, water
conservation and distribution, afforestation, cash/horticulture crops development works water
harvesting works, farm ponds, conservation works in urban areas, etc.

2. Watershed Management Programme

The programme aims for treating the micro watersheds on an integrated approach. The activities
include treatment of arable land, non-arable land and drainage lines. Due to fund constraint, the
activities have been confined mainly to afforestation, cash/ horticultural crop developmental
works.

B. Centrally Sponsored Schemes

1. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)

The scheme is funded by the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India with 91.66% as Central Share and 8.34% as State Share. With an intention
of involving village communities in the implementation of Watershed Development Projects
(WDP).

2. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

The Central and State share for the IWMP projects is in the ratio of 90:10.

The main objectives of this programme are as follows:

 To dissipate soil and water erosion and surface run-off

 To harvest/ recycle surface runoff and rainwater
 To enhance soil moisture regime/ water holding capacity
 To promote sub-surface flow, base flow and ground water recharge
 To improve soil health and tilth
 To improve production and productivity
 To promote generation and gainful employment opportunities

Pscnotes.com Page 106

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Problems of soil erosion and Soil degradation in

Madhya Pradesh
Soils of Madhya Pradesh:-

Soils of Madhya Pradesh vary as per the structure, colour, texture and composition in the
different regions. Madhya Pradesh is that part of the peninsular plateau of India where residual
soils are found in an extensive area. The rock formation determines the soil structure and
composition in this state. As a result of this organic materials are found at a large scale in soils.
In this state the problem of soil erosion is almost negligible but due to excessive use of the land,
the problem of soil erosion is accelerating. Madhya Pradesh comprises of a variety of soils
ranging from rich clayey to gravelly. According to the survey done in the state, the major groups
of soils found in the state can be divided into five major categories namely:-

 Alluvial Soil
 Black Soil or Regur Soil (medium and deep black, shallow and medium black, mixed red
and black coloured)
 Clayey Soil
 Mixed Soil
 Red and Yellow Soil

Alluvial Soil:-

This soil mostly found in the North -Western Districts of Madhya Pradesh. Especially in the
plains of Bundelkhand and Chambal region or deposition of soils brought by the rivers. It is the
most fertile soils. In Madhya Pradesh this soils is found in Gwalior, Shivpuri and Bhind and
Morena, brought by the river Chambal and its auxiliary rivers. Such soils are poor in Nitrogen
and Phosphorous hence need proper use of fertilizers. Water retention capacity of such soils is
also very poor. Due to lack of Nitrogen, biotic components and phosphorus, the vegetal cover
over the part of land is very thin.

Black Soil or Regur Soil:-

Soils of Madhya Pradesh Medium and deep black coloured soil is extensively found in the
Valley of Narmada River, Malwa Plateau, and Satpura mountain range, which contains about 20

Pscnotes.com Page 107

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
to 60 percent clay and has a depth of near about 1 to 2 metres. It is also knows as Regur (Humus)
soil. Black soil are composed of Basaltic rocks mainly found in the Deccan Trap (Malwa
Plateau). It is distributed is nearly 47.6 percent of the land of Madhya Pradesh. Such soils mainly
consists of Iron and lime rocks. The presence of Iron gives it the Black colour and the presence
of lime increases its moisture retention capacity therefore needs less irrigation. Cotton and soya
bean are most suitable crops to be grown in such soil. The quantity of Calcium, Magnesium,
Aluminum, Iron, Potassium and Magnesium Carbonate is more in black soil but it laks in
Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Carbonic elements. Soil ero sion is lesser in Black soil, Black soil are
reclassified in following sub type :

Area of Black Soil- Bhopal, Betul, Barwani, Chhindwara, Damoh, Dhar, Dewas, Vidisha,
Shajapur, Jabalpur, Khandwa, Raigarh, Mandsaur, Narsingpur, Raisen, Sidhi, Shivpuri, Seoni,
Sehore, Sagar, Guna, Indore, Ujjain, Ratlam, Jhabua.

1. Normal Black Soil :

This soil founded in northern Malwa plateau and Nimar regions of Madhya Pradesh. It is the
moist extensively found black soil and its fertility level is medium.

2. Layered Black Soil:

It is a clay type smooth black soils found in Chhindwara, Seoni, Betul area. The fertility level of
such soil is also medium.

3. Dark Black Soil:

Found in Narmada Valley, Satpura ranges and Southern Malwa Plateau fertility status of these
soils is very low.

This soil is highly fertile for the production of wheat, oilseeds, and jowar crops. Shallow and
medium black coloured soils constitute the maximum part of the black soil. It is comparatively
less fertile than the medium deep black soil. The whole northern part of the Malwa plateauand
Nimad region comprises this soil. It is 15 cm to one metre depth and the colour of soil is grey or
light black. Mixed red and black soil spreads about 75 lakh hectares land comprising the Satpura
region. Most of the part of the region has very shallow soil. Three districts namely Chhindwara
district, Betul district, and Seoni district comprise this type of soil.

Clayey soil:-

Clayey soil is mostly found in the flood plain, and it is mainly transported and deposited by the
rivers during flood. This soil is favourable for the production of wheat, sugarcane, and cotton.
The areas which consist of this type of soil include Bhind, Morena, and Gwalior. Clayey soil is
mainly deposited by the river Chambal and its tributaries.

Mixed Soil:-

Pscnotes.com Page 108

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Vindhya region and the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh have a deposition of mixed
soil composed by red, yellow and black soils. The entire Baghelkhand region including Balaghat
district, Mandla district, Dindori district and Shahdol district of the state have a deposition of red
and yellow soils. A mixture of red, yellow and black soils is found in many parts of the state.
This type of soils has very less amount of nitrogen, phosphorous and carbonic elements. So the
soils is not fertile. As the soils is not fertile wheat and other crops cannot be grown, so crops,
which need lesser quantum of nitrogen, phosphorous and carbonic elements, are grown as such
soils such as corn, Bajra etc.

Areas of mixed soils: Sheopur, Morena, Bhind, Gwalior, Shivpuri.

Red and Yellow Soil:-

It is mostly found in Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand regions of the state. Its yellow colour is due
to the presence of ferric oxide and iis red colour is due to the presence of compounds produced
after the oxidation of Iron. Its fertility level's low because it is poor in Nitrogen and Humus. Rice
is mostly grown in such soils. This soils covers almost 36.5 percent of the state. Rice is grown is
most part of the state on these soils. The pH level of these soils is between 5.5 to 8.5.

Areas of red-yellow soils - Mandla, Balaghat, Shahdol, Sidhi, Katni, Umaria.

Other soils:-

Laterite Soils:-

This type of soils is found in the North Western part of the state like Shivpuri, Gwalior, Bhind
and Morena. The amount of Nitrogen, Organic matter and Phosphorous is less. So vegetation is
less in such soils.This soil is suitable for crops like Wheat, Sugarcane, Cotton etc.The proportion
of sand, slit and clay.

Loamy Soils:-

Such soils are light is texture and mostly found in the plains and river belts. Fertility level is
medium and contains sand and clay is almost equal proportion.

Soil Erosion:--

Soils erosion is the phenomenon of continuous deterioration in the soil due to the shifting of soil
through various environmental forces, one of the main factors of soil erosion is Deforestation.
Roots of the plants and trees hold the soils in its place and they also sustain the adverse effects of
atmospheric forces and therefore prevent soils erosion. But due to extensive deforestation soil
erosion is becoming a grave danger to the human civilization, especially in the areas where soils
are of light and medium texture. The scene is no different in Madhya Pradesh, which is facing
rapid soils erosion in its northern part along the Chambal and its tributaries. Large scale gully
erosion can be seen in the belt around the districts of Gwalior, Morena and Bhind. Since the soils
of this area are light and lack vegetation thus water takes away soils with its flow and results is

Pscnotes.com Page 109

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
erosion. Soils erosion not only disturbs to pographic and ecological balance but large part of
fertile sub surface land also goes waste through Run off.Thus it is social, environment and
economical problem of the present era. The only way to center this menace is to create a healthy
nature friendly ecological environment around us.

Food processing and related industries in India-

scope and significance, location, upstream and
downstream requirements, supply chain
management
Agro Food Processing: Forming village clusters and establishing Food Storage,

 Food Processing Industry is of enormous significance for India‘s development because of

the vital linkages and synergies that it promotes between the two pillars of the economy,
namely Industry and Agriculture. India is world‘s second largest producer of food and
has the potential to become number one in due course of time with sustained efforts.
 The growth potential of this sector is enormous and it is expected that the food
production will double in the next 10 years and the consumption of value added food
products will grow at a fast pace.
 This growth of the Food Processing Industry will bring immense benefits to the economy,
raising agricultural yields, meeting productivity, creating employment and raising the
standard of very large number of people throughout the country, specially, in the rural
areas.
 Economic liberalization and rising consumer prosperity is opening up new opportunities
for diversification in Food Processing Sector.
 Liberalization of world trade will open up new vistas for growth.
 The Food Processing Industry has been identified as a thrust area for development. This
industry is included in the priority lending sector.
 Most of the Food processing Industries have been exempted from the provisions of
industrial licensing under Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951 with the
exception of beer and alcoholic drinks and items reserved for Small Scale Sector, like
vinegar, bread, bakery.
 As far as foreign investment is concerned automatic approval for even 100% equity is
available for majority of the processed food items.

FOOD PROCESSING POTENTIAL IN INDIA

 2nd largest arable land in the world -India has the tenth-largest arable land resources in
the world with 161 million tonnes. With 20 agri-climatic regions, all 15 major climates in
the world exist in India. The country also possesses 46 of the 60 soil types in the world

Pscnotes.com Page 110

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Largest producer of milk -India is the largest producer of milk and second – largest
producer of fruits and vegetables
 Largest livestock population-India has the largest livestock population of around 512
million, globally. This comprises 119 million milch (in-milk and dry) animals, 80.06
million goats and 44.56 million sheep, as of FY15. The segment contributes about 25 per
cent to the country‘s farm GDP
 Rising consumption expenditure-Consumer spending in 2015 was USD1 trillion; it is
likely to reach USD3.6 trillion by 2020 Source: World Travel and Tourism Council,
Directorate of Statistics, TechSci Research Note: GDP - Gross Domestic Product FOOD
PROCESSING
 Favourable location for exports -Strategic geographic location and proximity to food
importing nations favour India in terms of exporting processed foods

FOOD PROCESSING- ADVANTAGE IN INDIA

Strong demand growth

 Demand for processed food rising with growing disposable income, urbanisation, young
population and nuclear families
 Household consumption set to double by 2020
 Changing lifestyle and increasing expenditure on health and nutritional foods

Food processing hub

 India benefits from a large agriculture sector, abundant livestock, and cost
competitiveness
 Investment opportunities to arise in agriculture, food infrastructure, and contract farming
 Diverse agro-climatic conditions encourage cultivation of different crops

Increasing investments

 Government expects USD21.9 billion of investments in food processing infrastructure by

2015
 Investments, including FDI, would rise with strengthening demand and supply
fundamentals
Pscnotes.com Page 111
 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Launch of infrastructure development schemes to increase investments in food processing
infrastructure

Policy support

 Sops to private sector participation; 100 per cent FDI under automatic route. Investment
in April 2000- March 2016 stood at USD6.82 billion
 Promoting rationalisation of tariff and duties relating to food processing sector
 Setting up of National Mission on Food Processing
 Foreign Trade Policy 2015-2020

THE FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR COMPRISES SIX MAJOR SEGMENTS

1. Fruits and vegetables –

 India is the world‘s 2nd largest producer of fruits and vegetables. The government expects
the processing in this sector to grow by 25 per cent of the total produce by 2025.
 In 2015-2016, the total production in horticulture sector (fruits and vegetables) is
estimated at 282.5 million tonnes.

