Introduction to Statics (APM01A1)

Garreth Kemp

February 4, 2020
1.3 Displacement

Study the displacement from initial point P1 (x1 , y1 ) to final point

P2 (x2 , y2 ).

To emphasise the fact that P1 is initial & P2 is final, we write

−−−→
P1 P2

If we started at P2 and ended at P1 , then how would we write the

displacement?
1.3 Displacement

Note:
−−−→ −−−→
P1 P2 6= P2 P1
Two key points when specifying displacement:
1. Magnitude
2. Direction
Let’s look at a 3D example:
1.3.1 Notation

Always, always, always remember the arrow on top.

Correct
−−−→
P1 P2
Incorrect
P1 P2
Vectors have the bar on top, scalars do not!

We’ll come back to notation...

1.3.2 Magnitude and direction of Displacement

First look at the 2D case:

I Magnitude is determined by Pythagoras

I Forward direction is specified by angles α and β.
1.3.2 Magnitude and direction of Displacement

Quick question: Does the magnitude care about direction?

1.3.2 Magnitude and direction of Displacement

Now for the 3D case:

1.3.2 Magnitude and direction of Displacement
1.3.2 Magnitude and direction of Displacement
−−−→
Let: ||P1 P2 || = a.
ax
l = cos (α) =
a
ay
m = cos (β) =
a
az
n = cos (γ) =
a

Calculate l 2 + m2 + n2
1.3.3 Composition of Displacement

We represent displacement by an arrow in space. How do we now

add two displacements together?

−−−→ −−−→ −−−→

P1 P3 = P1 P2 + P2 P3
−−−→
P1 P3 is another displacement
1.3.3 Composition of Displacement
Problems - P1.3.3. Example

Study LD:
1. Name the directed line segments on the floor which is a
−→
projection of LD.
−→
2. Calculate the length and the directional cosines of LD.
3. Then find the angles...
Recap

What have we done so far?

I We have studied displacement
I Represented it by an arrow in space - 3D space
I Remember the notation - P1 P2
I Learnt how to calculate magnitude - |P1 P2 |
I Learnt how to find the directions - Directional cosines
I Learnt how to add displacements together

Turns out that displacement is an example of a vector

1.4 Vectors

Now we will define a vector space V , which for this course

V = R3 .

R3 is the 3-dimensional space of all possible line

segments/displacements.
1. Let v , u ∈ V . Consider v + u
1.4 Vectors

2. Let c ∈ R. Consider c a
1.4 Vectors

Let’s investigate more properties:

I Consider a + b and b + a

I Consider a + b + c = a + b + c
1.4 Vectors
Let’s investigate more properties:
I There is an element of V , denoted by 0, such that

0+a=a+0=a

I Given 0 ∈ V , there exists an element (−1)a such that

a + (−1)a = (−1)a + a = 0.
1.4 Vectors
Let’s investigate more properties:
I If c ∈ R, then


c a + b = ca + cb

I If a, b ∈ R, then
(a + b) v = av + bv .
1.4 Vectors
Let’s investigate more properties:
I If a, b ∈ R, then
(ab)v = a(bv )

I If v ∈ V , then
1 v = v.
If any set of elements satisfies the above properties, we call them
vectors and the space in which they live a vector space.

There are plenty of other mathematical objects that can be called

vectors...

Definition: Vectors
A vector is a quantity that can be represented by a directed line
segment (arrow) with specific magnitude and direction.
1.4.2 Scalars

A scalar is a quantity that can be specified by a single number.

Can be positive, negative or zero. Examples:

1.4.3 Notation

There are different ways to the write vectors...

1.5 Algebraic rules for vectors

The following applies to all vectors...

1.5.1 Equality of vectors

Remember there are two things needed to specify a vector:

So, if we have two vectors with same magnitude and same

direction, then they are equal

a=b
1.5.2 Negative vectors

Say we have the following scenario:

Then
a = −b
and it follows that:

− (−a) = a
1.5.3 Vector sum

We have already seen how to sum two vectors a and b

Note the sequence - if we have a + b then

I a is drawn first
I b is drawn second
I Tail of b is drawn at the tip of a.
1.5.3 Vector sum

Algebraic properties of the vector sum:

1. Vector sun is closed

2. Vector sum is commutative

3. Vector sum is associative

1.5.4 Null vector

There exists a vector such that when added to any other vector a
gives a. Call it 0:
a + 0 = 0 + a = a.
1.5.5 Vector difference

How do we think about a − b?

