Module-3- Curbing Climate Change

The Basic Science of Climate Change, Consequences, Mitigation,

Adaptation, Mitigation Policies.

Definition of Curbing Climate Change

Curbing climate change refers to reducing or limiting the severity of

global climate change by addressing its root causes—especially the
emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs)—and by implementing strategies
to avoid or slow down the negative impacts on the environment,
societies, and economies.

In other words:

It means taking deliberate actions to:

 Reduce GHG emissions (mitigation),

 Enhance natural carbon sinks (like forests and oceans),
 Transition to sustainable systems (energy, transport, agriculture),
 And build resilience to current and future climate risks
(adaptation).

🌎 The goal of curbing climate change:

To limit global warming, ideally to 1.5°C to 2°C above pre-industrial

levels, as outlined in the Paris Agreement, in order to:

 Prevent irreversible damage to ecosystems,

 Protect human health and livelihoods,
 And preserve a livable planet for future generations.
Curbing climate change involves a wide range of actions aimed at
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing climate resilience.
Here’s a breakdown of the key strategies:

🔋 Energy Transition

 Shift to Renewables: Replace fossil fuels with solar, wind, hydro,

and other clean energy sources.
 Energy Efficiency: Improve building insulation, lighting,
appliances, and industrial processes to use less energy.
 Electrification: Transition from combustion engines to electric
vehicles and electrify heating systems.

🌳 Carbon Sequestration

 Reforestation & Afforestation: Plant trees and restore forests to

absorb CO₂.
 Soil Carbon Storage: Use regenerative agriculture to increase
carbon stored in soil.
 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Capture CO₂ emissions
from power plants and industrial sources for underground storage.

Urban & Infrastructure Changes

 Public Transit & Urban Planning: Reduce reliance on cars

through better city design and mass transit.
 Green Buildings: Promote sustainable construction using low-
carbon materials and smart technologies.
 Circular Economy: Reuse, recycle, and design out waste in all
sectors.
🧪 Policy, Innovation & Behavior

 Carbon Pricing: Implement carbon taxes or cap-and-trade

systems.
 Climate Innovation: Invest in low-carbon technologies, like green
hydrogen or next-gen batteries.
 Lifestyle Shifts: Promote plant-based diets, reduce air travel, and
encourage sustainable consumption.

🌎 Global Cooperation

 International Agreements: Support and enforce frameworks like

the Paris Agreement.
 Climate Finance: Fund low-carbon development and climate
adaptation in developing nations.
 Disaster Preparedness: Invest in resilient infrastructure to
withstand climate extremes.

The Basic Science of Climate Change

1. The Greenhouse Effect

 Natural Greenhouse Effect: Earth’s atmosphere contains gases

like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and water vapor (H₂O)
that trap some of the Sun’s heat, keeping the planet warm enough
to support life.
 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: Human activities (especially
burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture) add more
greenhouse gases (GHGs), intensifying heat retention and warming
the planet.

Key Greenhouse Gases:

 Global Warming Potential
Gas Source
(GWP)*

CO₂ Fossil fuels, deforestation 1

Livestock, rice fields,

CH₄ ~25
landfills
Fertilizers, industry,
N₂O ~298
combustion
F-gases Refrigerants, industry 100s–1000s

*Relative to CO₂ over 100 years.

🌡️2. Earth's Energy Balance

 Incoming Solar Radiation: The Sun delivers energy to Earth,

mostly as visible light.
 Outgoing Infrared Radiation: Earth radiates energy back to
space as heat (infrared radiation).
 Imbalance: Greenhouse gases trap more outgoing heat, causing a
net energy gain—hence, global warming.

📈 3. Evidence of Climate Change

 Temperature Rise: Earth's average surface temperature has

increased by about 1.1°C since the late 19th century.
 Melting Ice: Glaciers, sea ice, and polar ice sheets are shrinking.
 Sea Level Rise: Caused by melting ice and thermal expansion of
seawater.
  Extreme Weather: More frequent and intense heatwaves,
droughts, storms, and floods.