2. Milk

 India is the largest producer of milk in the world, with the production estimated at 146.3
million tonnes in FY15 India is the largest producer of buffalo meat (1.4 MT in 2015)
and the second largest producer of goat meat (0.91 MT in 2015).

3. Meat and poultry

 India is also the second largest egg producer (78.4 billion) and third largest producer of
broiler meat (4.2 million tonnes in 2016), globally

4. Marine products

 Total fish production in India is estimated at 13.0 MT during 2015-16.

 Andhra Pradesh stood as the largest producer of fish with production of 741.3 Thousand
Tonnes during 2015-2016 (upto June 2015)

5. Grain processing

 India produces more than 200 million tonnes of different food grains every year.
 Total food grains production reached 270.10 MT in FY16 (As per Ministry of
Agriculture)

6. Consumer food

Pscnotes.com Page 112

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Among the fastest growing segments in India; it includes – Packaged food, Aerated soft
drinks, Packaged drinking water, Alcoholic beverages

What need to be done to develop Food Processing Industries?

Major thing that Strongly Required to Develop Food Processing Sector

 To create an appropriate environment for entrepreneurs to set up Food Processing

Industries through:
 Fiscal initiatives/interventions like rationalization of tax structure on fresh foods as well
as processed foods and machinery used for the production of processed foods.
 Harmonization & Simplification of food laws by an appropriate enactment to cover all
provisions relating to food products so that the existing system of multiple laws is
replaced and also covering issues concerning standards Nutrition, Merit goods, futures
marketing, equalisation fund etc.
 A concerted promotion campaign to create market for processed foods by providing
financial assistance to Industry Associations, NGOs/Cooperatives, Private Sector Units,
State Government Organization for undertaking generic market promotion.
 Efforts to expand the availability of the right kind and quality of raw material round the
year by increasing production, improving productivity
 Strengthening of database and market intelligence system through studies and surveys to
be conducted in various States to enable planned investment in the appropriate sector
matching with the availability of raw material and marketability of processed products
 Strengthening extension services and to the farmers and cooperatives in the areas of post
harvest management of agroproduce to encourage creation of pre-processing facilities
near the farms like washing, fumigation, packaging etc.
 Efforts to encourage setting up of agro-processing facilities as close to the area of
production as possible to avoid wastage and reduce transportation cost.
 Promotion of investments, both foreign and domestic.
 Simplification of documentation and procedures under taxation laws to avoid
unnecessary harassment arising out of mere technicalities.

INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT TO DEVELOP FOOD PROCESSING

DEVELOPMENT

 Establishment of cold chain, low cost pre-cooling facilities near farms, cold stores and
grading, sorting, packing facilities to reduce wastage, improve quality and shelf life of
products.
 Application of biotechnology, remote sensing technology, energy saving technologies
and technologies for environmental protection.
 Building up a strong infrastructural base for production of value added products with
special emphasis on food safety and quality matching international standards.

Pscnotes.com Page 113

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Development of Packaging Technologies for individual products, especially cut-fruits &
vegetables, so as to increase their shelf life and improve consumer acceptance both in the
domestic and international markets
 Development of new technologies in Food Processing & Packaging and also to provide
for the mechanism to facilitate quick transfer of technologies to field through a net work
of R&D Institutions having a Central Institute at the national level with satellite
institutions located strategically in various regions to cover up the whole Country and to
make available the required testing facilities. This could be done by establishing a new
institution or strengthening an existing one.
 Development of area-specific Agro Food Parks dedicated to processing of the
predominant produce of the area e.g., apple in J&K, pineapple in North East, Lichi in
Bihar, Mango in Maharashtra & Andhra Pradesh etc. etc
 Development of Anchor Industrial Centre and/or linkage with Anchor Industrial Units
having net work of small processing units. h. Development of Agro-industrial multi-
products units capable of processing a cluster of trans-seasonal produces.

BACKWARD LINKAGE TO DEVELOP FOOD PROCESSING DEVELOPMENT

 Establishment of a sustained and lasting linkage between the farmers and the processors
based on mutual trust and benefits by utilizing the existing infrastructure of cooperative,
village panchayats and such other institutions
 Development of Futures Market in the best interest of both the farmers and the processors
ensuring a minimum price stability to the farmer and a sustained supply of raw material
to the processor.
 Mechanism to reduce the gap between the farm gate price of agroproduce and the final
price paid by the consumer
 Setting up of an Equalisation Fund to ensure sustained supply of raw material at a
particular price level and at the same time to plough back the savings occurring in the
eventuality of lower price to make the Fund self-regenerative

FORWARD LINKAGE TO DEVELOP FOOD PROCESSING DEVELOPMENT

 Establishment of a strong linkage between the processor and the market to effect cost
economies by elimination of avoidable intermediaries.
 Establishment of marketing network with an apex body to ensure proper marketing of
processed products.
 Development of marketing capabilities both with regard to infrastructure and quality in
order to promote competitive capabilities to face not only the WTO challenge but to
undertake exports in a big way

Operational Guidelines for the Scheme for Creation of Infrastructure for Agro-processing
Clusters

 The Ministry has formulated the Scheme for Creation of Infrastructure for Agro
Processing Clusters as a sub-scheme of Central Sector Scheme - “Kisan SAMPADA
Yojana‖ coterminous with the 14th Finance Commission cycle.

Pscnotes.com Page 114

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The scheme aims at development of modern infrastructure to encourage entrepreneurs to
set up food processing units based on cluster approach.
 The scheme is to be implemented in area of horticulture / agriculture production
identified through a mapping exercise.
 These clusters will help in reducing the wastage of the surplus produce and add value to
the horticultural / agricultural produce which will result in increase of income of the
farmers and create employment at the local level.

Objectives of the Scheme

The major objectives of the scheme are:

1. To create modern infrastructure for food processing closer to production areas.

2. To provide integrated and complete preservation infrastructure facilities from the farm
gate to the consumer.
3. To create effective backward and forward linkages by linking groups of producers /
farmers to the processors and markets through well-equipped supply chain.

Salient Features of the Scheme

 At least 5 food processing units with an aggregate investment of minimum Rs. 25 crore
will be set up in the Agro-processing cluster. These units may be setup by the promoters
and associates of Project Execution Agency (PEA) and by other entrepreneurs. The
investment in these units will not be eligible under this scheme.
 Food processing units will be set up simultaneous to the creation of core infrastructure in
the cluster. The core infrastructure facilities being developed in the agro-cluster shall be
as per the requirement of food processing units to be set up in the cluster or as per the
available raw material for processing in the area.
 Agro-processing clusters may be developed by:
 the promoter(s) willing to set up own units in the cluster and also allow
 utilization of common infrastructure to other units in the area; the promoter(s) willing to
develop common infrastructure for use by the units
 to be set up in the food processing cluster by other entrepreneurs; the promoter(s) willing
to develop common infrastructure in the existing food
 processing clusters However, lead promoter shall setup at least one food processing units
in the cluster with an investment of not less than Rs. 5 crore.
 The extent of land required for establishing the agro-processing cluster would depend
upon the business plan of Project Execution Agency (PEA), which may vary from project
to project. At least 10 acres of land for the project shall be arranged by the PEA either by
purchase or on lease of at least 50 years. The GOI grant shall not be used for procurement
/ purchase of land.
 Preference will be given to setting up agro-clusters in agri-horti clusters identified by
Central / State Governments, if any.
 It is expected that on an average, each project may have around 5-10 food processing
units to be set up in each Agro-processing cluster with an employment generation
potential, both direct and indirect of about 500 to 1500 persons. This employment

Pscnotes.com Page 115

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
generation will provide livelihood to about 6000 persons based on an average household
size of 4 members. However, the actual configuration of the project may vary depending
upon the business plan for each Agro –processing cluster.
 The food processing industries that make food products fit for human and animal
consumption (except alcoholic products ) may be permitted to be set up in these clusters.
Packaging facilities of food products as ancillary to the food processing industries
(proposed to be setup in the cluster) may also be allotted land in the agro cluster.

Land reforms in India

 In rural India, land is the single most important productive asset owned by the people

Why are land reforms needed?

 Land reforms serve two purpose: raise productivity and end exploitation of the
underprivileged
 Institutional factors such as existence of feudal relations, insecurity of tenure, high rents,
sub-division and fragmentation of land are disincentives for the cultivator to raise
production
 They reduce the capacity of the farmer to save and invest in agriculture. Surplus is
siphoned off by the semi-feudal landlords
 The measures of land reforms such as land ceiling and floor aims to make the best use of
a scarce resource like land and generate maximum output.

But productivity can be raised through technological factors as well. Why land reforms?

 Land reforms and technological change are not mutually exclusive. They are
complementary in the process of agricultural development.

Discuss the scope of land reforms.

 Abolition of intermediaries
 Tenancy reforms i.e. rent reforms, security of tenure and ownership of land to the
cultivator
 Setting land ownership ceiling and floors
 Preventing fragmentation of land and consolidation of holdings
 Organisation of co-operative farms

Can land reforms be effective in alleviating poverty? If yes, how?