1.5.5 Vector difference

Calculate
(a − b) + b = a
A huge sigh of relief

The algebraic properties that we have seen thus far imply that
vector expressions can be manipulated just like scalar expressions
when it comes to the + and - operations.
1.5.6 Product of a scalar and a vector

What happens when we multiply a scalar p with a vector a?

Consider
a+a+a
(Think about its direction and magnitude)

For p > 0, we define pa as follows:

pa k a, |pa| = p|a|
1.6 Geometric Applications

The theory of vectors, and our vector algebra, that we have been
developing suggests that it may be applied to problems in
geometry.
Let’s have a look at some examples.

There are three examples that we will look at in this course.

In the notes, they are V1.6.1, V1.6.2, and V1.6.4.

1.6 Geometric Applications

V1.6.1: Show that the centre points of successive sides of a

quadrilateral triangle are connected, a parallelogram will be
obtained.
1.6 Geometric Applications

V1.6.2: Show that the line that joins the centre points of two sides
of a triangle is parallel to the third side, and that the length of this
line is half that of the third side.
1.6 Geometric Applications

In order to tackle our third example, we need to make use of a

pretty neat result:

It begins by considering three points that lie on a straight line.

1.6 Geometric Applications

V1.6.4: Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each

other.
1.7 Component Form of Vectors

Here’s a nice way of writing vectors...

Vectors are arrows in space and thus need two things:

Consider the vector a. It’s magnitude |a| = a. Let’s study

 
1
q= a
a

What is q’s direction and magnitude?

1.7 Component Form of Vectors

Here’s a nice way of writing vectors...

Vectors are arrows in space and thus need two things:

Consider the vector a. It’s magnitude |a| = a. Let’s study

 
1
q= a
a

What is q’s direction and magnitude?

q has the same direction as a. Write q = â

1.7 Component Form of Vectors

Here’s a nice way of writing vectors...

Vectors are arrows in space and thus need two things:

Consider the vector a. It’s magnitude |a| = a. Let’s study

 
1
q= a
a

What is q’s direction and magnitude?

q has the same direction as a. Write q = â

 
1
â = a, a = aâ.
a
1.7.1 Component Form of Vectors

Definition: A unit vector â is a vector with magnitude 1.

Its primary role is to indicate direction.

The unit vectors in the Cartesian coordinate directions are very

important.
{x̂, ŷ , ẑ}, {i, j, k, ...}
1.7.2 Component Form of Vectors

Now let’s define components and projections.

1.7.3 Component Form of Vectors

Summation of vectors in terms of components

Here’s a useful theorem:
Let e be some arbitrary direction is 3d space. The e component of
the vector sum = sum of the e components.
1.7.4 Component Form
Here is, perhaps, a more familiar way of writing vectors.
Vector a is equal to the sum of its projections along the x, y and z
directions
a = ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ.
1.7.4 Component Form
Magnitude and direction
We have:

a = ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ.
The magnitude q
|a| = a = ax2 + ay2 + az2
The direction
ax
l = cos (α) =
a
ay
m = cos (β) =
a
az
n = cos (γ) =
a
1.7.4 Component Form

Vector Equality
Let a = b. Then

ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ = bx x̂ + by ŷ + bz ẑ
1.7.4 Component Form

Vector Sum
Let c = a + b.
Then

cx x̂ + cy ŷ + cz ẑ = ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ + bx x̂ + by ŷ + bz ẑ
= (ax + bx ) x̂ + (ay + by ) ŷ + (az + bz ) ẑ

And we thus conclude

cx = ax + bx , cy = ay + by , cz = az + bz
1.7.4 Component Form

Product of a scalar and a vector

Now consider
λa = λ (ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ)
Using our rules, this is

λa = (λax ) x̂ + (λay ) ŷ + (λaz ) ẑ

What about the unit vector?

a
â = =
a
1.7.5 Position Vector
The position vector of point P indicated by r is the vector that
links the origin to P.
1.7.5 Position Vector

Or if we have P1 and P2 , then

P1 P2 = r2 − r1 .
1.8 The Scalar Product
Some Motivation first:
1.8.1 The Definition

The scalar product is a map that takes in two vectors and gives
back a number. For vectors a and b, the scalar product is denoted
by
a · b.
Here’s the definition
a · b = ab cos (θ)
1.8.2 Special Cases
To gain some intuition of this new thing, let’s look at special cases.
1. Calculate a · a

2. When is a · b = 0?

3. What is the scalar product between two unit vectors?

1.8.2 Special Cases
To gain some intuition of this new thing, let’s look at special cases.
1. From the above, what is

x̂ · x̂ =
x̂ · ŷ =
x̂ · ẑ =

2. For a written in component form, what does a · x̂ give?

1.8.3 Algebraic Properties of the Scalar Product

1. Closure? Is the scalar product closed?

2. Commutative?

3. It is associative with regard to product of a scalar and vector:

(αa) · (βb) = (αβ) a · b.