🌍 4. Climate Feedback Loops

 Positive Feedbacks (amplify warming):

o Melting ice reduces albedo (reflectivity), leading to more
heat absorption.
o Thawing permafrost releases methane.
 Negative Feedbacks (stabilize system):
o Increased plant growth in some regions may absorb more
CO₂ (though limited).

🔄 5. Climate vs. Weather

 Weather: Short-term, local atmospheric conditions (e.g., today’s

rain).
 Climate: Long-term average of weather patterns over decades or
more.

1. Sunlight Reaches Earth

 The Sun emits energy → mostly visible light.

 ~30% of this is reflected back to space (by clouds, ice, etc.).
 ~70% is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere →
warms the planet.
🌍 2. Earth Radiates Heat Back

 The warmed Earth emits infrared radiation (heat) back toward

space.
 But greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit
some of that heat, trapping it.

🧪 Key Greenhouse Gases:

 CO₂: from fossil fuels & deforestation

 CH₄: from agriculture & landfills
 N₂O: from fertilizers
 H₂O: varies naturally
 F-gases: man-made refrigerants

🔁 3. Feedback Loops

Positive feedback (bad):

 Ice melts → less reflection → more heat absorbed → more ice

melts.
 Permafrost thaws → releases methane → more warming.

Negative feedback (stabilizing):

 More CO₂ → some plant growth increases → more CO₂ absorbed

(but limited effect).

📊 4. What We Observe

 🌡️Temperature: Global average has risen ~1.1°C since pre-

industrial times.
 ❄️Ice: Arctic sea ice, glaciers, and polar ice sheets are shrinking.
  🌊 Sea Level: Rising from both melting ice and expanding warm
water.
 🌪️Weather: More intense storms, floods, droughts, heatwaves.

🔮 5. Climate Models

 Scientists use climate models to simulate Earth’s climate system.

 These models help predict future scenarios based on emissions
levels.
 They show: If we cut emissions → warming slows. If not → more
severe impacts.

Consequences of Climate Change

1. Rising Global Temperatures

 What’s happening?
Global surface temperature has risen ~1.1°C since 1880.
 Why it matters:
Even small increases cause big shifts in weather, sea levels, and
ecosystems.

2. 🌊 Sea Level Rise

 Causes:
o Melting glaciers and ice sheets (Greenland, Antarctica).
o Thermal expansion of seawater (warmer water expands).
 Impacts:
 o Coastal erosion.
o Saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.
o Displacement of people in low-lying areas (e.g., island
nations, coastal megacities).

3. Extreme Weather Events

 More frequent and intense:

o Heatwaves.
o Floods and heavy rainfall.
o Droughts.
o Hurricanes and cyclones.
 Examples:
o Prolonged droughts in Africa and the Middle East.
o Increased wildfire risk in California and Australia.

4. ❄️Melting Ice & Snow

 Arctic sea ice is declining rapidly.

 Glaciers are retreating worldwide.
 Permafrost is thawing, releasing methane—a potent greenhouse
gas.

5. 🌱 Ecosystem Disruption

 Species migration: Animals and plants are shifting ranges to stay

within tolerable climates.
 Coral bleaching: Warmer oceans cause corals to expel algae,
leading to widespread die-offs.
 Biodiversity loss: Changing habitats, invasive species, and climate
stress push many species toward extinction.
6. 🚜 Agriculture & Food Security

 Droughts and floods disrupt crop production.

 Changing growing seasons affect food availability.
 Livestock suffer from heat stress and reduced grazing areas.
 Pests & diseases may spread into new regions.

7. Human Health

 Heat-related illnesses and deaths are rising.

 Vector-borne diseases (like malaria, dengue) are expanding into
new regions.
 Air pollution and wildfire smoke worsen respiratory and
cardiovascular problems.
 Mental health impacts from disasters and displacement.

8. 💰 Economic Consequences

 Infrastructure damage from storms, flooding, and sea-level rise.

 Agricultural losses threaten livelihoods.
 Insurance costs increase, especially in high-risk areas.
 Climate migration puts strain on cities and resources.