Surplus land can be procured through land reforms. This can be used in the following way for
poor

Pscnotes.com Page 116

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 By providing ownership of land
 By fixing rents and providing security of tenure
 Preventing the transfer of tribal land to non-tribal people
 By consolidation of holdings to raise productivity
 By making provisions for access of women to land
 By earmarking public land that can provide access to fuel and fodder to the rural poor
 By providing house sites to rural poor for residential purpose

Having mentioned the scope of land reforms in India, we can now go into detail in each of those
reforms mentioned

Abolition of Intermediaries

 Before Independence, three major types of land tenure systems existed in India:
Zamindari, Mahalwari and Ryotwari. <details already read in history>
 Legislations were passed by the states to abolish intermediaries. The first such legislation
was in Madras in 1948
 About 30 lakh tenants acquired land rights over a cultivated area of 62 lakh acres
throughout the country
 But all this didn‘t happen very smoothly. Several challenges were made to the land
reform legislations in courts.
 The legislation only recognized zamindars as intermediaries; thus leaving out a class of
other intermediaries.
 Compensation was provided to the Zamindars

Tenancy Reforms

 Three types of tenants: occupancy or permanent tenants, tenants at will, sub-tenants

 Tenants at will and sub-tenants experience high degree of exploitation {through frequent
enhancement of rent, eviction at minor pretexts and beggar}
 NSS in 1953-54 estimated that about 1/5th of the total area under cultivation was held
under tenancy. Besides, there was also informal or oral tenancy accounting for anything
between 30-40 percent of the total cultivated area.
 Measures of tenancy reforms include: conferment of ownership rights, security of tenure,
regulating rents
 Regulation of rents
st nd
o 1 and 2 plans recommended that rents should not exceed one-fourth or one-
fifth of the gross produce.
o Several states enacted legislations <Gujarat-maharashtra: 1/6, Punjab: 1/3, TN:
1/3-2/5)
o Law observed more in breach owing to the weak position of the tenants
 Security of tenure
o Insecurity of tenure leads to lack of initiative on the part of the cultivator to
improve productivity of land
o Three types of legislations were framed by the states for providing security of
tenure

Pscnotes.com Page 117

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
o In the first type, tenants – full security, owners- no right of personal cultivation
(UP, Bengal, Delhi)
o Second, owners have right to resume a limited area for own cultivation but tenant
should have a minimum area for cultivation (Kerala, MP, Guj-Maha etc)
o Third, owners can resume certain area but tenant not entitled to retain a minimum
area for cultivation (J&K, Manipur etc)
o Many forced ‗volunatary surrenders‘ were made by the tenants due to the power
of the landlords.
 Ownership right
o The second plan had provided ownership to be optional. This wasn‘t effective.
Hence in third plan, recommendation was made that the peasants be required to
purchase the land
o Legislations for the same enacted in UP, MP, Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa, Maha-
Guj. Optional in Punjab

Ceiling on Land Holdings

 Why do we need such ceilings?

o Land is the principal source of income in the rural areas. Social justice is
compromised if land is concentrated in hands of few
o Application of capital intensive techniques in agriculture will lead to large scale
unemployment. Hence it is necessary to have a large number of small peasant
proprietors.
 But aren‘t small farms less productive?
o No conclusive proof.
o Contradicting studies exist
 Legislation on ceiling in India has been enacted in two phases
o Upto 1972, landowner was treated as the unit of application
o After 1972, family was treated as the basis of land holding.
 Problems relating to ceiling
o Malafide transfers
o Compensation and allotment of surplus land
 Till 1972, no land was declared surplus in Bihar, Karnataka, Orissa and Rajasthan
 Only about 23 lakh acres were declared surplus (till 1972)
 New ceilings were prescribed in 1972
 Till 2004, a total of 73.36 acres of land was declared surplus out of which 54 lakh acres
has been distributed to 54.84 lakh beneficiaries.
 Tardy progress of land ceilings may partly be explained by litigation

Is land ceiling a failure?

 A large number of loopholes existed in the legislation, making evasion possible

 Law provided a number of exemptions for sugarcane farms, orchards, grazing land etc.
They exemptions were used for vested interests
 SC ruled that compensation should be paid at market rate

Pscnotes.com Page 118

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The definition of family under the legislations made it possible to still amass huge land
holdings

Appraisal of LR

Reasons for poor performance

 Lack of political will

 Absence of pressure from below because the poor peasants are passive and unorganised
 Apathetic attitude of the bureaucracy
 Legal hurdles
 Lack of proper land records
 Loopholes in the laws

So how can it be improved?

 Judiciary should not be involved at any stage in the implementation of land reforms
 Organise rural peasantry into strong trade unions
 Provide representation to poor peasantry in the administrative machinery

Ground water and Watershed management

Water Resources Management

Water Resources in India

 India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world‘s surface area, 4 per cent of the world‘s
water resources and about 16 per cent of world‘s population. The total water available
from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km.

Pscnotes.com Page 119

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water
resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
 Inland Water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks
& ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water.
 Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover all area of about 7 M.Ha. Of the
fivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the First place with the total length of rivers and
canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of rivers and
canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh are Jammu & Kashmir and
Madhya Pradesh.
 Among the remaining forms of the inland water resources, tanks and ponds have
maximum area (2.9 M.Ha.) followed by reservoirs (2.1 M.Ha.).
 Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in Southern States of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. These states along with West Bengal, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh, account for 62 percent of total area under tanks and ponds in the country.
 As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasman and Uttar Pradesh account for larger
portion of area under reservoirs. More than 77 percent of area under beels, oxbow, lakes
and derelict water lies in the states of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam.
 Orissa ranks first as regards the total area of brackish water and is followed by Gujarat,
Kerala and West Bengal.
 The total area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the country
with five states namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West Bengal
accounting for more than half of the country's inland water bodies

River Water Resources

 India is blessed with many rivers. Twelve of them are classifled as major rivers whose
total catchment area is 252.8 million heactare (M.Ha). Of the major rivers, the Ganga -
Brahmaputra Meghana system is the biggest with catchment area of about 110 M.Ha
which is more than 43 percent of the catchment area of all the major rivers in the country.
 The other major rivers with catchment area more than 10 M.Ha are Indus (32.1 M.Ha.),
Godavari (31.3 M.Ha.), Krishna, (25.9 M.Ha.) and Mahanadi (14.2 M.Ha).
 The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 M.Ha and Subernarekha with 1.9 M.Ha.
catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the country

Water management in independent India – A critical Analysis

 India attained its independence from the British rule in August 1947.
 With independence came partition of India and loss of large productive irrigated lands to
Pakistan; and bulk of the public irrigation networks that British had created ended up in
Pakistan.

Pscnotes.com Page 120

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Government of India‘s main aim after independence was to accelerate development and
address the regional disparity of investment, as it was facing serious food grains shortage
and rapid rates of population increase.
 The slow pace of irrigation development during the last decades of colonial regime had
also aggravated to the current problem situation of food shortage.

Large scale irrigation as ‘temples of modern India’

 To overcome the food grain shortage, huge investment in large-scale irrigation project
was considered to be the best option to redress all these problems.
 And this was apparent from the Five Year Plans (FYPs), which started in 1951.
 Investment in the large scale surface irrigation was targeted under the first two plans and
giant projects like Bhakra-Nagal, the Damodar Valley and Hirakud projects were
undertaken during that time.
 Minor Irrigation Projects did receive some attention but the importance was given to the
Major and Medium.
 The early post independence era was taking pride in launching vast new projects and
large dams were seen as ‗modern temples of modern India‘ keeping in view the vision of
Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of Independent India.
 With the zeal of commitment for rapid social progress, the vast new multi-purpose
irrigation projects were projected as a matter of pride in the early post-independence
years.
 More than 90 percent of public investments in agriculture were allocated for large-scale
projects during the first 40 years after independence. This also led to lobbyism by
engineers, irrigation bureaucrats and contractors who had vested interest in the
construction of large dams in the hydel projects.
 This further led to a severe deterioration in the quality of programme planning and
project design, during the second Five Year Plan, 1955-60 (FYP) (Hanson, 1966).
Irrigation Projects after independence.
 The large-scale irrigation schemes were multi-purpose and depended on reservoirs unlike
the run-of-the-river irrigation schemes of the colonial India.
 These ‗temples of modern India‘ were flawed on three counts:

1. Firstly, the construction of big projects at many places led to major delay in project
completion due to budget constraints.
2. Secondly, these projects failed to take into consideration, the complex topographic
environmental condition that was not viable to build and extend canals in areas such as
eastern floodplains, and in Deccan.
3. Finally the old colonial legislation of giving unlimited powers to the government and the
Irrigation Department (ID) continued to be practiced in all matters relating to surface
water development and management, leaving no rights to water users.

 Although there were few exceptions like the new schemes that were introduced in the
North-West of India, which led to the disappearance of the centralized bureaucratic canal
management system introduced during the colonial time.

Pscnotes.com Page 121

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The Northwest supply-driven rationing principles and the delta water management of the
South were neither appropriate nor could be implemented due to the rigidly designed and
often incomplete delivery systems. Which was left at the end of the construction process
to meets its failure in other parts of India.
 The strict formal allocation rules made Irrigation Department (ID) officials, vulnerable to
pressures from influential farmers to mismanage the distribution of water to their mutual
advantage.
 This in turn led to a large network of corruption involving local politicians, large farmers,
and contractors in influencing the planning and construction phases of surface water
development as well as its managements.
 Vote bank politics centering on relaxations of offering canal water at cheap rates by the
local politicians, also undermined the earlier performance incentives, which were
imposed on the scheme managers by the need to raise substantial revenues.
 Fall of water rates, squeezing of the budgets corresponding to the fall of the salary levels
of the Irrigation Department (ID) staff further added to the mismanagement and poor
performance of big irrigation projects.
 Widespread official acknowledgment of large schemes having severe water management
problems began from early 1970s, after the second Irrigation Commission (IC) report
was released by Ministry of Irrigation and Power under the Government of India.
 But for a long time Irrigation Department (ID) professed that the main problems of
water management is because of the farmers and the need of the hour is to educate
farmers about how to use water effectively and properly.
 Thus, in 1974-75 Central Government initiated the Command Area Development
Programme (CADP) for water management in the command areas, but the programme
did not take account of studying the vital central issue of system design and management
practice.

Community-based management

 In 1980s attempts were made to bring about reform in the management practices of
Irrigation Department (ID), through the World Bank supported National Water
Management Project (NWMP)
 The concept of PIM in India has evolved through three distinct phases

1. Firstly in the early 1980s, the concept was limited to farmers‘ participation through their
representatives in project management committees, but this was not very successful
2. In the latter part of the 1980s, farmers‘ organization such as chak (outlet) committees
were formed but many of these committees remained only on paper and became
dysfunctional after a while
3. In the early part of 1990s, the concept of creating farmers‘ organizations and of system
turnover to farmers‘ was adopted through the World Bank-funded Water Resources
Consolidation Project.