1.8.3 Algebraic Properties of the Scalar Product

1. Finally, it is distributive:

(a + b) · c = a · c + b · c
1.8.4 Scalar Products in terms of the components
Given

a = ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ, and b = bx x̂ + by ŷ + bz ẑ

Calculate a · b
1.9 The Vector Product

Figure: Cork screw

1.9 The Vector Product

Figure: Angular momentum

1.9 The Vector Product

Let’s look at a very simple example - opening a door

1.9 The Vector Product

Is there a mathematical operation capable of describing these

scenarios?
1.9 The Vector Product

Is there a mathematical operation capable of describing these

scenarios?
Yes!
1.9 The Vector Product

Is there a mathematical operation capable of describing these

scenarios?
Yes!
The Vector Product or The Cross Product
1.9 The Vector Product

Is there a mathematical operation capable of describing these

scenarios?
Yes!
The Vector Product or The Cross Product
Here’s the definition:

a × b = ab sin (θ) n̂
1.9.2 Special Cases

1. When two vectors are parallel or anti-parallel

2. The Cartesian unit vectors - x̂, ŷ and ẑ

1.9.2 Special Cases

1. What is a × ê?

Note that we can always write (with respect to ê)

a = a|| + a⊥
1.9.3 Algebraic Properties of the Vector Product

1. Vector product is closed

2. Is a × b = b × a?

3. Vector Product is associative

(αa) × (βb) = (αβ) a × b

1.9.3 Algebraic Properties of the Vector Product

1. The Vector Product is distributive

a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
1.9.4 Component form of the Vector Product

There is a more algebraic way of thinking about/calculating the

vector product.

a × b = (ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ) × (bx x̂ + by ŷ + bz ẑ)

1.9.4 Component form of the Vector Product
Here’s a short-cut for calculating the vector product in component
form:

a × b = (ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ) × (bx x̂ + by ŷ + bz ẑ)

1. Step 1. Set up a 3 × 3 matrix

 
x̂ ŷ ẑ
 ax ay az 
bx by bz

2. Step 2. Take the determinant of this matrix

 
x̂ ŷ ẑ x̂ ŷ ẑ
det  ax ay az  , ax ay az
bx by bz bx by bz
1.9.4 Component form of the Vector Product

How does one take the determinant?

Examples/applications
Examples/applications
Examples/applications
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

In this section, we will learn about the scalar triple product.

We know that b × c is another vector, d say.

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

In this section, we will learn about the scalar triple product.

We know that b × c is another vector, d say.

We know that a · d gives a scalar.

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

In this section, we will learn about the scalar triple product.

We know that b × c is another vector, d say.

We know that a · d gives a scalar.

Let’s put these two together to form the scalar triple product

a·b×c
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

In this section, we will learn about the scalar triple product.

We know that b × c is another vector, d say.

We know that a · d gives a scalar.

Let’s put these two together to form the scalar triple product

a·b×c
→ a · (b × c)

This has all sorts of geometric applications

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product
Consider the figure below:

Figure: Parallelepipied
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.

The area of a parallelepiped is |b × c|.

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.

The area of a parallelepiped is |b × c|.

The height h is just

h = a cos (θ) = n̂ · a.
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.

The area of a parallelepiped is |b × c|.

The height h is just

h = a cos (θ) = n̂ · a.

Now let’s put these together

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.

The area of a parallelepiped is |b × c|.

The height h is just

h = a cos (θ) = n̂ · a.

Now let’s put these together

V = |b × c| n̂ · a
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.

The area of a parallelepiped is |b × c|.

The height h is just

h = a cos (θ) = n̂ · a.

Now let’s put these together

V = |b × c| n̂ · a
= (|b × c| n̂) · a
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product
The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = (Area)(height) = Ah.

The area of a parallelepiped is |b × c|.

The height h is just

h = a cos (θ) = n̂ · a.