9. Social & Political Instability

 Water and food scarcity can lead to conflict.

 Climate refugees may increase due to uninhabitable regions.
 Inequality worsens, as the poorest are least equipped to adapt but
most affected.
Future Climate Projections: Based on Emissions Pathways

IPCC Scenarios (Simplified):

 SSP1-1.9 / SSP1-2.6: Low emissions (strong mitigation, net zero

~2050).
 SSP2-4.5: Intermediate emissions (moderate mitigation).
 SSP3-7.0 / SSP5-8.5: High emissions (fossil fuel–intensive, little
mitigation).

📈 Projected Temperature Rise by 2100

Expected
Scenario Outcome
Warming
Low (1.5– Still damaging, but manageable with
+1.5 to +2.0°C
2°C) adaptation.
Intermediate +2.5 to +3.5°C High risk of irreversible impacts.
High +4.0°C or more Severe, global, systemic disruption.

🌍 Projected Consequences by Scenario

1. Sea Level Rise

 Low emissions: ~0.3–0.6 m by 2100.

 High emissions: Up to 1 m or more.
 Long-term: Several meters over centuries due to ice sheet collapse
(locked-in once thresholds are crossed).

2. Extreme Heat

 Days above 35–40°C will multiply, especially in the tropics.

  Heatwaves that were once "once in 50 years" may become annual
events under high-emissions.

3. Water Scarcity

 Snowmelt-dependent regions (e.g., Himalayas, Andes) face

reduced water supplies.
 Severe droughts become more common in Mediterranean, western
US, Australia, and parts of Africa.

4. Food Production

 Crop yields may decline significantly due to heat, drought, and

extreme weather.
 Fisheries decline due to ocean warming and acidification.
 Food prices increase → food insecurity spreads.

5. Ecosystem Collapse

 Coral reefs: >99% may disappear under +2°C.

 Boreal forests and Amazon rainforest at risk of irreversible dieback
beyond ~+3°C.
 Species extinction accelerates.

6. Human Health

 By 2100, heat-related mortality will increase sharply in high-

emission scenarios.
 Malaria, dengue, and other diseases spread into new regions.
 Disasters cause trauma, displacement, and mental health crises.

7. Economic Impact

 By 2100, unmitigated climate change could reduce global GDP by

10–20% or more.
 Poor and vulnerable communities bear the greatest losses.
  Adaptation costs increase over time, becoming unaffordable in
some areas.

🔄 Tipping Points

These are critical thresholds beyond which major changes become

irreversible or self-reinforcing:

 Melting of the Greenland/West Antarctic ice sheets.

 Collapse of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
(AMOC).
 Amazon rainforest dieback.
 Thawing of methane-rich permafrost.

These could be triggered under 2–3°C of warming—possibly even

earlier.

Mitigation: What We Can Do

🔋 Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

 Shift to Renewable Energy: Wind, solar, hydro, geothermal.

 Improve Energy Efficiency: Buildings, appliances, transport.
 Electrify Everything: EVs, electric heating, green hydrogen.
 Stop Fossil Fuel Expansion: Phase out coal, oil, and gas.

🌳 Carbon Sequestration

 Natural Solutions:
o Reforestation, afforestation.
o Soil carbon storage through regenerative agriculture.
 Technological Solutions:
o Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS).
o Direct Air Capture (DAC).
Urban & Infrastructure Changes

 Sustainable cities: Public transit, bike-friendly, energy-smart

buildings.
 Green infrastructure: Urban trees, cool roofs, permeable
pavements.

🧪 Policy & Innovation

 Carbon pricing: Taxes, cap-and-trade.

 Climate regulations: Clean air laws, building codes.
 Research & development: Support low-carbon tech and
sustainable materials.
 Corporate accountability: Decarbonization targets and reporting.

👥 Behavioral & Societal Shifts

 Low-impact lifestyles: Eat less meat, fly less, waste less.

 Circular economy: Reuse, recycle, design out waste.
 Education and awareness: Empower informed decisions and
action.