 Through which thousands of Water Users Associations (WUAs) were formed to take
the responsibility for operation and maintenances of the downstream parts of irrigation

Pscnotes.com Page 122

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
systems, distribution of water among water users and collection of water rates from the
farmers.
 But none of these programmes made an effort to address the issue of the Irrigation
Department‘s (ID) legal powers, lack of accountability in the system management and the
monopolistic control of public funds assigned for surface water development
 During the early 1990s in India, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) through
Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to farmers was officially acknowledged as the
best method to bring about efficient utilization of irrigation water, equitable distribution
and sustainable irrigation service.
 Nonetheless the implementation of PIM has been a bumpy ride in India due to
heterogeneity of farmers, caste-class differences, physical system inefficiency, half-
hearted support from irrigation bureaucracy, lack of committed local leadership,
inadequate capacity building and lack of proper incentives.
 In spite of all this, since independence the expansion of irrigated area by canals has been
significant, from 8.3 million hectares in 1950-51 to 18 million hectares in 1999-00.
 Furthermore in regard to community participation in irrigation management, Government
of India had also launched National Water Policy (NWP) of 1987 putting emphasis on
farmer‘s participation in the management of irrigation systems especially in water
distribution and collection of water charges.
 The National Water Policy (NWP) of 2002 emphasizes on participatory approach for
the management of the water by having cooperation between various governmental
agencies and other stakeholders including women participation in various aspects of
planning, design, development and management of the water resources schemes.
 Moreover, involving the local bodies such as municipalities and gram panchayats in the
operation, maintenance and management of water infrastructure was done in keeping in
view the eventual transfer of management rights to the user groups.
 The post independence era has seen impressive increase in the irrigated areas by large
surface systems under state management.
 But on the contrary, small water surface systems under community managed continued to
decline due to low level of public investment and government measure of increasing its
legal and administrative control over them.
 For example kuhls system (farmer-managed gravity flow irrigation) of Himachal
Pradesh, ranges from kuhl regimes which operate independently of any state
involvement, to regimes which are totally managed by the Himachal Pradesh Irrigation
and Public Health Department.
 The micro-watershed based approach to natural resource management has been
hampered due to compartmentalization of various government programmes and the
centralization of various programmes meant for the water development.
 For example Community Development Programme (CDP) was started in 1952 with
the aim of community participation in the development of the village. But it resulted only
in the administrative and developmental functions of a centralized state in the form of
replacement by introducing from the 1960s, centrally sponsored programmes and
schemes of individual departments .
 The phads of Maharashtra have been physically absorbed into large new canal schemes.
Whereas in the tank systems, population pressure on the upper catchments resulted in

Pscnotes.com Page 123

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
rapid siltation, denudation and erosion of the areas on which they depended for their run-
off.
 Secondly, with the expansion of modern groundwater extraction technology along with
Green Revolution in 1960- 70s acted as key factors in the dysfunctioning of the tanks.
Whereas Indian watershed projects started spreading widely in the late 1980s and 1990s
with the aim to develop semi-arid areas that Green Revolution had circumvent.
 Watershed projects approaches have evolved from the highly technocratic, large scale
top-down approach to greater local participation, use of local technologies which resulted
in better performance in terms of conservation and productivity.
 Three extremely successful village level projects initiated in the 1970s: Sukhomajri,
Ralegaon Siddhi and Pani Panchayat which focused on the link between soil
conservation and water harvesting are seen as having the modern roots of the century old
assortment of soil and water conservation efforts in India.
 In order to replicate the success of these three projects several large-scale projects were
started in 1980s A significant step for participatory and decentralized forms of decision
making and fund allocation was started with the comprehensive common guideline which
was evolved for all programmes with the and all these projects operated in relatively poor
degraded areas and adopted the technological approaches of Sukhomajri, Ralegaon
Siddhi and Pani Panchayat.
 But none of them adopted the institutional arrangements and no or little efforts were
made to organize communities as benefits and cost were unevenly distributed in the
watershed development project.
 The project fails to take note, that collective action to manage the common pool was
tough as benefits were gradual, incremental and unevenly distributed
 Hence the way community is conceptualized in watershed guidelines either ignored the
individual differences in a village, assuming that the common good for the village will
override these differences.
 Moreover it is believed that the new-institutionalist perspective will facilitate the
cooperation of the village community by developing institutions, which would enable
difference to be resolved.
 Thus the way community construction is conceptualized in the implementation of the
watershed programmes has serious drawbacks. As mere presence of particular features
does not always lead to feeling of togetherness, sense of belonging and moreover does
not result in collective action in spite of purposively choosing the villages for
implementation of watershed project.

Groundwater Revolution – Taming the Anarchy

 The mechanized lift irrigation from groundwater started in mid 1960s with the advent of
new pumping technology, which made possible to bore deep wells and extract water in
large quantities. At the same time with the advent of Green Revolution a voracious
demand for water was created for the highyielding hybrid crop varieties.
 Green Revolution agrarian technology and the institutions of groundwater revolution
played a significant role in transforming the productivity of India‘s irrigated agriculture.

Pscnotes.com Page 124

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 The Green Revolution and Tubewell Revolution went hand-in-hand. In India,
mechanized pump irrigated area has tremendously increased from 6 million hectare in
1950-51 to 33.3 million hectare in 2000.
 In the prosperous canal irrigated areas of the North-west where the revolution began and
in other alluvial areas with easily accessible aquifers, small-capacity shallow tubewells
(STWs) under individual ownership were given preference since the beginning.
 Whereas promising aspects of deep borewells in water scarce hard rock areas made the
groundwater technology quite popular. This was due to its capacity to provide water on
demand, having good impact on production about twice as high as canals, per unit of
water provided and three times higher than tanks.
 Various public agencies provided support in the form of credits and subsidies for well
installation and the supply of electricity. This again benefited the rich farmers, ‗once
again, like the canal and dam technology, affluent sections of society benefited from the
tubewells‘.
 Although the well were individually-owned and direct government involvement in
tubewell management was through incentives and disincentives, only with the
exceptional cases of Eastern Floodplains, like Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
where State Irrigation Department (SID) were actively engaged in installing deep
tubewells.
 For example in Uttar Pradesh which had the largest public tubewell program among all
the Indian states, World Bank introduced two technological improvements during early
1970s:

1. Power line to insulate public tubewells from power outages;

2. An 8-shaped buried distribution system with pucca (concrete) outlets for blocks of eight
hectares of the command area

 These developments benefitted already prosperous canal irrigation regions, especially in

North-West of India. Moreover, private shallow tubewells (STWs) which were dependent
on groundwater recharge from canal seepage were able to offer complementary flexibility
which rigid canal supplies lacked, due to the availability of water on demand from the
wells at time at will.
 The spread of tubewell technology went hand-in-hand with the Green Revolution
technology in the NorthWest region of India and projected the region‘s experience as the
best model for rest of India. Whereas the spread of private shallow tubewells (STWs)
were slow and erratic in the groundwater abundant Eastern Plains, which led the policy
makers believe that unequal and fragmented landholdings were acting as hindrance in the
promotion of tubewell technology.
 Therefore in many states of India, large capacity tube wells run by government
corporation were introduced which were serving areas of 50 to 150 hectares from the
support of World Bank in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
 The main objective behind public tubewell projects was to encourage the use of tubewell
and modern mechanical pump irrigation, and promote equity to bring irrigation benefits
to poor farmers.
 Furthermore tubewell technology was capital intensive and required large farms to make
it economically viable, but majority of the Indian farms were small.

Pscnotes.com Page 125

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 In order to avoid the situation where the larger farmers having tubewell technology
become exploitative water lords, and to maintain the parity with canal irrigation, public
tubewell projects supplied water for irrigation at heavily subsidized rates .
 The expansion of groundwater irrigation has been largely due to improved drilling and
lifting technologies along with liberal credit provision; lower per unit cost of water
pumping, enormous rural electricity program with subsidized supply of electricity.
 Therefore with the absence of effective institutional control measures and checks have
led to severe over-exploitation of the groundwater. Farmers with adequate resources have
constructed deep tubewells with submersible pumps and in the process have been more
interested with their private gains and ignoring the social cost of over-exploitation of
groundwater.

Conclusion

 Water management has been a contentious and tricky affair in India due to socio-
economic-political and ecological reasons.
 Factors like caste-class differences, heterogeneity of farmers, rural–urban dichotomy, and
extreme different ecological conditions have influenced the water management.
 To complicate further, vote bank politics, lack of coordination between irrigation
bureaucracy, policy making and various sectoral departments carrying out their own
water programmes, have affected water management in a diverse manner to people.
 In this diverse regime, India has been embracing water management in its water policies,
but they remain a mere proposition. The Ministries seize the opportunity presented by the
all-encompassing concept of ‗integrated‘ and ‗community-based water resource
management‘ to push their ministerial objectives and to overcome financial deficit,
together with their proclaimed adherence to democratic commitment.
 The state governments have exploited the concept to remain forefront in ecological and
social transformation using a vehicle of centralized single focus technology mission.
While collective action is transformed into private collaboration for local elites in their
continuous search for acquiring power to control.
 These actors exploit the incongruence presented by the complex rules and administrative
red tapism to achieve their social goal of survival by exploiting water management
technologies.
 Understanding how these different policies and programs influence water management at
the community level is one of the unexplored issues. Its further examining will offer
insights on the ability of the community to integrate different programs and policies by
default given their complex livelihood requirements.
 The co existence of static and dynamic elements in the society along with organic and
inorganic linkages would pervade through paradox and ambiguities perturbing the debate.
Thus it would invite and stimulate new inquiries emanating from policy makers, civil
society, academia and institutional apparatus of state.

Pscnotes.com Page 126

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Water usage and efficient irrigation systems

Water Resources

Rainfall: With an average annual rainfall of 1,170 mm, India is one of the wettest countries in
the world. At one extreme are areas like Cherrapunji, in the northeast, which is drenched each
year with 11,000 mm of rainfall, and at the other extreme are places like Jaisalmer, in the west,
which receives barely 200 mm of annual rainfall. Though the average rainfall is adequate, nearly
three-quarters of the rain pours down in less than 120 days, from June to September.

Groundwater: India's groundwater resources are almost ten times its annual rainfall. According
to the Central Groundwater Board of the Government of India, the country has an annual
exploitable groundwater potential of 26.5 million hectare-meters. Nearly 85% of currently
exploited groundwater is used only for irrigation. Groundwater accounts for as much as 70-80%
of the value of farm produce attributable to irrigation. Besides, groundwater is now the source of
four-fifths of the domestic water supply in rural areas, and around half that of urban and
industrial areas. However, according to the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI),
the water table almost everywhere in India is falling at between one to three meters every year.
Furthermore, the IIMI estimates that India is using its underground water resources atleast twice
as fast they are being replenished. Already, excessive ground water mining has caused land
subsidence in several regions of Central Uttar Pradesh.

Surface water: There are 14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins in the country. The
major river basins constitute about 83-84% of the total drainage area. This, along with the
medium river basins, accounts for 91% of the country's total drainage. India has the largest
irrigation infrastructure in the world, but the irrigation efficiencies are low, at around 35%.

Utilization of Water in India

Domestic use

Community water supply is the most important requirement and it is about 5% of the total water
use. About 7 km3 of surface water and 18 km3 of groundwater are being used for community
water supply in urban and rural areas. Along with the increase in population, another important
change from the point of view of water supply is higher rate of urbanization. According to the
projections, the higher is the economic growth, the higher would be urbanization. It is expected
that nearly 61% of the population will be living in urban areas by the year 2050 in high-growth
scenario as against 48% in low growth scenario. Different organizations and individuals have
given different norms for water supply in cities and rural areas. The figure adopted by the
NCIWRD9 was 220 litre per capita per day (lpcd) for class I cities. For the cities other than class
I, the norms are 165 for the year 2025 and 220 lpcd for the year 2050. For rural areas, 70 lpcd
and 150 lpcd have been recommended for the years 2025 and 2050. Based on these norms and
projection of population, it is estimated that by 2050, water requirements per year for domestic
use will be 90 km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is
expected that about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% of rural water requirement will be
met by surface water sources and the remaining from groundwater.