Now let’s put these together

V = |b × c| n̂ · a
= (|b × c| n̂) · a

But we also know A = |A| Â

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

So

|b × c| n̂ = b × c
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

So

|b × c| n̂ = b × c
V = (b × c) · a
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

So

|b × c| n̂ = b × c
V = (b × c) · a

As it is written now, V can be ± because the scalar product can

be ±. So
V = Abs ((b × c) · a)
where Abs means absolute value.
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

So

|b × c| n̂ = b × c
V = (b × c) · a

As it is written now, V can be ± because the scalar product can

be ±. So
V = Abs ((b × c) · a)
where Abs means absolute value.

Here’s a shortcut to calculate a · (b × c)

1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

ax ay az
a · (b × c) = bx by bz
cx cy cz
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

a · b × c = −a · c × b

ax ay az ax ay az
bx by bz = − cx cy cz
cx cy cz bx by bz
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

a · b × c = −a · c × b

ax ay az ax ay az
bx by bz = − cx cy cz
cx cy cz bx by bz

Here’s the general rule: swapping any two vectors in a · b × c gives

a minus sign.

a · b × c = −b · a × c
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

a · b × c = −a · c × b

ax ay az ax ay az
bx by bz = − cx cy cz
cx cy cz bx by bz

Here’s the general rule: swapping any two vectors in a · b × c gives

a minus sign.

a · b × c = −b · a × c
a·b×c = c·a×b

and so on
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product

Here are some general results for the scalar triple product:
a · b × c = 0 if
1. If a, b and c are co-planar
2. Any two of these vectors are multiples of each other
3. Obvisously, if any of them are equal.
1.10 Multiple Products - The Scalar Triple Product
Example:
a = 2x̂ − 3ŷ + 4ẑ b = x̂ + 2ŷ − ẑ, c = 3x̂ − ŷ + 2ẑ
Calculate a · b × c
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle
We have seen the condition for static equilibrium of a point
particle.

Now let’s survey some of the systems that can be solved/studied

using Newtonian mechanics.
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle

The process is pretty much the same for all these systems:
1. Choose a reference frame.
2. Draw a free body diagram representing all the forces acting
3. Resolve the forces into components
4. Solve Newton II:

Fx = mẍ
Fy = mÿ
Fz = mz̈
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle
A slightly more interesting case is when you have coupled particles.
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle
But the process is largely the same. You apply the list to each
particle separately.
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle

Things to watch out for.

1. Friction force always opposes the direction of motion

2. Normal forces (or contact or reaction) are always normal to

the surface
2.6 - Equilibrium of a particle

Let’s look at the following example:

Say the coefficient of static friction between all surfaces is µ.

2.7 - Two dimensional systems of forces

If we have a rigid body, forces can have different points of

application.

P
Then, i Fi = 0 is no longer sufficient for equilibrium.

Let’s, for now, limit ourselves to two-dimensions.

2.7.1 - Resultant of non-parallel forces
Consider two non-parallel, coplanar forces acting on a rigid body:
2.7.1 - Resultant of parallel forces
Now, let F1 = λF2 - parallel.
2.7.1 - Resultant of parallel forces
What happens if F1 + P and F2 − P are still parallel?
2.8 Moments
Definition Moment (Torque)
The tendency of a force to produce a rotation of an object about
some point.

MO = r × F.
2.8.4 Vector nature of Moment
2.8.4 Vector nature of Moment

So, consider the case of many forces each producing a tendency to

rotate the object about point O.

The net effect is the simply the vector sum of each individual
moment about O.

MO = MO1 + MO2 + MO3 + · · · + MOn

= r1 × F1 + r2 × F2 + · · · + rn × Fn
2.9 Couples {F, −F}
2.9 Couples {F, −F}

So the moment generated by a couple looks like

M = r1 × F − r2 × F
= (r1 − r2 ) × F
= s×F

Analyzing the diagram

M = Fs sin (θ) n̂ = Fd n̂
2.9.2 Equivalence of Couples {F, −F}

Study what actions we can perform on the system and not change
the moment of the couple.

M = s × F = Fd n̂
2.9.2 Equivalence of Couples {F, −F}

Study what actions we can perform on the system and not change
the moment of the couple.

M = s × F = Fd n̂

1. Send F → αF and d → d/α, where α ∈ R

2. Rotate the couple in the plane that contains it
3. Translate the entire couple without changing the magnitudes
or directions of the forces.
2.9.3 Summation of couples

If you have two couples, {F1 , −F1 } and {F2 , −F2 }, each producing
a moment, what is the net effect?

We would expect

M = M1 + M2
2.10 - Resultant of a system of forces
The resultant of a system of forces is the most simple system that
is mechanically equivalent to it.