Mitigation (Tackling the Cause)

 Renewables (solar, wind, hydro)

 Electrify everything (EVs, heat pumps)
 Energy efficiency (smart buildings, better insulation)
 Carbon capture & reforestation
 Policy tools: carbon pricing, green investments
 Behavioral shifts: low-impact living, less waste

🛡️4. Adaptation (Living with the Impacts)

🌾 Agriculture & Food Security

  Drought-resistant crops.
 Shifting planting seasons.
 Efficient irrigation and water storage.

Urban Planning

 Cool roofs, urban green spaces.

 Improved drainage to handle floods.
 Climate-resilient buildings & infrastructure.

🌊 Water & Coastal Protection

 Sea walls, levees, mangrove restoration.

 Water reuse and conservation technologies.
 Managed retreat from high-risk zones.

Public Health

 Heatwave warning systems.

 Expanded healthcare access.
 Disease monitoring & prevention (e.g., for malaria).

📊 Disaster Risk Reduction

 Early warning systems for storms, floods, and fires.

 Emergency response plans and community preparedness.
 Insurance and safety nets for vulnerable populations.

🤝 Community & Governance

 Involve local communities in planning.

 Empower women, Indigenous peoples, and vulnerable groups.
 International cooperation for funding and knowledge sharing.

⚖️Why Mitigation & Adaptation Must Go Together

  Mitigation limits future damage.
 Adaptation reduces suffering from unavoidable impacts.
 The earlier we act, the less we’ll need to adapt—and the more
lives, ecosystems, and economies we’ll protect.

Key Climate Change Mitigation Policies

🧮 A. Market-Based Instruments

1. Carbon Pricing

 Carbon Tax: A fixed cost per ton of CO₂ emitted.

o Incentivizes low-carbon practices.
o Example: Sweden’s high carbon tax (~$130/ton).
 Cap-and-Trade (ETS): A market sets the price by limiting total
emissions and allowing companies to buy/sell allowances.
o Example: EU Emissions Trading System.

2. Subsidy Reform

 Remove fossil fuel subsidies to discourage carbon-intensive

energy.
 Redirect subsidies to renewables and green tech.

B. Regulatory Policies

1. Emission Standards

 Vehicle fuel economy and CO₂ limits.

 Power plant efficiency regulations.

2. Renewable Energy Mandates

  Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS): Require utilities to source
a % of electricity from renewables.
o Example: Many U.S. states, Germany’s Energiewende.

3. Energy Efficiency Regulations

 Building codes, appliance standards, lighting rules.

💡 C. Innovation & Investment Policies

1. R&D Funding

 Public investment in low-carbon technology (e.g., hydrogen,

energy storage, carbon capture).
 International initiatives like Mission Innovation.

2. Green Infrastructure Investment

 Public transit, smart grids, electric vehicle charging networks.

🌱 D. Nature-Based Solutions

 Reforestation and afforestation programs.

 Soil carbon sequestration incentives for farmers.
 Wetland restoration for carbon sinks and flood mitigation.

🌐 E. International Climate Agreements

1. Paris Agreement (2015)

 Goal: Limit warming to well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C.

 Countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
 Non-binding but sets global expectations and cooperation.
2. Net-Zero Commitments

 Many countries and companies now pledge net-zero GHGs by

mid-century.
 Supported by domestic policy, carbon markets, and innovation.

‍ F. Just Transition Policies

 Support for workers in fossil fuel industries (job retraining,

economic diversification).
 Equity-focused adaptation and mitigation (funding for Global
South, Indigenous inclusion, etc.).

✅ Summary Table: Mitigation Policy Tools

Policy Tool Type Example
Carbon tax Market-based Sweden
Cap-and-trade (ETS) Market-based EU Emissions Trading System
Renewable mandates Regulatory Germany, California
Efficiency standards Regulatory Fuel economy, building codes
R&D investments Innovation U.S. DOE, EU Horizon programs
Reforestation programs Nature-based India, Brazil, Kenya
Paris Agreement Global treaty Nearly all countries (UNFCCC)