Pscnotes.com Page 127

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Irrigation

The irrigated area in the country was only 22.6 million hectare (Mha) in 1950–51. Since the food
production was much below the requirement of the country, due attention was paid for expansion
of irrigation. The ultimate irrigation potential of India has been estimated as 140 Mha. Out of
this, 76 Mha would come from surface water and 64 Mha from groundwater sources. The
quantum of water used for irrigation by the last century was of the order of 300 km3 of surface
water and 128 km3 of groundwater, total 428 km3 . The estimates indicate that by the year 2025,
the water requirement for irrigation would be 561 km3 for low-demand scenario and 611 km3
for high-demand scenario. These requirements are likely to further increase to 628 km3 for low-
demand scenario and 807 km3 for high-demand scenario by 2050.

Hydroelectric power

The hydropower potential of India has been estimated at 84,044 MW at 60% load factor. At the
time of independence, the installed capacity of hydropower projects was 508 MW. By the end of
1998, the installed hydropower capacity was about 22,000 MW. The status of hydropower
development in major basins is highly uneven. According to an estimate, India has plans to
develop 60,000 MW additional hydropower by the twelfth five-year plan. It includes 14,393 MW
during the tenth five-year plan (2002–2007); 20,000 MW during eleventh (2007–2012) and
26,000 MW during the twelfth (2012–2017) five-year plans. A potential of the order of 10,000
MW is available for development of small hydropower projects in the Himalayan and sub-
Himalayan regions of the country. Therefore, it is not only desirable but also a pressing need of
time to draw a master plan for development of small, medium and large hydro-schemes for
power generation.

Industrial

Water requirement Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial sector is
of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear power plants with installed
capacities of 40,000 MW and 1500 MW (1990 figures) respectively, is estimated to be about 19
km3 . In view of shortage of water, the industries are expected to switch over to water efficient
technologies. If the present rate of water use continues the water requirement for industries in
2050 would be 103 km3 ; this is likely to be nearly 81 km3 if watersaving technologies are
adopted on a large scale.

Scarcity of Water

The highly variable nature of the climate makes groundwater the most popular alternative for
irrigation and domestic water use across India and accounts for over 400 km3 of the annual
utilizable resource in the country. This dependence on groundwater resources is particularly
critical where dry season surface water levels are low or where wet season flows are too
disruptive to be easily tapped. In addition to being accessible, groundwater quality is generally
excellent in most areas and presents a relatively safe source of drinking water for Indians in rural
and urban centers.

Pscnotes.com Page 128

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Agriculture remains central to the Indian economy and it therefore receives a greater share of the
annual water allocation. According to the World Resources Institute (2000), 92% of India‘s
utilizable water is devoted to this sector, mostly in the form of irrigation. Groundwater alone
accounts for 39% of the water used in agriculture and surface water use often comes at the
expense of other sectors such as the industrial and domestic supply.7 Demand from the domestic
sector has remained low and accounts for only 5% of the annual freshwater withdrawals in
India8 .

The demand from domestic sector over the next twenty years will increase from 25 billion m3 to
52 billion m3. However, this increase in the demand from the domestic sector will not be as
much as that from other sectors over the next several years.7 Currently, only 85% of the urban
and 79% of the rural population has access to safe drinking water and fewer still have access to
adequate sanitation facilities. Recognizing that the growing demand for water in agriculture and
industries sets a pattern of water scarcity even in areas where there is sufficient water for
domestic purpose, the national water policy has rightly prioritized drinking water over other
uses.

However, in giving subsidies to the industrial and agriculture sectors where the water
consumption is highest and allowing these sectors to use more water at negligible prices, the
government has effectively contradicted its own water policy. This has resulted in mining of
ground water leading to a rapidly falling water table. For example, the bottling companies of
Pepsi and Coca-cola in different parts of India pay very little towards water mining and have
practiced unsustainable water mining in these areas to the detriment of villagers and small
farmers in the area.

Most urban areas are serviced by a municipal water distribution system. Usually, the municipal
water supply originates from local reservoirs or canals, but in some cases water may be imported
through inter-basin transfer. Although the major cities in India enjoy access to central water
supply systems, these schemes often do not adequately cover the entire urban population and are
notoriously inefficient and unreliable. In rural areas, access to water is even more precarious.
Over 80% of the rural domestic water comes from groundwater sources since it is more reliable
in terms of water quantity and quality. Still, in areas where water is scarce, rural women must
travel long distances to wells or streams to fetch water for their daily needs.

In the past several decades, industrial production has increased in India owing to an increasingly
open economy and greater emphasis on industrial development and international trade. Water
consumption for this sector has consequently risen and will continue growing at a rate of 4.2%
per year. According to the World Bank, demand of water for industrial, energy production and
other uses will rise from 67 billion m3 to 228 billion m3 by 2025.

The United Nations has warned that by 2025 two-thirds of the world will face severe water
shortages if the current pattern of water consumption continues. Water-privatization has been
sought as one of the solutions to address the looming crisis.

Water Management

Pscnotes.com Page 129

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
In view of the existing status of water resources and increasing demands of water for meeting the
requirements of the rapidly growing population of the country as well as the problems that are
likely to arise in future, a holistic, wellplanned long-term strategy is needed for sustainable water
resources management in India.

Ground Water Management

Groundwater management to protect the aquifers from overexploitation, an effective

groundwater management policy oriented towards promotion of efficiency, equity and
sustainability is required. Agricultural holdings in India are highly fragmented and the rural
population density is large. The exploitation of groundwater resources should be regulated so as
not to exceed the recharging possibilities, as well as to ensure social equity. The detrimental
environmental consequences of over-exploitation of groundwater need to be effectively
prevented by the Central and State Governments. Overexploitation of groundwater should be
avoided, especially near the coasts to prevent ingress of seawater into freshwater aquifers .

Clearly, a joint management approach combining government administration with active people
participation is a promising solution . In critically overexploited areas, bore-well drilling should
be regulated till the water table attains the desired elevation. Artificial recharge measures need to
be urgently implemented in these areas. Amongst the various recharge techniques, percolation
tanks are least expensive in terms of initial construction costs. Many such tanks already exist but
a vast majority of these structures have silted up. In such cases, cleaning of the bed of the tank
will make them reusable. Promotion of participatory action in rehabilitating tanks for recharging
would go a long way in augmenting groundwater supply. Due to declining water table, the cost
of extraction of groundwater has been increasing over time and wells often go dry. This poses
serious financial burden on farmers. Hence, special programmes need to be designed to support
these farmers. Finally, the role of government will have to switch from that of a controller of
groundwater development to that of a facilitator of equitable and sustainable development.
Shah18 mentions that three large-scale responses to groundwater depletion in India have
emerged in recent years in an uncoordinated manner, and each presents an element of what might
be its coherent strategy of resources governance .

Watershed management

For an equitable and sustainable management of shared water resources, flexible, holistic
approach of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is required, which can cater to
hydrological variations in time and space and changes in socio-economic needs along with
societal values. Watershed is the unit of management in IWRM, where surface water and
groundwater are inextricably linked and related to land use and management.

Watershed management aims to establish a workable and efficient framework for the integrated
use, regulation and development of land and water resources in a watershed for socio-economic
growth. Local communities play a central role in the planning, implementation and funding of
activities within participatory watershed development programmes. In these initiatives, people
use their traditional knowledge, available resources, imagination and creativity to develop
watershed and implement community-centered programme.

Pscnotes.com Page 130

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Currently, many programmes, campaigns and projects are underway in different parts of India to
spread mass awareness and mobilize the general population in managing water resources. Some
of these are being implemented by the Central/State Governments, while others have been taken
up by various Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). For example, Hariyali (meaning
‗greenery‘) is a watershed management project, launched by the Central Government, which
aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and
afforestation as well as generate employment opportunities.

The project is being executed by the Gram Panchayats (village governing bodies) with people‘s
participation; the technical support is provided by the block (sub-district) administration.
Another good example of water conservation efforts is the ‗Neeru-Meeru‘ (Water and You)
programme launched in May 2000 by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. During the last three
years, an additional storage space of more than 18,000 lakh m 3 has been created by constructing
various water-harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, dugout ponds, check dams, etc.
through peoples‘ participation.

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the process to capture and store rainfall for its efficient utilization and
conservation to control its runoff, evaporation and seepage. Some of the benefits of rainwater
harvesting are:

 It increases water availability

 It checks the declining water table
 It is environmentally friendly
 It improves the quality of groundwater through dilution, mainly of fluoride, nitrate, and
salinity, and
 It prevents soil erosion and flooding, especially in the urban areas.

Even in ancient days, people were familiar with the methods of conservation of rainwater and
had practised them with success. Different methods of rainwater harvesting were developed to
suit the geographical and meteorological conditions of the region in various parts of the country.

Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still prevalent in rural areas, is done by using surface
storage bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks, etc. For example, Kul (diversion
channels) irrigation system which carries water from glaciers to villages is practised in the Spiti
area of Himachal Pradesh. In the arid regions of Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures
locally known as Kund (a covered underground tank), are constructed near the house or a village
to tackle drinking water problem. In Meghalaya, Bamboo Rainwater Harvesting for tapping of
stream and spring water through bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. The
system is so perfected that about 18–20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per
minute is transported over several hundred meters.

Pscnotes.com Page 131

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Drinking Water: supply, factors of impurity of

water and quality management
Safe Drinking and Supply

 Safe drinking water is the birthright of all humankind – as much a birthright as clean air.
 The majority of the world‘s population, however, does not have access to safe drinking
water. This is certainly true in most parts of Africa and Asia. Even in relatively advanced
countries such as India, safe drinking water is not readily available, particularly in rural
areas.
 One reason safe drinking water is of paramount concern is that 75 percent of all diseases
in developing countries arise from polluted drinking water.
 Knowledge about how to make water safe for consumption is rare in most developing
countries.
 We simply must do a better job of raising public awareness and understanding about the
nature of the problem and the technologies and strategies that are available to address it.

Background

 Safe drinking water is a human birthright – as much a birthright as clean air. However,
much of the world‘s population does not have access to safe drinking water. Of the 6
billion people on earth, more than one billion (one in six) lack access to safe drinking
water.
 Moreover, about 2.5 billion (more than one in three) do not have access to adequate
sanitation services. Together, these shortcomings spawn waterborne diseases that kill on
average more than 6 million children each year (about 20,000 children a day). Water
covers 70 percent of the globe‘s surface, but most is saltwater.
 Freshwater covers only 3 percent of the earth‘s surface and much of it lies frozen in the
Antarctic and Greenland polar ice.
 Freshwater that is available for human consumption comes from rivers, lakes and
underground sources and aquifers. Together these sources account for just 1 percent of all
water on earth. Six billion people depend on this supply and a significant portion of the
world‘s population now face water shortages.

Ways to save and replenish

 We must meet the world‘s growing demand for freshwater.