The reduction theorem

2.10 - Resultant of a system of forces

Here is the theorem stated:

The resultant of a system of forces {F1 , F2 , · · · , Fn } acting on a

rigid body is
I a single force acting at an arbitrary point P
n
X
F= Fi
i=1

I a single moment about P

n
X
MP = si × Fi
i=1
2.10 - Resultant of a system of forces
 W = N1 cos (↵) + N2 sin (↵)

2.10 - Resultant of a system of forces

Substituting what we have found into the equation for W , we find

W = N2 cot (↵) cos (↵) + N2 sin (↵)

= N2 (cot (↵) cos (↵) + sin (↵))
Keep in mind what is the object under investigation.
W sin (✓ + ↵)
= (cot (↵) cos (↵) + sin (↵))
2 cos (✓)
2 cos (✓)
I If it’s a rigid body, we= need
sin (↵ + ✓)
to(↵)calculate
cot (↵) cos + sin (↵) net force and
calculate moment.
Solving for ✓ when ↵ = 45 , we find ✓ = 45 .
I If it’s a point particle, we just calculate net force.
Question 3
A weight of 40 N is supported by three cables at point P as shown in the figure below.
Calculate the tension in each of the cables
Z
A

B 3m

3m Y
P 2m
2m

4m

X
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body

As we have seen, when studying a rigid body, we need to extend

our requirement for equilibrium:
1.
n
X
Ftot = Fi = 0
i=1
2.
n
X
MP = si × Fi = 0
i=1

This is in 3D.
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body

In 2D:
1.
n
X n
X
(Ftot )x = Fx,i = 0, (Ftot )y = Fy ,i = 0
i=1 i=1
2.
n
X
(MP )z = Mz,i = 0
i=1

Examples of 2D systems include:

2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body

In each one, apply the condition:

n
X n
X
(Ftot )x = Fx,i = 0, (Ftot )y = Fy ,i = 0
i=1 i=1

and
n
X n
X
(MP )z = Mz,i = Fi di = 0
i=1 i=1

Then, analyse the system to obtain these quantities,

1. The forces, Fx/y ,i
2. The di quantities
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
In 3D, we have systems like:
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body

and so on...
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body

The strategy here is to apply

1.
n
X
Ftot = Fi = 0
i=1
2.
n
X
MP = si × Fi = 0
i=1

To analyse these systems, we need to think about the force vectors

as
F = F n̂
Then obtain n̂.
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body

Do this for all the forces. Then plug into the equations and solve!
Elasticity
We have so far only looked at external motion of rigid bodies when
forces are applied to it.

• A rigid body is a body of which the deformation is negligible.

• Mechanical effect does not depend only on the magnitude and direction of
the force, but also where the force is applied to the body.

A
F⃗

O
F⃗

B F⃗

A
F⃗

B F⃗

• The point where a force is applied to a body is called the point of application
of the force. In the figures above, the points O, A, and B are all points of
application.
Elasticity

We studied the conditions for static equilibrium of the motion of

object as a whole.
But what about the equilibrium conditions for what is happening
inside the material?
What does actually go on inside these materials?
Elasticity
We are mainly thinking of metallic objects
Elasticity
Elasticity
Here is a good model for the internal crystal structure
Elasticity

So, when a force is applied, the molecules inside move as well.

Elasticity

We think of force applied per unit area: F /A, which is called

Stress.
Experiments show:
1. For small stresses, the object deforms, reaches equilibrium. If
the force is removed, object returns to normal.
2. For larger stresses, the object becomes permanently deformed.
3. As one increases the stress, a point is reached where the
object breaks.
There are three basic types of deformation.
Elasticity

Stress is a measure of the force responsible for the deformation.

Strain is a measure of the actual deformation.
I For fixed force, change in length/dimensions is proportional to
original length/dimensions.
I Force needed to produce given strain is proportional to the
area.
Elasticity

What do we notice for small stresses?

Elasticity

Tensile/compression
F ∆L
=Y
A Li
Shear
F ∆x
=S
A Li
Bulk
F ∆V
=B
A Vi
2.11 - Equilibrium of a rigid body
So now look at this figure again:

One finds:

TBD = 7.8kN, TBE = 6.5kN, , TCF = 6.5kN

 ~BD . Take a steel wire, Y = 20 × 1010 N/m2 .
Look at T

Estimate radius of wire to be 1mm. How much will the cable

deform by?

Apply
F ∆L
=Y
A L
Solving for ∆L:
∆L = 0.0403458m
Need to make sure steel is within the desired range of the stress vs
strain graph for this ∆L.