 However, we must do so with limited financial resources and with practices that
minimize ecological disruption.
 An analysis of the situation suggests that our goals can be reached. Experts have
proposed a four-fold path towards a viable solution for making water both potable and
safe:

Pscnotes.com Page 132

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Seek new sources
 Save and redistribute supplies
 Reduce demand
 Recycle
 Some of these approaches are global in nature, while others are regional, national, local
and even family-specific.
 These efforts will ultimately succeed only when we empower people with the knowledge
and means to address the issue on their own.

Individuals and communities Role in Safe Water

Efforts need not be left solely to governmental and nongovernmental agencies. Individuals,
families and communities also have a vital role to play. Such responsibilities include:

1. Water harvesting at home, schools and community buildings

2. Water recycling at the microlevel, including at homes, buildings and communities
3. Saving water by ensuring taps and pipes are not leaky and by using optimum amounts of
water for washing and toilet flushing
4. Making sure that the water is purified by methods suited to family conditions and needs
5. Maintaining proper levels of sanitation at home

Private industry and nongovernmental organizations role in Safe Drinking Water SUpply

Many countries – for example, India, Indonesia, Kenya, and Nepal – have active
nongovernmental organizations that involve communities in the funding and implementation of
programmes designed to transform arid and semiarid terrains into productive agricultural regions
receiving sufficient amounts of water. Such efforts should be expanded by:

 Exchanging information among and between industry and nongovernmental

organizations on relevant and novel methods and strategies
 Focusing on sociological factors that may have an impact on the most suitable
technologies and programmes for a given region/ community
 Ensuring equity in both services and benefits

Pscnotes.com Page 133

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Involving communities in all aspects of water harvesting, recycling, storage, purification
and supply
 Coordinating efforts among governmental and intergovernmental sectors for the purposes
of achieving harmonious processes and results.

Various Initiatives by Ministry of Drinking Water

The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP)

 The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) is a centrally sponsored

scheme aimed at providing adequate and safe drinking water to the rural population of the
country.
 The NRDWP is a component of Bharat Nirman which focuses on the creation of rural
infrastructure.
 This has resulted in the provision of significant additional resources to the sector and for
creating an environment for the development of infrastructure and capacities for the
successful operation of drinking water supply schemes in rural areas.

Bharat Nirman

 Bharat Nirman was launched by the Government of India in 2005 as a programme to

build rural infrastructure.
 While Phase-I of the programme was implemented in the period 2005-06 to 2008-09, the
Phase-II was implemented from 2009-10 to 2011-12. Rural drinking water is one of the
six components of Bharat Nirman.
 Funds provided under the NRDWP are counted towards the Bharat Nirman also and no
additional funds are provided under Bharat Nirman

Scheme for providing safe drinking water supply through community water purification plants
in fluoride, arsenic, uranium and other heavy/toxic metals and pesticide/fertilizer affected
rural habitations in the country

 The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) funds for supplying ―safe‖
water in contaminated areas are being utilized by the States as a policy mostly for
alternate safe Piped Water Supply (PWS) schemes including Multivillage schemes
(MVS) (i. e., from far away safe sources) the gestation period of such MVS projects is
about 4-5 years.
 Since the rural people cannot be put to risk due to consumption of unsafe drinking water
in the interim period as also whereas all such Multi-Village Schemes carrying safe water
from far away sources cannot be planned and completed in the span of 4-5 years due to
huge funds involved, hence, the Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation has submitted
an EFC proposal to provide community water purification plants in fluoride, arsenic,
uranium and other heavy/toxic metals and pesticide/fertilizer affected rural habitations in
the country for providing safe drinking water immediately with an anticipated
expenditure of total capital cost of Rs 3,600 crore with fund sharing pattern of 75:25

Pscnotes.com Page 134

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
(90:10 in case of NE, J&K) between Centre and State in approx 20,000 habitations during
the period 2014-15 to 2016-17.

Combined Water Supply Schemes (CWSS)

 Combined Water Supply Schemes are being implemented where more than one local
body, either rural or urban with a common source of water supply is involved with
financial assistance under the Minimum Needs Programme, National Rural Drinking
Water Programme and with funding from financial institutions like TUFIDCO,
TNUIFSL, NABARD and Asian Development Bank.
 During 2009 – 10 combined water supply schemes have been completed to benefit 4352
rural habitations and 41 towns at a cost of Rs. 795.04 crores. Presently Board is
maintaining 422 CWSS in the state to serve 10,101 habitations benefiting populations of
131.59 lakhs which is about 20 percent of the state population

Man-made and Natural disasters: Concept and

scope of disaster management, specific hazards and
mitigation. Community planning: Resource
Mapping, Relief & Rehabilitation, preventive and
administrative measures, Safe construction,
Alternative communication and survival skills
Disaster Management

 History shows that India is exposed to national disasters. Cyclones, floods, earthquakes,
droughts and floods are major threats.
 About 60 percent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities, over 40
million hectares is prone to floods and 68 percent of the area is susceptible to drought.
This not only results in loss to thousands of lives, but also in terms of loss in private,
community and public assets.
 While substantial scientific and material progress has been made, the loss of lives and
property due to disasters has not decreased.
 Government of India has now brought about a paradigm shift in its approach to disaster
management, from being relief centric to one with greater emphasis on preparedness,
prevention and mitigation.
 This approach proceeds from the conviction that development cannot be sustained unless
disaster mitigation is built into the development process. Another cornerstone of the
approach is that mitigation has to be inter- disciplinary spanning across all sectors of
development.

Pscnotes.com Page 135

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Disaster Management occupies an important place in the policy framework as it is the
poor and underprivileged who are worst affected on account of calamities and disasters.
 Disaster Management is a multi-disciplinary area in which a wide range of issues that
range from forecasting, warning, search and rescue, relief, reconstruction and
rehabilitation are included. It is multi-sectoral as it involves administrators, scientists,
planners, volunteers and communities. Their roles and activities span the pre-disaster,
during disaster and post-disaster plans. All these activities are complementary and
supplementary to each other and here is a critical need for coordinating these activities.
 Natural disasters directly impact economies, agriculture, food security, water, sanitation,
environment and health. It is therefore one of the single largest concerns for most of the
developing nations.
 Apart from the economic aspect, such disasters also have social and psychological
dimensions that needs to be studied and appropriate strategies for mitigation developed.
 Today, we have a range of early warning systems for a range of natural hazards.
However, it is not enough to ensure that communities are safe from disasters. This is
where disaster mitigation can play an important role.

What is disaster management?

 The United Nations defines a disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of a

community or a society. Disasters involve widespread human, material, economic or
environmental impacts, which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to

cope using its own resources.

 The Red Cross and Red Crescent societies define disaster management as the
organisation and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all
humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery
in order to lessen the impact of disasters.

Types of disasters

There is no country that is immune from disaster, though vulnerability to disaster varies. There
are four main types of disaster.

Pscnotes.com Page 136

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
1. Natural disasters: including floods, hurricanes, earthquakes and volcano eruptions that
have immediate impacts on human health and secondary impacts causing further death
and suffering from (for example) floods, landslides, fires, tsunamis.

Natural Types of Disasters

· Agricultural diseases & pests

· Hurricanes and tropical storms
· Damaging Winds
· Landslides & debris flow
· Drought and water shortage
· Thunderstorms and lighting
· Earthquakes
· Tornadoes
· Emergency diseases (pandemic
· Tsunamis
influenza)
· Wildfire
· Extreme heat
· Winter and ice storms
· Floods and flash floods
· Sinkholes
· Hail

1. Environmental emergencies: including technological or industrial accidents, usually

involving the production, use or transportation of hazardous material, and occur where
these materials are produced, used or transported, and forest fires caused by humans.
2. Complex emergencies: involving a break-down of authority, looting and attacks on
strategic installations, including conflict situations and war.
3. Pandemic emergencies: involving a sudden onset of contagious disease that affects
health, disrupts services and businesses, brings economic and social costs.

Man-Made and Technological Types of Disasters

· Hazardous materials
· Chemical threat and biological weapons
· Power service disruption &
· Cyber attacks
blackout
· Explosion
· Nuclear power
plant and nuclear blast
· Civil unrest

Pscnotes.com Page 137

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

· Radiological emergencies

 Any disaster can interrupt essential services, such as health care, electricity, water,
sewage/garbage removal, transportation and communications.
 The interruption can seriously affect the health, social and economic networks of local
communities and countries.
 Disasters have a major and long-lasting impact on people long after the immediate effect
has been mitigated.
 Poorly planned relief activities can have a significant negative impact not only on the
disaster victims but also on donors and relief agencies. So it is important that physical
therapists join established programmes rather than attempting individual efforts.
 Local, regional, national and international organisations are all involved in mounting a
humanitarian response to disasters. Each will have a prepared disaster management plan.
These plans cover prevention, preparedness, relief and recovery

Phases of Disaster

 The National Governor‘s Association designed a phase of disaster model to help

emergency managers prepare for and respond to a disaster, also known as the ‗life cycle‘
of comprehensive emergency management.
 The four phases of disaster:
o Mitigation
o Preparedness
o Response
o Recovery
 The model helps frame issues related to disaster preparedness as well as economic and
business recovery after a disaster.
 Each phase has particular needs, requires distinct tools, strategies, and resources and
faces different challenges.
 The issues addressed below relate to the resiliency and recovery of the local economy and
business community before and after a major disaster.

PREPAREDNESS
MITIGATION
Education, Outreach and Training
Pre-Disaster Mitigation Efforts
Business Continuity & Emergency Management
Planning
RESPONSE
RECOVERY
Immediate Response to Stakeholders
Post-Disaster Economic Recovery Plan
Establish Business Recovery Center

Pscnotes.com Page 138

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B

Phases of Disaster

Mitigation

 Mitigation involves steps to reduce vulnerability to disaster impacts such as injuries and
loss of life and property.
 This might involve changes in local building codes to fortify buildings; revised zoning
and land use management; strengthening of public infrastructure; and other efforts to
make the community more resilient to a catastrophic event.

Preparedness

 Preparedness focuses on understanding how a disaster might impact the community and
how education, outreach and training can build capacity to respond to and recover from a
disaster.
 This may include engaging the business community, pre-disaster strategic planning, and
other logistical readiness activities.
 The disaster preparedness activities guide provides more information on how to better
prepare an organization and the business community for a disaster.

Response

 Response addresses immediate threats presented by the disaster, including saving lives,
meeting humanitarian needs (food, shelter, clothing, public health and safety), cleanup,
damage assessment, and the start of resource distribution.
 As the response period progresses, focus shifts from dealing with immediate emergency
issues to conducting repairs, restoring utilities, establishing operations for public services
(including permitting), and finishing the cleanup process.
 Triage efforts assess and deal with the most pressing emergency issues. This period is
often marked by some level of chaos, which can last a month or more, depending on the
nature of the disaster and the extent of damage. Federal resources, such as action from the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (in the case of a major disaster declaration) and
non-profit resources such as the Red Cross are deployed immediately
 Business re-entry into the economy begins during this phase. Businesses initially may
face issues with access to their site, preliminary damage assessment, and communications
with staff, vendors, suppliers and customers. Ongoing issues may include access to
capital and workers, the repair of damaged property or inventory, and a diminished
customer base. It is in this phase that long-term future of a region‘s business base will be
saved or lost.
 Business Recovery Centers are quickly set up in a community to centralize small
business recovery resources (e.g. SBA, SBDC, SCORE, CDFI, etc), local bank officers,
technical assistance providers, and other critical assistance for maintaining business
continuity and/or get businesses up and running.

Pscnotes.com Page 139

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Federal resources from SBA, FEMA, HUD, EDA, USDA, etc., as well as state
programs, start to arrive; temporary housing goes up; and the planning for the
reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, facilities, and areas begins. The response phase
typically continues through the sixth month, again depending on the nature of the
disaster.
 It is not uncommon for disasters to reveal a weakened economic development landscape,
with significant gaps in organizational capacity, staff and resources. Thus, economic
development agencies and stakeholders may need additional staff, capacity building
assistance, and training.

Recovery

 Recovery is the fourth phase of disaster and is the restoration of all aspects of the
disaster‘s impact on a community and the return of the local economy to some sense of
normalcy.
 By this time, the impacted region has achieved a degree of physical, environmental,
economic and social stability.
 The recovery phase of disaster can be broken into two periods. The short-term phase
typically lasts from six months to at least one year and involves delivering immediate
services to businesses.
 The long-term phase, which can range up to decades, requires thoughtful strategic
planning and action to address more serious or permanent impacts of a disaster.
 Investment in economic development capacity building becomes essential to foster
economic diversification, attain new resources, build new partnerships and implement
effective recovery strategies and tactics.
 Communities must access and deploy a range of public and private resources to enable
long-term economic recovery.

Highlights of the National Disaster Management Plan

The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) is the first ever national plan prepared in the
country.

Following are the highlights of the NDMP:

 The NDMP has been aligned broadly with the goals and priorities set out in the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
 The Vision of the Plan is to ―Make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster
risk reduction, and significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets –
economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental – by maximizing the ability to
cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities.
 For each hazard, the approach used in this national plan incorporates the four priorities
enunciated in the Sendai Framework into the planning framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction under the five Thematic Areas for Actions:
o Understanding Risk
o Inter-Agency Coordination

Pscnotes.com Page 140

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
o Investing in DRR – Structural Measures
o Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures
o Capacity Development
o The Response part of the Plan has identified eighteen broad activities which have
been arranged into a matrix to be served as a ready reckoner:
o Early Warning, Maps, Satellite inputs, Information Dissemination
o Evacuation of People and Animals
o Search and Rescue of People and Animals
o Medical Care
o Drinking Water/ Dewatering Pumps/ Sanitation Facilities/ Public Health
o Food & Essential Supplies
o Communication
o Housing and Temporary Shelters
o Power
o Fuel
o Transportation
o Relief Logistics and Supply Chain Management
o Disposal of Animal Carcasses
o Fodder for livestock in scarcity-hit areas
o Rehabilitation and Ensuring Safety of Livestock and other Animals, Veterinary
Care
o Data Collection and Management
o Relief Employment
o Media Relations
o The Plan has also incorporated a Chapter on Strengthening Disaster Risk
Governance.
o The generalized responsibility matrix given in this section summarizes the themes
for strengthening Disaster Risk Governance and specifies agencies at the Centre
and State with their respective roles.
o The matrix has six thematic areas in which Central and State Governments have
to take actions to strengthen disaster risk governance:

 Mainstream and integrate DRR and Institutional Strengthening

 Capacity Development
 Promote Participatory Approaches
 Work with Elected Representatives
 Grievance Redress Mechanism
 Promote Quality Standards, Certifications, and Awards for Disaster Risk Management
 The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) provides a framework and direction to
the government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle.
 The NDMP is a dynamic document in the sense that it will be periodically improved
keeping up with the emerging global best practices and knowledge bases in disaster
management.

Pscnotes.com Page 141

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Globally, the approach towards post-disaster restoration and rehabilitation has shifted to
one of betterment reconstruction. The NDMP provides a generalized framework for
recovery since it is not possible to anticipate all the possible elements of betterment
reconstruction.
 The Plan also highlights that the disaster risk reduction will be achieved by
mainstreaming the requirements into the developmental plans.

Disaster Management Support Programme in India by ISRO

 India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic
conditions.
 Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena.
 About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million
hectares is prone to floods; close to 5,700 km long coastline out of the 7,516 km, is prone
to cyclones; about 68% of the cultivable area is susceptible to drought.
 The Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the East and part of West coast are vulnerable to
Tsunami.
 The deciduous/ dry-deciduous forests in different parts of the country experience forest
fires.
 The Himalayan region and the Western Ghats are prone to landslides

DMS programme

 Under the DMS programme, the services emanating from aerospace infrastructure, set up
by ISRO, are optimally synthesized to provide data and information required for efficient
management of natural disasters in the country.
 The Geostationary satellites (Communication and Meteorological), Low Earth Orbiting
Earth Observation satellites, aerial survey systems together with ground infrastructure
form the core element of the observation Systems for disaster management.
 The Decision Support Centre established at National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) of
ISRO is engaged in monitoring natural disasters such as flood, cyclone, agricultural
drought, landslides, earthquakes and forest fires at operational level.
 The information generated from aero-space systems are disseminated to the concerned in
near real time for aiding in decision making.
 The value added products generated using satellite imagery helps in addressing the
information needs covering all the phases of disaster management such as, preparedness,
early warning, response, relief, rehabilitation, recovery and mitigation.

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

 National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) has been entrusted with the nodal
responsibility for human resource development, capacity building including training &
education, research, documentation and policy planning in the field of disaster
management.

Pscnotes.com Page 142

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
 Upgraded from the National Centre for Disaster Management of the Indian Institute of
Public Administration on the 16th October, 2003, NIDM is steadily marching forward to
fulfill its mission to make a disaster resilient India by developing and promoting a culture
of prevention and preparedness at all levels, and emerge as a Centre of Excellence.
 Union Home Minister is the President of the Institute and, its Governing Body is chaired
by Vice Chairman of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).

Mission and Objectives

 Mission of NIDM is to strive relentlessly towards making a disaster free India by

developing and promoting a culture of prevention and preparedness at all levels, provide
assistance in policy formulation and to facilitate in reducing the impact of disasters
through achieving the following objectives:
 Planning and promoting training and capacity building services including strategic
learning.
 Research, documentation and development of national level information base.
 System development and expertise promotion for effective disaster preparedness and
mitigation.
 Promoting awareness and enhancing knowledge and skills of all stakeholders.
 Strengthening institutional mechanisms for training and capacity building of all
stakeholders.
 To become National Resource Centre for the Central and State Governments in the field
of Disaster Management in collaboration with other premier institutions

Case studies - Chernobyl Atomic Plant Tragedy

1986, Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984, Kutch Earthquake
2001 , Indian Tsunami 2004 Fukushima Daiichi
Japan Nuclear Disaster 2011, Uttrakhand Flash
Flood 2013, Ujjain Tragedy 1994, Allahabad
Kumbh Stampede 2013, J & K Flood 2014 etc
Disaster manangement: some case studies

Aspects of Disaster Management

Disaster Prevention

Disaster Prevention is the concept of engaging in activities which intend to prevent or avoid
potential adverse impacts through action taken in advance, activities designed to provide
protection from the occurance of disasters.

Pscnotes.com Page 143

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness activities embedded with risk reduction measures can prevent disaster
situations and also result in saving maximum lives and livelihoods during any disaster situation,
enabling the affected population to get back to normalcy within a short time period.

Minimisation of loss of life and damage to property through facilitation of effective disaster
response and rehabilitation services when required. Preparedness is the main way of reducing the
impact of disasters. Community-based preparedness and management should be a high priority
in physical therapy practice management.

Disaster Response / Relief

Focused predominantly on immediate and short-term needs the division between this
response/relief stage and the subsequent recovery stage is not clear-cut. Some response actions,
such as the supply of temporary housing and water supplies, may extend well into the recovery
stage. Rescue from immediate danger and stabilization of the physical and emotional condition
of survivors is the primary aims of disaster response/relief, which go hand in hand with the
recovery of the dead and the restoration of essential services such as water and power.

Chernobyl Atomic Plant Tragedy 1986

The Chernobyl Power Complex, lying about 130 km north of Kiev, Ukraine, and about 20 km
south of the border with Belarus, consisted of four nuclear reactors of the RBMK-1000 design
(see information page on RBMK Reactors). Units 1 and 2 were constructed between 1970 and
1977, while units 3 and 4 of the same design were completed in 1983.

The accident caused the largest uncontrolled radioactive release into the environment ever
recorded for any civilian operation, and large quantities of radioactive substances were released

into the air for about 10 days. This caused serious

social and economic disruption for large populations in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. Two
radionuclides, the short-lived iodine-131 and the long-lived caesium-137, were particularly
significant for the radiation dose they delivered to members of the public.

The casualties included firefighters who attended the initial fires on the roof of the turbine
building. All these were put out in a few hours, but radiation doses on the first day were

Pscnotes.com Page 144

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
estimated to range up to 20,000 millisieverts (mSv), causing 28 deaths – six of which were
firemen – by the end of July 1986.

The next task was cleaning up the radioactivity at the site so that the remaining three reactors
could be restarted, and the damaged reactor shielded more permanently. About 200,000 people
('liquidators') from all over the Soviet Union were involved in the recovery and clean-up during
1986 and 1987. They received high doses of radiation, averaging around 100 millisieverts. Some
20,000 of them received about 250 mSv and a few received 500 mSv. Later, the number of
liquidators swelled to over 600,000 but most of these received only low radiation doses. The
highest doses were received by about 1000 emergency workers and on-site personnel during the
first day of the accident.

The plant operators' town of Pripyat was evacuated on 27 April (45,000 residents). By 14 May,
some 116,000 people that had been living within a 30-kilometre radius had been evacuated and
later relocated. About 1000 of these returned unofficially to live within the contaminated zone.
Most of those evacuated received radiation doses of less than 50 mSv, although a few received
100 mSv or more.

In the years following the accident, a further 220,000 people were resettled into less
contaminated areas, and the initial 30 km radius exclusion zone (2800 km2) was modified and
extended to cover 4300 square kilometres. This resettlement was due to application of a criterion
of 350 mSv projected lifetime radiation dose, though in fact radiation in most of the affected area
(apart from half a square kilometre) fell rapidly so that average doses were less than 50% above
normal background of 2.5 mSv/yr. See also following section on Resettlement.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

In the early morning hours of December 3, 1984, a poisonous grey cloud (forty tons of toxic
gases) from Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL's)1 pesticide plant at Bhopal spread throughout
the city. Water carrying catalytic material had entered Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) storage tank No.
610. What followed was a nightmare. The killer gas spread through the city, sending residents
scurrying through the dark streets. No alarm ever sounded a warning and no evacuation plan was
prepared. When victims arrived at hospitals breathless and blind, doctors did not know how to
treat them, as UCIL had not provided emergency information.

Since 1980, the Bhopal plant had caused death and injury to many. In December 1981, plant
operator Mohammed Ashraf was killed by a phosgene gas leak. Two other workers were injured.
In May 1982, three American engineers from the chemical products and household plastics
division of UCC came to Bhopal. Their task was to appraise the running of the plant and confirm
that everything was functioning according to the standards laid down by UCC.

The issue of the danger posed by the pesticide plant to Bhopal was raised in the Madhya Pradesh
Assembly in December 1982. However, T S Viyogi, labour minister in the Arjun Singh5
government allayed all fears saying, "A sum of Rs. 250 million has been invested in this unit.
The factory is not a small stone, which can be shifted elsewhere. There is no danger to Bhopal,
nor will there ever be." Equally confident was Mukund: "The gas leak just can't be from my

Pscnotes.com Page 145

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
plant. The plant is shut down.6 Our technology just can't go wrong, we just can't have such
leaks," he said.

Within months after the disaster, the GoI issued an ordinance appointing itself as the sole
representative of the victims for any legal dealings with UCC as regards compensation. The
ordinance was later replaced by the Bhopal Gas Leak (Processing of Claims) Act, 1985. Armed
with this power, the GoI filed its suit for compensation and damages against UCC in the United
States District Court for the Southern District of New York.

Besides filing the suit, one of its prime responsibilities was to register the claims of each and
every gas victim in Bhopal. Analysts felt that this job was never done, or rather, not with any
seriousness for the next ten years. The government set up various inquiry commissions to
investigate the causes of the disaster; they remained half-hearted initiatives at best. UCC, on the
other hand, moved more quickly with its 'investigations': it announced by March 1985 that the
disaster was due to 'an act of sabotage' by a Sikh terrorist. Then they shifted blame to a
disgruntled worker.

kutch earthquake 2001

The 2001 Gujarat earthquake, also known as the Bhuj earthquake, occurred on 26 January,
India's 51st Republic Day, at 08:46 AM IST and lasted for over 2 minutes. The epicentre was
about 9 km south-southwest of the village of Chobari in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District of
Gujarat, India. The intraplate earthquake reached 7.7 on the moment magnitude scale and had a
maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake killed
between 13,805 and 20,023 people (including 18 in southeastern Pakistan), injured another
167,000 and destroyed nearly 400,000 homes.

Reconstruction

Four months after the earthquake the Gujarat government announced the Gujarat Earthquake
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Policy. The policy proposed a different approach to urban and
rural construction with the estimated cost of rebuilding to be US$1.77 billion. The main
objectives of the policy included repairing, building, and strengthening houses and public
buildings. Other objectives included the revival of the economy, health support, and
reconstruction of the community and social infrastructure.

Housing

The housing policy focused on the removal of rubble, setting up temporary shelters, full
reconstruction of damaged houses, and the retrofitting of undamaged units. The policy
established a community-driven housing recovery process. The communities affected by the
earthquake were given the option for complete or partial relocation to in-situ reconstruction. The

Pscnotes.com Page 146

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
total number of eligible houses to be repaired was 929,682 and the total number of eligible
houses to be reconstructed was 213,685. By 2003, 882,896 (94%) houses were repaired and
113,271 (53%) were reconstructed.

City planning

The Environmental Planning Collaborative (EPC) was commissioned to provide a new city plan
for the city of Bhuj. The plan focused on creating a wider roadway network to provide
emergency access to the city. The EPC used land readjustment (LR) in the form of eight town
planning schemes.This was implemented by deducting land from private lot sizes to create
adequate public land for the widening of roadways.The remaining land was readjusted and given
back to the original owners as final plots.

Relief

In order to support the reconstruction and rehabilitation of the city, the Government of Gujarat
created four assistance packages worth up to US$1 billion. These packages assisted about
300,000 families. The government also announced a US$2.5 million package to revive small,
medium, and cottage industries. The World Bank and the Asian Development Bank also
provided loans worth $300 million and $500 million respectively. Assistance was received from
many countries and organisations.

Indian tsunami 2004

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC on 26 December with the
epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The shock had a moment magnitude of 9.1–
9.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The undersea megathrust earthquake was
caused when the Indian Plate was subducted by the Burma Plate and triggered a series of
devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing
230,000–280,000 people in 14 countries.

A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage of the infrastructure,
shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of special concern due to
the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of
humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking
water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, typhoid and
hepatitis A and B. There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease
and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized. In the
days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of
disease spreading. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore
this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programme provided
food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.

Fukushima Daiichi Japan Nuclear Disaster 2011

Pscnotes.com Page 147

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
11 March 2011. A magnitude 9.0 offshore earthquake hit Japan. This was followed by a 14-
metre tsunami which swept into the coastal towns, destroying multitudes of infrastructure in its
path. Unfortunately, the waves also struck the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant.

From the natural disaster, 9.0 earthquake followed by a tsunami it was truly unfortunately
become a man-made disaster when the nuclear reactor melt-function cause many death in the
country. The power plant shouldn't have shut down automatically when the earthquake happen
because when the plant was build it already have been consider to avoid this accident happen
when the natural disaster happen.

Japanese parliamentary panel challenged claims by the plant's operator, Tokyo Electric Power
(Tepco), that the triple meltdown at the plant in north-east Japan had been caused solely by a 14-
metre tsunami on 11 March last year. The panel said the magnitude-9 earthquake that preceded
the waves could not be ruled out as a cause of the accident.

It accused Tepco and regulators at the nuclear and industrial safety agency of failing to take
adequate safety measures, despite evidence that the area was susceptible to powerful earthquakes
and tsunamis.

Since 2006, the regulators and Tepco were aware of the risk that a total outage of electricity at
the Fukushima Daiichi plant might occur if a tsunami were to reach the level of the site. But it
accused Tepco of ignoring warnings going as far back as 2006 that a tsunami could cause a
blackout at the plant.

Uttrakhand Flash Flood 2013

In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst centered on the North Indian state Uttarakhand caused
devastating floods and landslides becoming the country's worst natural disaster since the 2004
tsunami. The reason the floods occurred was that the rainfall received was on a larger scale than
the regular rainfall the state usually received.

The Army, Air Force, Navy, Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Border Security Force,
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Public Works Department and local administrations
worked together for quick rescue operations. Several thousand soldiers were deployed for the
rescue missions. Activists of political and social organisations were also involved in the rescue
and management of relief centres. The national highway and other important roads were closed
to regular traffic. Helicopters were used to rescue people, but due to the rough terrain, heavy fog
and rainfall, manoeuvring them was a challenge. By 21 June 2013, the Army had deployed
10,000 soldiers and 11 helicopters, the Navy had sent 45 naval divers, and the Air force had
deployed 43 aircraft including 36 helicopters. From 17 to 30 June 2013, the IAF airlifted a total
of 18,424 people - flying a total of 2,137 sorties and dropping/landing a total of 3,36,930 kg of
relief material and equipments.

Indo Tibetan border Police (ITBP) a Force which guards the Indo China borders on the high
himalayas with its 3 Regional Response Centres (RRCs) based at Matli (Uttarkashi), Gauchar
(Chamoli) and Pithoragarh swung into action and started rescue and relief operation. 2000 strong

Pscnotes.com Page 148

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
ITBP force with its mountaineering skills and improvisation methods started rescue of stranded
pilgrims. It was a simultaneous effort by ITBP at Kedar ghati, Gangotri valley and Govind ghat
areas. According to official figures by ITBP, they were able to rescue 33,009 pilgrims in 15 days
on their own from extreme remote and inaccessible areas.Before Army or Air Force called in,
being deployed in the nearby areas, ITBP took the first call and saved many lives. They also
distributed food packets to stranded pilgrims who were in a pathetic condition being not having
any food for more than 72 hours at many places.

Allahabad Kumbh Stampede 2013

On 10 February 2013, during the Hindu festival Kumbh Mela, a stampede broke out at the train
station in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India, killing 42 people and injuring at least 45.

According to initial reports, the stampede broke out after a railing on a footbridge collapsed at
the Allahabad railway station. Eyewitnesses, however, said that the stampede was triggered after
the railway police charged at the crowd with wooden sticks in order to control the huge rush at
the station. 42 people were killed by the crush of people, including 29 women, 12 men, and an
eight-year-old girl who died after waiting almost two hours for help. At least 45 people were
injured in addition. In an unrelated event earlier that day, two people were killed in another
stampede.

Ujjain Tragedy 1994

The Ujjain incident reportedly occurred because of a delay in opening the gates to the sanctum
sanctorum, outside which nearly 20,000 devotees had gathered since the early hours of the
morning.

s the crowd surged forward, some people slipped and fell on the marble staircase leading to the
main complex, sparking panic. Within a minute, there was a huge pile of people. It was only
when we started helping them get on their feet that we realised that those at the bottom were
dead.

J & K Flood 2014

On the afternoon of September 4 of 2014, two days before Jammu and Kashmir was ravaged by
its worst floods in more than 50 years, three hydrological stations on the Jhelum river, which
runs through the valley, had detected that serious danger was lurking. Less than 50 km upstream
of Srinagar, the Sangam station, operated by the Central Water Commission (CWC), indicated
that water levels had risen from 5.7 m on September 3 to 10.13 m on September 4. That's more
than the height of a storey in a regular house.

Pscnotes.com Page 149

 MP PAPER 1 SECTION B
Nearer the capital, the Ram Munshi Bagh hydrological station registered a jump of more than 3
m in the water level between the afternoons of September 3 and 4. Further downstream, the
Safapora hydrological station also recorded readings of a similar jump in the same period.

The information provided by these three stations should have set alarm bells ringing within the
state administration which should have then prepared itself for a major flood hitting the area. It
could have provided a 24-hour window to evacuate people from lowlying areas, deploy special
response teams and to arrange for rationing supplies. Except that none of this happened.

The explanation for this inaction is staggering-these CWC stations are not flood forecasting
stations. They are merely supposed to monitor the flow of water from India to Pakistan under the
Indus Water Treaty of 1960. When they detected the rise in water levels, the information was
quickly passed on to the local administration but they simply looked past it, thinking it had
nothing to do with flood management. No one bothered to join the dots.

That role is supposed to be performed by the NDMA, headquartered in a plush building in New
Delhi's Safdarjung Enclave. Since the NDA Government took office in May this year, it has
secured the resignations of five of its members including its vicechairman, thereby rendering the
body headless. While there are still technical experts housed in the building, an NDMA official
explains that a lack of leadership means that no work has happened there for months now.

The NDMA, however, is not directly involved with disaster management in each state. Its
mandate is to frame policy and put structures in place. Disaster management in the states is
supposed to be carried out by the state disaster management authority and district disaster
management authorities, all of whom are supposed to have incident response teams in place to
deal with such situations. Here again, both the NDMA and state government failed. In February
2012, the state government had approved a three-tier disaster management policy but it was
never able to create a separate department which would only deal with disasters. The task was
assigned to the respective divisional commissioners or deputy commissioners of the area who
presumably had several other things to deal with.

Pscnotes.com Page 150